Hydrocarbons;

Carbon and hydrogen atoms.

The formula for alkanes is CnH2n+2

They are saturated.

They are unreactive, apart from oxygen during combustion.

Different hydrocarbons have different boiling points.

Smaller hydrocarbons; lower boiling point, easier to ignite, more volatile, flow easier when
compared to larger hydrocarbons.

Distillation
Distillation can be used
to separate substances
like ethanol and water.

The mixture is heated,

until the substance with
the lower boiling point
evaporates. It is then
passed along a cooling
tube, where it
condenses and becomes
a liquid.

Heated → evaprorates → cooled → condenses

Combustion
Complete Combustion: Incomplete Combustion:
when fuels burn they react with oxygen. if there is insufficient air.
Hydrogen + oxygen = H20 Hydrogen + oxygen = H20
Carbon + oxygen = carbon dioxide carbon + oxygen = carbon dioxide

Hydrocarbon + oxygen = water = carbon dioxide. Soot and smoke are also released.

These gases are released in the combustion of fuels.

 water vapour, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, particle, sulphur dioxide.

 Fractional Distillation
Hot at the bottom, cool at the
top.

Substances with high boiling

points condense at the bottom,
with low boiling points condense
at the top.

Crude oil is evaporated and its

substances condense at different
temperatures up the fractioning
column. Each fraction contains
different hydrocarbon molecules,
with similar number of carbon
atoms.

Hydrocarbons with small

molecules make better fuels than
hydrocarbons with large
molecules.

Acid Rain
Sulphur dioxide + dissolves in water droplets = acid rain
Effects:
 buildings and statues erode
 rivers become too acidic
 damages waxy layer on leaves making it difficult to absorb minerals.
Reducing acid rain:
Sulphur powdered calcium
Dixode + limestone = carbonate
Calcium carbonate can be used for other things, however this process makes it
expensive to produce fuel.

Global Dimming
More sunlight is being reflected into space.
Particles from burning fossil fuels reflect sunlight and cause water droplets to
form in clouds, making them better at reflecting sunlight.
 LIMESTONE
Limestone is mainly calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
When is heated it breaks down to form calcium oxide + carbon dioxide.
Calcium oxide + water =calcium hydroxide.

Thermal Decomposition
calcium carbonate   calcium oxide + carbon dioxide (CaCO3  CaO + CO2 )

THIS IS THE SAME OF ALL OTHER METAL CARBONATES

Carbon dioxide can be detected using lime water, which will turn cloudy.
Metals high up in the reactivity series, need more energy to decompose.

Quicklime + Slaked lime

Calcium oxide = quicklime. yellow when hot, white when cold.
Calcium Hydroxide = slaked lime.

limestone   quicklime + carbon dioxide

quicklime + water → slaked lime

Uses of limestone.
Limestone, quicklime and slaked lime can neutralise excess acidity in
lakes and soils.
 Limestone (CaCO3) can be used as a building material and in the manufacturing
of iron.
 Glass - heated with sand and soda (sodium carbonate).
 Cement - heated with clay in a kiln.
Concrete - mixed with sand, water and crushed rock
Mortar - mixed with sand and water
 Quicklime - heated.
Slaked lime (Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2) - mixed with water
Lime motar - mixed with water
The main advantages and disadvantages of the limestone industry

Advantages Disadvantages

Limestone is a valuable natural resource, used to make Limestone quarries are visible from long distances
things such as glass and concrete. and may permanently disfigure the local
environment.

Limestone quarrying provides employment Quarrying is a heavy industry that creates noise and
opportunities that support the local economy in towns heavy traffic, which damages people's quality of
around the quarry. life.

Advantages and disadvantages of different building materials.

Limestone, cement and mortar slowly react with carbon dioxide dissolved in rainwater,
and wear away. This damages walls made from limestone, and it leaves gaps between
bricks in buildings. Pollution from burning fossil fuels makes the rain more acidic than it
should be, and this acid rain makes these problems worse.
Concrete is easily formed into different shapes before it sets hard. It is strong when
squashed, but weak when bent or stretched. However, concrete can be made much
stronger by reinforcing it with steel. It looks quite unattractive.
Glass is usually brittle and easily shattered, but toughened glass can be used for
windows. While glass is transparent and so lets light into a building, buildings with lots of
glass can be too hot in the summer.

Glass
Glass is made by melting sand and then cooling it. Glass manufacturers add sodium
carbonate to sand to reduce the melting temperature to save energy. The sodium
carbonate decomposes in the heat to form sodium oxide and carbon dioxide, but this
makes the glass soluble in water. Calcium carbonate (limestone) is added to stop the
glass dissolving in water. The calcium carbonate decomposes in the heat to form calcium
oxide and carbon dioxide. About 90 per cent of glass is soda-lime glass, or bottle glass.
 Metals
Pure iron is soft and easily shaped, because their atoms slide over each other.
Iron from the blast furnace is an alloy, containing 96% iron with carbon and
some other impurities. It is hard an brittle, so the iron is converted into steel by
removing the carbon.

Steel
Carbon is removed by blowing oxygen into the molten metal, it reacts and
produced carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, which escapes. Sometimes
other metals are added like vanadium and chromium.
A summary of the properties of some different steels

type of steel iron alloyed with properties typical use

low carbon steel about 0.25 per cent easily shaped car body panels
carbon
high carbon steel up to 2.5 per cent carbon hard cutting tools
stainless steel chromium and nickel resistant to corrosion cutlery and

Alloys
Alloys are a mixture of two or more elements, with one being a metal.

Alloys contain different sized atoms so the

arrangement of atoms differs. This means that it is
harder for the atoms to slide over each other,
making it harder than pure metal.

Some alloys:
 Brass, used in electrical fittings, is 70 per cent copper and 30 per cent zinc.
 18 carat gold, used in jewellery, is 75 per cent gold and 25 per cent copper and other
metals.
 Duralumin, used in aircraft manufacture, is 96 per cent aluminium and 4 per cent
copper and other metals.

Smart alloys can return to their original shape after being bent.
Common properties
 The transition metals have
these properties in common:
 They are metals.
 They form coloured
compounds.
 They are good conductors
of heat and electricity.
 They can be hammered
or bent into shape easily.
 They are less reactive than
alkali metals such as
sodium, they have higher
melting points - but
mercury is a liquid at room
temperature -and they
arehard and tough.
 They have high densities.

Copper
Copper is a transition metal. Its properties include: soft, easily bent and is a good conductor
of electricity. Copper is used for electrical wiring. Copper does not react with water.

Copper is purified by electrolysis. Electricity passes through solutions containg copper

compounds, pure copper forms a negative electrode.

Copper ores of decreasing and research is being carried out to find new ways to extract
copper from remaining ores. The remaining ore are low-grade, which contain little copper.

Aluminium + Titainium.
They are low density. They have a thin layer of oxides on the surface which
stops air and water reaching the metal, so they resist corrosion.
Aluminium and titanium cannot be extracted from their oxides by carbon.
 Aluminium is more reactive than carbon, so the reaction does not work.
 Titanium forms titanium carbide with carbon, which makes the metal brittle.
Aluminium extraction is expensive – need a lot of electrical energy. Titanium is as the
process involves several staged and energy.

Aluminium is recycled because less energy is needed to recycle than to extract. It is better
for the environment
Extracting metals
The earth crust contains metals and metal compounds such as gold, iron
oxide and aluminium oxide.
A metal ore is a rock containing metal or a metal compound in high
amounts to make it economically efficient to extract.
The method to extract depends on their reactivity.
Carbon hydrogen
Potassium zinc copper
Sodium iron silver
calcium tin gold
magnesium lead platinum
aluminium CARBON/ VARIOUS CHEMICAL
ELECTOROLYSIS CARBON MONOXIDE REACTIONS

Making iron
In the blat furnace: some irons contain iron oxide. The oxygen must be
removed. This is called reduction.
CARBON IS MORE REACTIVE THAN IRON.

iron oxide + carbon    →    iron + carbon dioxide (2Fe2O3 + 3C    →    4Fe + 3CO2)

The iron oxide is reduce to iron + the carbon is oxidised to form carbon dioxide.

In the blast furnace it is so hot, carbon monoxide can be used instead of

carbon:
iron oxide + carbon monoxide → iron + carbon dioxide (Fe2O3 + 3CO    →    2Fe + 3CO2)

The raw materials for extracting iron and their function in the process

Raw material Contains Function

iron ore iron oxide a compound that contains iron
(haematite)
coke carbon burns in air to produce heat, and reacts to form carbon monoxide (needed
to reduce the iron oxide)
limestone calcium helps to remove acidic impurities from the iron by reacting with them to
carbonate form molten slag
air oxygen allows the coke to burn, and so produces heat and carbon monoxide

Atoms
 Columns = groups. These have similar properties.

Rows = Period The atomic mass on these increase.

The alkali (group 1) metals are very reactive metals.

The Halogens (group 7) are very reactive no-metals

Chemical bonds involve electrons from the reacting atoms. Bonds can form when:
 electrons are transferred from one atom to another, so that one atom gives
electrons and the other takes electrons, (IONIC)
 electrons are shared between two atoms. (COVALENT)

atomic mass

atomic number