Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

H2 Mathematics (9758)
Chapter 15 Complex Numbers 2:
Complex Numbers in Polar & Exponential Form
Lecture Notes

Curriculum Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
• represent complex numbers expressed in cartesian form by points in the Argand
diagram, and interpret the terms ‘real part’, ‘imaginary part’, ‘modulus’,
‘argument’, and ‘conjugate’ geometrically;
• find the modulus and argument of a complex number given in Cartesian form;
• convert a complex number from Cartesian form to polar form & exponential
form, and vice versa; (That is, to express z = x + iy in the form r ( cos  + i sin  )
and rei , where r > 0 and −     .)
• carry out multiplication and division of two complex numbers given in polar
form;
use the relation zz* = z to calculate the modulus and the reciprocal of a
2
•
complex number.
______________________________________________________________________
§1 Polar Form of a Complex Number
Consider the complex number z = 1 + i represented by the point Z in the Argand diagram:

Im • The distance between O and Z is given by

r = 12 + 12 = 2 .

• The angle from the positive real axis to the


vector OZ (i.e. OZ ) is given by  = .
4
Re
1

Therefore, z = 1+ i
 
= 2 cos + i 2 sin
4 4
  
= 2  cos + i sin 
 4 4

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

The polar form of a complex number z = x + yi may be expressed in the form

Im

Modulus |z|, of z Argument of z

Re

where r and  are real, r  0

(Other names: trigonometric form or modulus-argument form)

The modulus of z , denoted by r or z , is given by

r = z = x2 + y 2 .
In an Argand diagram, the modulus of z is the length of the line OZ.

Note:
Recall from Complex 1 that
Thus, we now have
zz* = x 2 + y 2 .
zz* = x 2 + y 2 = z .
2

The argument of z , denoted by θ or arg z , is the angle from the positive real axis to the
line OZ .
▪ arg z can be measured in degrees or in radians.

▪ The principal value of arg z lies in the interval (− ,  ] or (−180,180] .

▪ If z lies in 1st/2nd quadrant, the principal value of arg z is positive and is measured in an
anti-clockwise direction.
▪ If z lies in 3rd/4th quadrant, the principal value of arg z is negative and is measured in a
clockwise direction.

Explanation:
In our earlier example z = 1 + i , observe that the angles
   
, −2 + , , 2 + , 4 + ,
4 4 4 4
all describe the same direction OZ , i.e. the argument of z has many values. However,
only one value ( 45 ) lies in the interval (−180,180] , and we call it the principal value
of arg z .

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 Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

Calculating the Argument:

For any complex number z = x + yi , let:
• Z ( x, y ) be the point representing it in the Argand diagram
y
•  = tan −1 (take mod so that  is the basic angle, which is always acute)a
x

Example 1
Calculate the modulus and argument of z and write down z in polar form.
Key note: Always locate z in Argand diagram to determine which quadrant first

If Z is in the 1st quadrant: E.g. z1 = 3 + i

arg z is positive and is measured
Im
in an anti-clockwise direction

arg z = 
Re
Im

Re
arg z

If Z is in the 2nd quadrant: E.g. z2 = −1 + i

arg z is positive and is measured Im
in an anti-clockwise direction

arg z = 180 −  =  −  Re
−1
Im

arg z
Re

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 Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

If Z is in the 3rd quadrant: E.g. z3 = −2 − 2i

arg z is negative and is Im
measured in a clockwise
direction
−2
Re
arg z = −180 +  = −  + 
Im

Re
arg z

If Z is the 4th quadrant: E.g. z4 = 1 − 3i

arg z is negative and is
Im
measured in a clockwise
direction
1
Re
arg z = −
Im

arg z
Re

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

Warning:
y
In general, arg z  tan −1 .
x
E.g. Given a complex number z = −1 + 3i , note that
2  3 
arg z =  tan −1   = −
3  −1  3
Note:
▪ The complex number z is purely real (i.e. Z ( x, y ) lies on the real axis)
 arg z = 0 or 
E.g. arg 3 = 0 , arg ( −1) = 
▪ The complex number z is purely imaginary (i.e. Z ( x, y ) lies on the imaginary axis)

 arg z =  or − 
2 2
E.g. arg ( 5i ) =  , arg ( −10i ) = − 
2 2

▪ arg 0 is undefined.

Self Practice 1:
Find the modulus and argument of
(a) z1 = −100 (b) z2 = − 3 + i (c) z3 = −3 − 4i (d) z4 = −2i

For above complex numbers, express them in polar form:

Answer:
(a) z1 = 100, arg ( z1 ) = π, 100 ( cos  + i sin  )
5π  5π 5π 
(b) z2 = 2, arg ( z2 ) = , 2  cos + i sin 
6  6 6 
(c) z3 = 5, arg ( z3 ) = −2.21 rad, 5 ( cos ( −2.21) + isin ( −2.21) )
π   π  π 
(d) z4 = 2, arg ( z4 ) = − , 2  cos  −  + i sin  −  
2   2  2 

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

GC Skill: Polar Form of a Complex Number

Steps/Keystrokes/Explanations Screen Display
1. Press a@ and select “1: abs(“ to
obtain the modulus and type in the required

complex number − 3 +i.

2. Press m>> to call out the MATH
CPX menu and select “4: angle” to obtain
the argument and type in the required

complex number − 3 +i.

3. ( )
Expressing the arg − 3 + i in exact form

using GC
The value arg z = 2.617993878 is obtained.
(Ensure that the GC is in the desired mode:
RADIAN or DEGREE)

( )
arg − 3 + i = 2.6179...

arg ( − 3 + i ) 2.6179... 5
= =
  6
5
(
 arg − 3 + i = ) 6

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

§2 Exponential Form of a Complex Number

The exponential form of a complex number z is

z = rei ,
where r is the modulus of z (note: r  0 )
and θ (in radians) is the argument of z

Explanation:
From MF 26 (Maclaurin’s expansion), we have
x 2 x3 x 4 x5 x 6 x 7
ex = 1 + x ++ + + + + + for all x  .
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
This series for e x is in fact valid for all x  as well i.e.
( i ) ( i ) ( i ) ( i ) ( i ) ( i )
2 3 4 5 6 7
i
e = 1 + i + + + + + + +
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!

From MF 26 (Maclaurin’s expansion), we also have

x2 x4 x6
cos x = 1 − + − + for all x 
2! 4! 6!
x3 x5 x 7
sin x = x − + − + for all x 
3! 5! 7!
Therefore,
( i ) ( i ) ( i ) ( i ) ( i ) ( i )
2 3 4 5 6 7
i
e = 1 + i + + + + + + +
2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!
2 3 4 5 6 7
= 1 + i − − i + + i − − i +
2! 3! 4! 5!
7! 6!
 2 4 6     
3 5 7

= 1 − + − +  + i  − + − + 
 2! 4! 6!   3! 5! 7! 
= cos  + i sin 

Hence, in general, any complex number can be expressed as

x + iy = r ( cos  + i sin  ) = rei

cartesian form polar form exponential form

where r ,  , x, y  , r  0, − π    π.

From Example 1:
 
   i 
z1 = 3 + i = 2  cos + i sin  = 2e  6 
 6 6
 3 
  3   3  i − 
z3 = 2 2  cos  −  + i sin  −  = 2 2e  4 

  4   4 

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

Example 2
(a) Without using the graphing calculator, express z = 1 − i 3 in exponential form and
polar form.

Solution:
Im

1
Re

Remark: Check your answer using GC.

GC Skill: Exponential Form of a Complex Number

Steps/Keystrokes/Explanations Screen Display

1. Key in the required complex number 1− i 3

2. Press m>> to call out the MATH

CPX menu. Select “7:►Polar” to convert
the complex number to exponential form.

−1.047197551i
The number z2 = 2e is obtained.
If exact values are not required or if GC is
allowed,
Using GC, the exponential form of z is z = 2e−1.05i
.
Hence, the polar form of z is
z = 2 cos ( −1.05) + i sin ( −1.05)  .

*Note: To get the exponential form in GC, select “Polar” in the “CPX” menu. To get the
Cartesian form in GC, select “Rect” in the “CPX” menu.

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

Example 2
3
i
(b) Express w = 2e 4 in Cartesian form.

Solution:

Remark: Check your answer using GC.

GC Skill: Cartesian Form of a Complex Number

Steps/Keystrokes/Explanations Screen Display
3 i
1. Key in 2e 4 , then press e.

The number w = −1.414213562 + 1.414213562 i

is obtained. (Use >to scroll right.)
Using GC, the Cartesian form of w is
w = −1.41 + 1.41 i .

Self Practice 2:
(a) Express z = − 3 − i in polar form and exponential form.
(b) Express z = 2eiπ in cartesian form.

 5π 
[Answer: (a) z = 2  cos 5π − i sin 5π  ;
i −
(b) z = −2 ]

z = 2e  6 

 6 6 

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

§3 Operations on Complex Numbers in Polar / Exponential Form

3.1 Conjugate of a Complex Number

Suppose z = x + iy
= r ( cos  + i sin  ) , where r = z and  = arg z .
= rei
In the Argand diagram, the point representing z* is a reflection in the real axis of the
point representing z.

Im
z
r


Re
O –

r
z*

Then z* = x − i y
= r cos ( − ) + i sin ( − )  [Polar form]
= rei( − ) [Exponential form]
Observe that:
z* = r = z
arg z* = − = − arg z

3.2 Multiplication of Complex Numbers

i1 i 2
If z1 = r1e and z2 = r2 e are the exponential forms of z1 and z2 , then
i1 i 2 i (1 +2 )
z1 z2 = r1e  r2 e = r1 r2 e .

Since this is in exponential form, it follows that:

z1 z2 = r1 r2 = z1 z2
arg ( z1 z2 ) = 1 +  2 = arg z1 + arg z2

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

3.3 Division of Complex Numbers

i1 i 2
If z1 = r1e and z2 = r2 e are the exponential forms of z1 and z2 , then
i
z1 r1e 1 r i −i r i( − )
= i = 1 e 1 2 = 1 e 1 2 .
z2 r2 e 2 r2 r2

Since this is in exponential form, it follows that:

z1 r z
= 1 = 1
z2 r2 z2
z 
arg  1  = 1 −  2 = arg z1 − arg z2
 z2 

Example 3

( ) ( )
Given z1 = 4 cos − 6 + isin − 6  and z2 = 2 ( cos 25 + i sin 25 ) ,

z1
find z1 z2 and in exact polar form.
z2 *

Solution:
Method 1: (Use properties of modulus and argument)

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

Method 2: (Use exponential form)

Self Practice 3:
1+ i
Express in exponential form.
3 −i

2 i  12 
5π

[Answer: e ]
2

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

Example 4
Given that z = −1 + i , find the following without using the GC. Leave your argument, θ,
in the exact form where −     .
(i) arg
1
(ii) arg ( −2z )
z
Solution:
z = −1 + i

Im
(i)

Re

(ii) Im

Re

Note:
Although arg ( z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2 , the principal value of arg ( z1 z2 ) may not be equal

to the sum of the principal value of arg z1 and that of arg z2 . This is because the sum
may fall outside the interval (− ,  ] .

In such cases, we will add / subtract integer multiples of 2 so that the value lies in the
interval (− ,  ] .

Self Practice 4:
Express ( 2 + 2i ) ( 3 + 3i )( −1 + 3i ) in polar form.
  11π   11π  
[Answer: 8 6 cos  −  + i sin  −  ]
  12   12  

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

§4 Powers of a Complex Number

If z = r ( cos  + isin  ) is the polar form of z , then

z n = r n ( cos n + isin n ) for all n  .

z n = ( rei )
n
[Proof]

( )
n
= r n e i

= r n ( ein ) since
( ea ) = e ab 
b
 
= r n ( cos n + i sin n )

Thus, it follows that:

n
zn = rn = z
arg ( z n ) = n = n arg z

Example 5
Without the use of GC, express the following complex numbers in Cartesian form.

( )
2
3 +i
−7
(a) (1 − i ) (b)
(1 − i )
4

Solution:
(a) Let w = 1 − i .

Method 1: Use property of modulus and argument

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

Method 2: Use exponential form

( )
−7
w−7 =
− 4 i
2e

( 2)
−7 7 i
= e4
1  7 7 
=  cos + i sin 
( 2) 7
 4 4 

1  1 1 
=  − i
8 2 2 2 
1
= (1 − i )
8 ( 2)
1 1
= − i
16 16

( )
2
3 +i
(b)
(1 − i )
4

Let z = 3+i

Let w = 1 − i

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

Method 1: Use property of modulus and argument

Method 2: Use exponential form

( )
2
3 +i

(1 − i )
4

z2
=
w4
2
 6 i 
 2e 
=  
( )
4
− 4 i
2e

i
4e 3
= −i
4e
 
 −( − ) i
=e 3 

4
i
=e3
2
− i
 e 3

 2   2 
= cos  −  + i sin  − 
 3   3 
1 3
= − −i
2 2
Note: Use GC to check your answers.

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

Summary of Important Results

Modulus Argument
zz* = z
2

z* = z arg z* = − arg z

z1 z2 = z1 z2 arg ( z1 z2 ) = arg z1 + arg z2

z1 z z 
= 1 arg  1  = arg z1 − arg z2
z2 z2  z2 

z n = z , for all n  arg ( z n ) = n arg z , for all n 

n

Self Practice 5:
20
z = 3 − i  z 
Given that , express   in polar form.
 z*
20
 z   2π   2π 
[Answer:   = cos  −  + i sin  −  ]
 z*  3   3 

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

Example 6

The complex number w has modulus r and argument  , where 0     , and w*

w3
denotes the conjugate of w. Find the modulus and argument of p, where p = .
w*
Given that p is real and negative, find the possible values of  .
Solution:

Since is real and negative,

Im

Re

Since 0     ,

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

Example 7
ei2
i
Show that e + e − i
= 2 cos  . Hence, show that i2 = 1 (1 + i tan  ) .
e +1 2
Solution:

Useful Results:

ei + e−i = ( cos  + i sin  ) + ( cos  − i sin  ) = 2 cos 

ei − e −i = ( cos  + i sin  ) − ( cos  − i sin  ) = 2i sin 

Useful Techniques:
i  i −i  
 
i
( 
ei + 1 = e 2  e 2 + e 2  = e 2 2 cos 2 )
i  i −i  
 
i
( 
ei − 1 = e 2  e 2 − e 2  = e 2 2i sin 2 )

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Chapter 15: Complex Numbers 2 TMJC 2023

Warm Up Questions

1 Without using the graphing calculator, express the following complex numbers in
polar and exponential form:
(a) z1 = −2 − 2i (b) z2 = 4 − 3i (c) z3 = −6 (d) z4 = i

2 The complex numbers z and w are such that z = 2, arg ( z ) = − 2 π, w = 5 and

3
3
arg ( w) = π. Find the exact value of
4
(i) the real part of z and the imaginary part of z ,
w
(ii) the modulus and argument of 2 .
z

3 If z = −1 − i and w = 3 + i, find the modulus and argument of

(i) zw,
(ii) z* w,
w
(iii) .
z*

4 2009/TPJC Prelim/I/6(i)
Show that, for all complex numbers z and all real numbers r ( r  0 ),
( )( )
z − rei z − re−i = z 2 − z ( 2r cos  )+ r 2
where −     . [2]

Answer Key
3
  3   3   − i
(a) z1 = 2 2 cos  −  + i sin  −   = 2 2e 4
  4   4 
  −1 3   −1 3  
− i tan −1
3

1 (b) z2 = 5 cos  − tan  + i sin  − tan   = 5e

4

  4   4  
(c) z3 = 6 ( cos  + isin  ) = 6e
i

(d) z4 = cos 2 + i sin 2 = e 2

i

w 5 w π
2 (i) Re ( z ) = −1 and Im ( z ) = − 3. (ii) = and arg  2  =
z 2
4  z  12
7π 11π 7π
3 (i) 2 2; − (ii) 2 2; (iii) 2; −
12 12 12

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