THE MORAL AGENT (CHAPTER 4)

HOW DOES CULTURE AFFECT AND SHAPE MORAL BEHAVIOR?

➢ Moral judgments and behaviors are highly sensitive to culture. The understanding and
construction of the exact same moral issues can vary substantially acrossindividuals who come
from different culturalbackgrounds or possess different levels of multicultural experiences.

WHY SHOULD CULTURE NOT BE THE ULTIMATE DETERMINANTS OF VALUES?

➢ Culture should not be the foundation ofvalues because not all the cultures tell us to do good
deeds and some cultures can be very subjective and unfair to part of humanity.Different cultures
do change as the time passes by and it cannot be ultimate determinant of values.

IS THERE A FILIPINO UNDERSTANDING OF RIGHT AND WRONG?

➢ There is a Filipino understanding of right and wrong.They are based on our values, behavior and
influences of the people around us. An action is right if it would result in more happiness for a
large number of people and an action is bad when many people are affected by wrong doings.

A.CULTURE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR

MORAL BEHAVIOR

✓ ACTION OR ACTIONS THAT PRODUCE GOOD OUTCOMES FOR THE INDIVIDUALS AS MEMBERS OF
A COMMUNITY, OR SOCIETY. IT CAN BE APPLIED TO THE WHOLE GLOBAL SOCIETY. SCHUMAN
DEFINES MORAL BEHAVIOR AS “ACT INTENDED TO PRODUCE KIND AND /OR FAIR OUT COMES
TO ACT ACCORDING TO ONES MORAL VALUES AND STANDARDS. CHILDREN DEMONSTRATE
PROSOCIAL AND MORAL BEHAVIOR WHEN THEY SHARE, HELP, CO-OPERATE,
COMMUNICATE,SYMPATHIZE OR IN OTHERWISE THEY DEMONSTRATE ABILITY TO CARE ABOUT
OTHERS.

CULTURE ANDITS TO ROLE IN MORALBEHAVIOR CULTURE

➢ REFLECTS THE MORAL VALUES AND ETHICAL NORMS GOVERNING HOW PEOPLE SHOULD
BEHAVE AND INTERACT WITH OTHERS.
➢ REFERS TO THE OUTLOOK,ATTITUDE,VALUES,GOALS, AND PRACTICES SHARED BY A
GROUP,ORGANIZATION, OR SOCIETY.
➢ VARY OVER TIME PERIODS BETWEEN COUNTRIES AND GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS, AND AMONG
GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS.
WHAT IS CULTURAL RELATIVISM ?

Why is it tenable in ethics?

➢ Cultural relativism is the view that all beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the individual
within his own social context. In other words, "right" and "wrong" are culture-specific; what is
considered moral in one society may be considered immoral in another, and, since no universal
standard of morality exists, no one has the right to judge another society's customs.

WHAT IS ETHICS?

➢ Ethics is based on well-founded standards of what is morally good and bad and morally right
and wrong for the society.
➢ Ethics stablish the rules that individuals need to follow for the survival of the society.
Therefore, ethics are subjective and communal.
➢ An ethical behavior is an action that is following the rules of what is considered correct in
society. On the contrary, a moral behavior is driven by the desire to be good.

ARE THERE AN ASIAN AND A FILIPINO UNDERSTANDING OF MORAL BEHAVIOR STRENGTHS AN

WEAKNESSES

✓ FILIPINOS AS ASIANS ARE ALSO COLLECTIVISTS WHO IDENTIFY WHAT IS GOOD AND BAD
THROUGH THEIR RELATIONSHIP WITH THEIR FAMILIES, REGIONAL AFFILIATIONS, AND PEER
GROUPS. A FAMILY DETERMINES MORAL BEHAVIORS AND WHAT A GOOD FILIPINO IS.

THERE ARE AT LEAST TEN FILIPINOCORE VALUES:

[1]PAKIKIRAMDAM (SENSITIVITY)

[2] PAKIKISAMA (SMOOTH INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIP).

[3] PAKIKIPAGKAPWA-TAO (CAMARADERIE),

[4] HIYA (SHAME OR SELF-CONTROL),

[5] KAGANDAHANG-LOOB(BENEVOLENCE OR KINDNESS),

[6] UTANG NA LOOB (INDEBTEDNESS).

[7] LAKAS NG LOOB (MORAL COURAGE) O BAHALA NA

[8] PAGKAMAASIKASO (HOSPITABILITY),

[9] PAGGALANG SA NAKATATANDA (RESPECT FOR THE ELDERLY),

[10] PAGMAMAHAL SA PAMILYA (FILIAL LOVE).

B.THE MORAL AGENT DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT

➢ It allows the person not only to perform good acts, but to give the best of himself”. An effective
moral life demands the practice of both human and theological virtues. Human virtues form the
soul with the habits of mind and will that support moral behavior, control passions,and avoid
sin.

1. HOW IS MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPED?

➢ Moral character is formed by one's actions.The habits, actions, and emotional responses of the
person of good character all are united and directed toward the moral and the good.

THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF ACTS THAT BUILD CHARACTER AND ACTS THAT EMANATE FROM
CHARACTER

❖ In the process of moral development, there is the circular relation between acts that build
character and moral character itself. Not all acts help to build moral character, but those acts
which emanate from mortal characters certainly matter in moral development. Hence,there
appears the apparent circular relationship between individual acts and moral character. A
person's actions determine his or her moral character, but moral character itself generates acts
that help in developing either virtue or vice.

❖ This goes to show that moral development should also be understood in the sense of human
flourishing. This flourishing is attained by the habitual practice of moral and intellectual
excellences, or virtues. In the context of developing morality, which also brings about self-
realization and happiness, acting in line with virtues is acting in accordance with reason.
Indeed,philosophers like Aristotle hold that that the function of human being consists in activities
which manifests the best states of his rational aspect,that is, the virtues.

2. MORAL DEVELOPMENT

➢ Moral development focuses on the emergence,change, and understanding of morality from

infancy through adulthood. Morality develops across a life span in a variety of ways and is
influenced by an individual's experiences and behavior when faced with moral issues through
different periods of physical and cognitive development. Morality concerns an individual's
reforming sense of what is right and wrong; it is for this reason that young children have different
moral judgment and character than that of a grown adult. Morality in itself is often a synonym for
"rightness" or "goodness." It also refers to a specific code of conduct that is derived from one's
culture, religion, or personal philosophy that guides one's actions, behaviors,and thoughts.

THE STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

❖ The three levels of moral reasoning include preconventional,conventional, and

postconventional. By using children's responses to a series of moral dilemmas, Kohlberg
established that the reasoning behind the decision was a greater indication of moral development
than the actual answer.
3 LEVELS OF MORAL

PRECONVENTIONAL

❖ Preconventional morality is the first stage of moral development and last until approximately age
9.At the preconventional level, children don't have a personal code of morality.Instead, moral
decisionsare shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking
their rules.

CONVENTIONAL

❖ Conventional morality is the second stage of moral development, and ischaracterized by an

acceptance of social rules concerning right and wrong. At the conventional level (most
adolescents and adults), we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.

POST CONVENTIONAL

❖ Postconventional morality is the third stage of moral development and ischaracterized by an

individual's understanding of universal ethical principles. These are abstract and ill-defined
butmight include: the preservation of life at all costs and the importance of human dignity.

HOW DO WE GET TO THE HIGHEST LEVEL CONSCIENCE-BASED MORAL DECISIONS

❖ With the use of reason, a person arrives at moral decisions that are not superficial choices which
wax and wane as do feelings.The moral conscience is a person's judgment about a given action's
ordering to man's ultimate end based on the person's knowledge of the action, its end, and
circumstances.

“The most important human endeavor is the striving for morality in our actions. Our inner balance and
even our very existence depend on it. Only morality in our actions can give beauty and dignity to life.”

-ALBERT EINSTEIN-
 WHAT IS FEELINGS? (chapter 5)

➢ are conscious experience brought by emotional experience and physical sensations. This is
your reaction with one of your five senses or sensibilities.

Example is your feeling of hunger or pain

WHAT IS EMOTIONS?

➢ can be manifested either consciously or subconsciously. These can be impacted from the
culture where you come from, your beliefs, and traumatic experiences. Emotions can be
produced by a thought, memory, where can be completely internalized.

Examples are anger, fear, happiness, sadness, blessed,amusement, confusion, etc.

FEELINGS AS INSTINCTIVE RESPONSE TO MORAL DILEMMAS

➢ Some ethicist believe that ethics is also a matter of emotion. They hold that moral judgments
at their best should also be emotional. Feelings are seen as also necessary in ethical judgment
as they even deemed by some as instinctive and trained response to moral dilemmas. Some
hold that reason and emotion are not really opposites, but they have relative roles in ethical
thinking. Emotion are said to be judgment to one’s accomplishment of his goals. Our feelings
identifies if we accomplish our goals or not. We’re happy when accomplished and sad or
disappointed if not. So, feelings can provide motivations to act morally.

MORAL EMOTIONS

➢ Emotions – that is to say feelings and intuitions – play a major role in most of the ethical
decisions people make.
➢ Moral emotions – are variety of social emotion that are involved in forming and
communicating moral judgements and decisions,and motivating behavioral responses to
one’s and own and other’s moral behavior.

3 KINDS OF MORAL EMOTIONS

1. Inner-directed negative emotions- like guilt, embarrassment, and soften motivate people to act
ethically.
2. Outer-directed negative emotions - on the other hand, aim to discipline or punish. For example,
people often direct anger, disgust, or contempt at those who have acted unethically. This
discourages others from behaving the same way.
3. Positive emotions - like gratitude and admiration, which people may feel when they see another
acting with compassion or kindness, can prompt people to help others.

HOW ARE DECISIONS EFFECTED BY EMOTIONs?

➢ Emotions can affect not just the nature of the decision, but the speed at which you make it.
Anger can lead to impatience, and rash decision-making. If you’re excited, you might make
quick decision without considering the implications, as you surf the wave of confidence, and
optimism about the future. While if you feel afraid, your decisions may be clouded by
uncertainty, and caution,and it might take you longer to choose.
FEELINGS AS OBSTACLES TO MAKING THE RIGHT DECISIONS

Two (2) feeling-based theories in Ethics:

1. Ethical Subjectivism

• Holds that the truth or falsity of ethical propositions is dependent on the feelings, attitudes, or
standards of people or group of persons. This theory states that moral judgments simply describe
our personal feelings.
• Moral opinions are based on our feelings and he submits to his feelings about it, nothing more.
• The theory therefore proposes that when we say something that is morally good, this just
that we approve of that thing. Same when we state that something is immoral, then this theory
says that we disapprove and dislike it,nothing more.

2. Emotivism

• Theory developed by the American philosopher Charles L. Stevenson. This theory states that
moral judgment express positive or negative feelings.Our expression of feelings in moral
judgment.
• The Boo- Yay theory of Ethics

“X is right” merely means “Hooray for X” and

“X is immoral” just means “Boo on X!”

Purposes of Emotivism:

1. They are used as a means of influencing other’s behavior.

2. Moral sentences are used to express the speaker’s attitude.

FEELINGS CAN HELP IN MAKING THE RIGHT DECISIONS

• Emotions Can Motivate You to Act

• Emotions Help You Avoid Danger
• Emotions Can Help You Make Decisions
• Emotions Help Others Understand You Better
• Emotions Allow You to Understand Others

Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirement for Morality

Reason and impartiality defined

Reason

➢ is the basis or motive for an action, decision, or conviction.As a quality, it refers to the capacity
for logical, rational, and analyticthought; involves justification/ justifying. Reason is a necessary
requirement for morality. In the case of moral judgments, they equire backing by reasons. Truth
in Ethics entails being justified by good reasons.
Impartiality

➢ involves the idea that each individual’s interests and point of view are equally important. It is a
principle of justice. Impartiality in morality requires that we give equal and/or adequate
consideration to the interests of all concerned parties. It assumes that every person, generally
speaking, is equally important, that is, no one is seen as intrinsically more significant than anyone
else.

The Act: Moral Courage

• Moral Courage- means “doing the right thing even at the risk of inconvenience, ridicule,
punishment, loss of job or security or social status, etc. It is overcoming the fear of
emotional harmor rejection from others.
• Moral courage is the commitment to standing up for and acting upon one’s ethical beliefs.
Will and Moral Courage

• Will - is often defined as the faculty of the mind that selects.

• According to Arthur Schopenhauer, will is primary and uses knowledge in order to find an
object that will satisfy its craving. It is the inner strength to make a decision, take action,
and handle and execute any aim or task until it is accomplished, regardless of resistance,
discomfort or difficulties.
The Will Power

• Will power - is the ability to overcome laziness, temptations and negative habits, and to
carry out actions, even if they require effort, are unpleasant or are contrary to one’s
habits.
• Having moral courage and will means doing the right thing,which may include listening to
our conscience. Furthermore, it is the ability to resist temptation, the ability to do what
you need todo, which indicates the statement “I won’t, I will, I want”
What is the difference between Reason and Will and Action?
➢ The will is guided by reason, where, as determined by reason, action is performed
according to rational requirements, or laws of reason. Reason has, in other words, the
capacity to direct action. Further,where the will is guided by reason, it is free.
The 7 step moral reasoning model
• Moral reasoning - is the study of how people think about right and wrong and how they acquire
and apply moral rules.
• Moral reasoning is sometimes affected by emotions which blinds us from deciding and seeing
what acts are needed to do or what is right from wrong. So in order to decide and do what is
actually right, we must do these steps in order to fairly do an act and not be bias about anything.

1. Gather the facts

2. Determining the ethical issues
3. Identifying the principles
4. Listing the alternatives
5. Comparing the alternatives
6. Weighing the consequences
7. Making a decision

WHAT ARE THE DISADVANTAGES OF OVER-RELIANCE ON FEELINGS?

• Over-reliance on feelings can affect a person's decision-making power.

• A person who relies too much on feeling often makes weak decisions and overlooks the possible
consequences.
• A person who thinks rationally is more likely to make the right and solid decisions.
• a person should always adopt a balanced approach between feelings and rationality.

WHY IS REASON NOT ENOUGH IN CARRYING OUT MORAL DECISIONS?

From the study Antonio Damasio “reason alone is not enough to make a moral decision.” We can
therefore conclude, that in the absence of emotion, human reasoning no longer remains aligned with
societal expectations of moral decisions; therefore causing the decision to be immoral.