Food Control 135 (2022) 108805

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Food Control
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodcont

Mechanisms underlying the deterioration of fish quality after harvest and

methods of preservation
Xiaobao Nie a, *, Ruichang Zhang b, Lilin Cheng a, Wenbo Zhu c, Songlin Li a, Xiaoming Chen a
a
School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huai’an, Jiangsu, 223003, China
b
Department of Food and Drugs, Shandong Institute of Commerce and Technology, Jinan, Shandong, 250103, China
c
Shandong Marine Resource and Environment Research Institute, Yantai, Shandong, 264006, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Lipid oxidation and/or protein decomposition caused by endogenous enzymatic activity and microbial
Hurdle technology contamination have a negative impact on the quality of fish in storage, increasing their perishability. Safe and
Microbial consortia effective alternative approaches for preserving fish quality and extending their shelf-life have been investigated
Fish quality
more intensely over the recent decade, due to concerns about the safety of conventional preservation chemicals
Food safety
Preservation
and techniques. The present review article provides an overview of the factors responsible for fish spoilage and
the mechanisms involved, and then reviews advances in effective measures for preserving fish quality. We
provide information on the application of modified atmosphere packaging, the use of natural compounds (e.g.,
plant/algal extracts, biopolymers, gelatin, microbial-derived compounds, temperature/pressure treatments, and
various combinations of these approaches. The impact of these technologies on the resident microbiota of fish is
also presented. Bio-safe, effective measures are a critical component of an integrated management approach for
extending the shelf-life of harvested fish. The relationship between the resident microbiota and fish quality is
especially highlighted. In summary, the review provides information on the mechanisms responsible for the
deterioration of fish quality during storage and provides an overview of a variety of methods that are used or
being explored to preserve and extend the shelf life and quality of fish, including the use of a combination of
approaches (hurdle technology). A discussion of the future research needed to better understand the mechanisms
associated with the action of preservation technologies, and the need to develop effective packaging materials is
also discussed.

1. Introduction
Fish and fish-related products represent a healthy source of nutrients
in the human diet as they contain essential amino acids, lipid-soluble
vitamins, micronutrients, and highly unsaturated fatty acids (Alhassan
et al., 2017; Petsini et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2020). Fat levels in fish can be
categorized in four basic groups: lean (<2% fat), low-fat (2–4% fat),
medium-fat (4–8% fat), and high-fat (>8% fat) (Ackman, 1990). Based
on the most recent data from the FAO, over 213 million tons of fish were
harvested in 2019 (FAO, 2021).
Unfortunately, fish are highly perishable once they are harvested due
to their high moisture content, need for an oxygenated blood supply to
maintain cells, neutral pH, and abundant resident microbiota, all of
which facilitate microbial and biochemical spoilage (Amit et al., 2017;
Odeyemi et al., 2020). Enzymatic and oxidative activities that occur in
fish after they are harvested cause significant changes in their sensory
and nutritional properties, which limits their shelf-life and are perceived
by consumers as a loss in freshness (Duarte et al., 2020). The negative
changes associated with a loss in freshness are driven by protein
degradation and lipid oxidation, which induce unfavorable changes in
fish odor, flavor and texture, and raise serious food safety concerns
(Sheng & Wang, 2021). In the past two decades, bio-safe practices have
been the focus of considerable research, driven by consumer concerns
about food safety and human health, as well as increasing regulatory
restrictions on the use of some commonly used, chemical preservatives.
Alternative methods for preserving fish fillets that have been explored
include physical treatments (DeWitt & Oliveira, 2016; Tavares et al.,
2021), the use of natural compounds (Mei et al., 2019; Olatunde &
Benjakul, 2018), and a combination of several of the above approaches
(Yu et al., 2020). Some of the newer approaches have been adopted on a

* Corresponding author. School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huai’an, Jiangsu, 223003, China.
E-mail address: xiaobao.nie@hotmail.com (X. Nie).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108805
Received 3 October 2021; Received in revised form 16 December 2021; Accepted 29 December 2021
Available online 1 January 2022
0956-7135/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
X. Nie et al. Food Control 135 (2022) 108805

commercial scale (Chan et al., 2020). A representative list of studies
conducted on strategies for the preservation of fish fillets is presented in
Table 1. The present review provides an overview of the factors
responsible for fish spoilage and the mechanisms involved, as well as
recent advances in methods and techniques for preserving fish fillets
(Fig. 1).
considerable concern to the fishing industry (Getu et al., 2015; Torell
et al., 2020). Spoilage results from three basic mechanisms: enzymatic
autolysis, oxidation, and microbial degradation (Ghaly et al., 2010;
Hussain et al., 2021).
2.1. Enzymatic autolytic spoilage

2. Spoilage mechanisms Enzymatic autolysis of fish tissues begins to accelerate after the
postmortem stage of rigor mortis is completed. If refrigeration or
Losses in the supply of marketable fish due to spoilage are of freezing is provided, however, autolysis will proceed at a relatively slow

Table 1
A representative list of studies conducted on methods for preserving fish and fish products and extending their marketable shelf-life.
Preservation method Fish species Microorganisms Reference

Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)
MAP Cod (Gadus morhua)
MAP + UV-C Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss)
MAP + UV-C Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
MAP + superchilling Cod (G. morhua)
MAP, brining + superchilling Cod (G. morhua)
MAP + storage temperature (ST) Atlantic horse mackerel (Trachurus
trachurus)
MAP + antioxidant-based active packaging Bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus)
Vacuum packaging Lethrinus atkinsoni
Chilling technologies Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
Carbon dioxide + ST Atlantic horse mackerel (T.
trachurus)
Nine essential oils (EOs) extracted from bay, cinnamon, Cod (G. morhua)
clove, lemongrass, marjoram, oregano, sage, and thyme
EOs extracted from rosemary and basil Atlantic mackerel (Scomber
scombrus)
EOs extracted from oregano, thyme, and star anise Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon
idella)
Whey protein isolate-based film incorporated with Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)
tarragon EO
Whey protein concentration coating incorporated with Beluga sturgeon (Huso huso)
cinnamon EO
Chitosan coating in combination with whey protein isolate Talang queenfish (Scomberoides
and tarragon EO commersonnianus)
Pimpinella affinis EO and extract + zein edible coating Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss)
Oregano EO + rice starch films Marine catfish (Genidens genidens)
Chitosan - Ferulago angulata EO nanoemulsion coating Rainbow trout (O. mykiss)
Nano-chitosan coatings + free/nano-encapsulated cumin Sardine (Sardina pilchardus)
EO
EOs (cinnamon, oregano, and clove) + collagen Pacific mackerel (Pneumatophorus
japonicus)
Zataria multiflora EO + potassium sorbate Rainbow trout (O. mykiss)
Colorant plant extracts (Hibiscus sabdariffa calyces, Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
Curcuma longa rhizomes, and Rhus coriaria fruits)
Tea polyphenols Crisp grass carp
(Ctenopharyngodon idella)
Pectin + garlic acid Japanese Sea Bass (Lateolabrax
japonicas)
Algae extracts Rainbow trout (O. mykiss)
Sodium alginate coating infused with tea polyphenols Japanese Sea Bass (L. japonicas)
LAB Cod-, salmon-based products
Hot smoking + carboxyl methyl cellulose + rosemary EO Eel (Anguilla anguilla)
and/or extract
Psychrotrophic viable bacterial count (PVBC), Provincial et al. (2010)
mesophilic viable bacterial count (MVBC)
PVBC, H2S-producing bacteria, Sivertsvik (2007)
Photobacterium phosphoreum
PVBC, MVBC Rodrigues et al. (2016)
Salmonella typhimurium, Lázaro et al. (2020)
Escherichia coli
PVBC Wang et al. (2008)
PVBC, H2S-producing bacteria, Lauzon et al. (2009)
Pseudomonas, P. phosphoreum
Total viable bacteria (TVB), PVBC, Pseudomonas, Alfaro, Hernández,
Enterobacteriaceae Baliño-Zuazo, and Barranco
(2013)
MVBC, Lactic acid bacteria, Torrieri et al. (2011)
Enterobacteriaceae,
Brochothrix thermosphacta
N/T (not tested) Aberoumand and Baesi (2020b)
PVBC, H2S-producing bacteria Chan et al. (2020)
Carnobacterium maltaromaticum, Alfaro, Hernández, Marc, and
Serratia proteamaculans, Pin (2013)
Yersinia intermedia,
Shewanella baltica
P. phosphoreum Mejlholm and Dalgaard (2002)
N/T Karoui and Hassoun (2017)
Aeromonas, Glutamicibacter, Aequorivita Huang et al. (2018)
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB), Socaciu et al. (2021)
H2S-producing bacteria
TVB, PVBC Bahram et al. (2016)
MVBC, PVBC Farsanipour et al. (2020)
Enterobacteriaceae, MVBC, Psychrophilic Esmaeli et al. (2019)
bacteria, Pseudomonas
Salmonella enteritidis, E. coli, Martins et al. (2021)
Coagulase-positive staphylococci
Shewanella putrefaciens, Pseudomonas Shokri et al. (2020)
fluorescens
TVMC, Lactic acid bacteria, Pseudomonas Homayonpour et al. (2021)
E. coli, Bacillus subtilis, Hu et al. (2021)
Shewanella putrefaciens,
Staphylococcus aureus,
Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Listeria monocytogenes, Motavaf et al. (2021)
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, TVB
E. coli, S. typhimurium, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa Tayel et al. (2021)
TVB, Pseudomonas, Aeromonas Pan et al. (2021)
Total viable microbial counts (TVMC) Nie et al. (2020)
Psychrophilic bacteria Sáez et al. (2021)
TVMC Nie et al. (2018)
Lactobacillus sakei, S. baltica, H. alvei, Wiernasz et al. (2017)
P. phosphoreum, B. thermosphacta,
S. proteamaculans, L. monocytogenes
Total aerobic viable count, LAB, Choulitoudi et al. (2017)
Pseudomonas spp.

2
X. Nie et al.
rate in fish (Duarte et al., 2020). Specific types of proteases and lipases
play a role in the postmortem degradation of fish muscle and other tis­
sues during processing and storage, resulting in changes in the sensory
attributes of fish (Kontominas et al., 2021a). The primary autolytic
change that takes place is the enzymatic breakdown of adenosine
5′ -triphosphate (ATP) and its related products. This is followed by the
activation of numerous other proteolytic enzymes, including glycolytic
enzymes (which degrade glycogen), nucleotide degradation enzymes
(which catalyze the breakdown of ATP, adenosine diphosphate, aden­
osine monophosphate, and inosine monophosphate), calpain (which
acts on myofibrillar proteins), collagenases (which catalyze the break­
down of connective tissue), trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) demethylase
(substrate: TMAO), cathepsins, chymotrypsin, trypsin, and carboxy­
peptidases (which catalyze the breakdown of proteins and peptides)
(Tavares et al., 2021). The activity of proteases is highly dependent on
temperature and pH, and the optimal temperatures for proteases in fish
and shellfish can be found in a review by Singh and Benjakul (2018).
Regarding pH, most proteases have been reported to have an optimal pH
that is alkaline or neutral (Ghaly et al., 2010; Sharma et al., 2019).
Importantly, lipids in fish can also be hydrolyzed by lipases and/or
phospholipases (Chandra et al., 2020). For example, triacylglycerol
acylhydrolases hydrolyze mono-, di-, and triglycerides to glycerol and
fatty acids in the presence of water (Chandra et al., 2020). Notably, the
production of off-odors and bad taste is highly related to the oxidation of
unsaturated lipids, which also has a negative impact on protein dena­
turation and texture changes (Ali et al., 2019). The main group of
compounds responsible for off-odors in fish are aldehydes, which pri­
marily comprise molecules derived from saturated and unsaturated fatty
acid compounds (Mahmoud et al., 2018). Lipoxygenase (LOX) can also
induce oxidation processes in preserved fish, and lipid degradation in­
creases in fish fillets as storage temperature increases (Yilmaz et al.,
2018).
2.2. Oxidative spoilage
Oxidative spoilage has several negative impacts on fish quality,
including the deterioration of flavor, color, and texture, as well as a
concomitant reduction in the nutritional attributes of the stored fish
(Amit et al., 2017). Lipid oxidation is the primary cause of deterioration
and spoilage in pelagic fish, such as mackerel and herring, both of which
have a high level of oil and fat stored in their flesh tissues (Getu et al.,
2015). Several different types of oxidative processes can occur, such as
photo-oxidation, thermal oxidation, enzymatic oxidation, and
auto-oxidation. The most common form of oxidative degradation in fish
is caused by auto-oxidation of lipids, as they spontaneously react with
atmospheric oxygen (Hassoun & Çoban, 2017). The oxidation of lipids is
typically due to the reaction of oxygen with the double bonds of fatty
acids. Thus, fish tissues containing a high level of unsaturated lipids
render them highly susceptible to peroxidation and rapid degradation
(Nazemroaya et al., 2009). The rate of lipid oxidation, in addition to its
degree of saturation (Domínguez et al., 2019), is also affected by tem­
perature (Soto-Valdez et al., 2015), pH (Pazos et al., 2005), the presence
of salt brine (Aberoumand & Baesi, 2020a; Harikedua & DeWitt, 2017),
and metal ions (Ghnimi et al., 2017).
Lipid oxidation involves the activity of free radicals and proceeds in a
three-chain pipeline; initiation, propagation, and termination (Hussain
et al., 2021; Shahidi & Zhong, 2010). The first step of the lipid oxidation
process is initiated when a hydrogen atom adjacent to a double bond in a
fatty acid is extracted through the involvement of catalysts, such as heat,
irradiation, and the presence of metal ions, to form a free radical,
allowing the second step, propagation, to proceed. In the second step,
peroxyl radicals are formed when the generated free radicals react with
oxygen, which then further react with other lipid molecules to form
hydroperoxides and new free radicals. The last step, termination, occurs
when a sufficient number of free radicals form non-radical products.
Lipid hydroperoxides, the primary product of auto-oxidation, are
3
Food Control 135 (2022) 108805
unstable and rapidly breakdown and produce a mixture of various sec­
ondary products, such as malondialdehyde, 4-hydroxynonenal, hydro­
carbons, and volatile organic acids (Ayala et al., 2014; Xu et al., 2015).
The formation of lipid oxidation products is closely correlated with an
increase in protein denaturation, functional breakdown of endogenous
antioxidant processes, and a concomitant decrease in nutritional value,
due to the depletion of fat-soluble vitamins among other compounds
(Mei et al., 2019; Olatunde & Benjakul, 2018).
2.3. Microbial spoilage
Microbial spoilage is the main factor responsible for degrading the
quality of fresh or minimally preserved fish and can result in a 25–30%
loss of marketable fish in serious cases (Ghaly et al., 2010; Mei et al.,
2019; Tavares et al., 2021). As with any deceased organism, the con­
stituents comprising fish provide an array of nutrients for the expo­
nential growth of microorganisms that are no longer held in check by the
organism, especially bacteria that are adapted to a wide range of tem­
perature conditions (Zhuang et al., 2021). Each species of fish has a
unique composition of microbiota that undergoes profound changes,
induced by a host of factors, including manufacturing processes, storage
conditions, time of storage, quality control practices, and the innate
adaptability of each of the microbial taxa. Notably, quality control
practices, among the factors listed, have considerable ability to inhibit
the growth of spoilage bacteria and slow the rate of product deteriora­
tion (Chaillou et al., 2015; Zhuang et al., 2021).
Interactions between a host organism (in this case, fish) and its
resident microbiota are extremely complex. However, a correlation be­
tween the composition of the microbiome and the degree of spoilage has
been demonstrated, with only a few members of the microbial com­
munity being recognized as spoilage-specific organisms (SSOs) in fish
(Hussain et al., 2021; Zhuang et al., 2021). The presence of SSOs varies
in different species of fish and is affected by the type of mitigation
practices that have been employed. For example, while Aeromonas is a
major SSO in unsalted bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) fillets stored at
4 ◦ C, Pseudomonas is the major SSO found in bighead carp fillets
sprinkled with 2% salt (Liu et al., 2017). In their review, DeWitt and
Oliveira (2016) indicated that the SSOs in spoiled fish stored under
modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) conditions include Photo­
bacterium phosphoreum in cod fillets, Carnobacterium, Serratia, She­
wanella, and Yersinia in horse mackerel fillets, Carnobacterium,
Lactococcus, and Vagococcus in Australian salmon (Arripis trutta), and
Hafnia alvei in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Zhuang et al. (2021) have
provided a recent review on spoilage-related microbiota where the
reader can obtain more detailed information.
3. Representative methods of fish preservation
Sustainable environmental solutions and bio-safe practices that can
be used to extend the shelf-life of fish have been the subject of a growing
amount of research over the past decade (Soro et al., 2021). This interest
has been driven by the increasing regulation of preservatives by gov­
ernment regulatory agencies, as well as consumer concerns about food
safety and the potential impact of exposure to a wide array of chemicals
in their food.
3.1. Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)
MAP technology is one of the most common approaches used to
preserve fishery products. MAP involves placing food in packaging in
which the atmosphere of mixed gases is designed to obtain a desired
atmospheric profile (Kontominas et al., 2021b). MAP, with the design of
an appropriate atmosphere, can inhibit the oxidation of lipids and the
growth of aerobic bacteria, both of which will extend the shelf-life of fish
products. Mixtures of O2, CO2, and N2 are commonly used in different
combinations and varying concentrations in commercial applications of
X. Nie et al.
Fig. 1. Factors responsible for fish spoilage and representative methods for preserving fish quality.
MAP technology, based on the response of the fish product. The specific
atmosphere used in a MAP treatment will depend on the composition of
the microbiota inhabiting a specific product, the sensitivity of the
product to each gas component, and the need to maintain a fresh color in
the fish product. For example, MAP with an atmosphere of 30-40-30
percent O2, CO2, and N2, respectively, is commonly used for white,
low-fat, packaged fish (Kontominas et al., 2021b). Provincial et al.
(2010) conducted a study in which sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) fillets
were packaged in different concentrations of CO2 and N2 (40%
CO2–60% N2; 50% CO2–50% N2; 60% CO2–40% N2), and then their
quality during storage was assessed. Their results indicated that MAP
could considerably increase the shelf-life of sea bass fresh fillets from 4
days in ambient air packaging up to 11 days in 40% CO2–60% N2 and up
to 14 days in either 50% CO2–50% N2 or 60% CO2–40% N2. Samples of
fillets packaged under higher concentrations of CO2 exhibited the best
microbiological and sensory results, as well as lower pH and lipid
oxidation values. The optimum gas composition for MAP of farmed cod
(Gadus morhua) fillets, applied prior to the onset of rigor mortis, was 63
ml/100 ml O2 and 37 ml/100 ml CO2 (Sivertsvik, 2007). In that study,
bacterial growth decreased as CO2 levels increased. Additionally,
H2S-producing bacteria were found to be absent or not have the ability
to grow under any of the tested gas mixtures used in the MAP.
The first type of MAP technology developed was vacuum packaging
in which ambient air was removed from the package and the package
was hermetically sealed. This approach was used to supplement ice
storage or refrigeration. Vacuum packaging further reduced spoilage
and provided the ability to market a fish product that was of high
quality, safe, and had an extended shelf-life, thus, reducing economic
losses. Aberoumand and Baesi (2020b) investigated the effect of vacuum
packaging on the oxidative spoilage rating of Lethrinus atkinsoni stored in
a freezer at − 18 ◦ C. Their results indicated that L. atkinsoni that was
vacuum packed and stored at − 18 ◦ C had lower spoilage ratings than
non-vacuum packaged fish (control) at 0, 20, and 40 days of storage.
Results further indicated that the level of peroxide, thiobarbituric acid
and free fatty acids decreased in the vacuum-packed fish at 20 and 40
days, while pH values increased. Their results indicated that vacuum
packaging plus storage at − 18 ◦ C provided a better method of preserving
the quality of fish products than just freezing alone and represented a
good method for preserving fish quality over long periods of storage.
Importantly, however, vacuum packaging does not always preserve
fish products better than other forms of MAP. Gonçalves and Santos
(2018) conducted a study in which they compared vacuum packaging
with different mixtures of atmospheres to find an optimal method for
maintaining the freshness of cobia sticks under refrigeration and to
extend their shelf-life. The breaded cobia sticks were packaged under 1)
a vacuum, 2) ambient air packaging that was 100% aerobic, 3) MAP1
packaging (15% N2 + 80% CO2 + 5% O2), and 4) MAP2 packaging (20%
N2 + 70% CO2 + 10% O2) and stored at 5 ◦ C for 28 days. Results indi­
cated that the MAP1 packaging provided the best quality maintenance
based on microbiological and physicochemical analyses. In another
study, the effect of an O2 scrubber placed in the packaging was
compared with vacuum packaging on the quality of “Çiroz”, a tradi­
tional Turkish salted, dried fish prepared from Atlantic mackerel
4
Food Control 135 (2022) 108805
(Scomber scombrus) (Erkan, 2017). An array of sensory attributes and
microbiological analyses, including measurements of total volatile basic
nitrogen (TVB-N), trimethylamine nitrogen (TMA-N), TBA index
(TBA-i), free fatty acids (FFA) and peroxide levels (PV), were carried out
monthly for a period of six months on product that was stored at 2 ±
2 ◦ C. Their results demonstrated that active packaging, in this case, the
use of an O2 scrubber, provided a good alternative to vacuum packaging.
MAP technology replaces the natural atmosphere with a prescribed
mixture of different gases and the proportion of the gases is established
at the time the package is sealed. After this, no further modifications in
the gas mixture occur (DeWitt & Oliveira, 2016). The benefits of MAP,
however, can be substantially reduced or lost if storage temperature is
not properly regulated. Higher temperatures will reduce the level of
dissolved CO2 in the fish product and, thus, reduce the inhibitory effect
of the CO2, which could potentially result in increased enzymatic ac­
tivity and higher microbial growth, raising concerns about microbial
safety (Sivertsvik et al., 2002). Controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP)
technology represents a modification of MAP, in which gas composition
is continuously monitored and regulated during storage. CAP technol­
ogies allow commercial facilities to stably maintain a prescribed gas
composition, as well as other parameters within the package, including
temperature and humidity (McMillin, 2008). Importantly, the use of
MAP or CAP technologies can not improve the quality of a poor-quality
fish product or recapture lost shelf life. The use of these packaging
technologies on a chemically and/or enzymatically degraded product,
with potentially high levels of spoilage bacteria, would result in little to
no extension of shelf life.
The risk of significant increases in foodborne pathogens as a result of
temperature abuse and/or poor product handling and sanitation prac­
tices may pose a serious threat to consumers (DeWitt & Oliveira, 2016).
Therefore, the use of other approaches combined with MAP technology
has also been explored. For example, MAP has been combined with
antioxidant-based active packaging to increase the effect of MAP on the
shelf-life of fresh, bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) fillets (Torrieri et al.,
2011). MAP combined with UV-C radiation increased the ability of MAP
to preserve the freshness of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fillets
(Rodrigues et al., 2016) and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fillets (Lázaro
et al., 2020), and superchilling increases the ability of MAP to preserve
fresh cod (G. morhua) (Wang et al., 2008) and turbot (Scophthalmus
maximus) (Mei et al., 2020). Notably, the integration of MAP technology
with other preservation technologies has become increasingly used, as a
‘hurdle technology’, to preserve the freshness of fish products and
extend their shelf-life. The ‘hurdle’ concept is based on the premise that
one technology may provide a certain level of preservation activity, but
when combined with another technology, preservation activity can be
increased additively or synergistically.
3.2. Essential oils and natural polymers
Essential oils (EOs) are produced by a wide array of plants and have
been extracted and used for medicinal purposes for many millennia.
Now, EOs are also being investigated for their potential use in food
preservation (Maurya et al., 2021). Their activity is based not only on
X. Nie et al.
the actual compound but often on the release of volatile organic com­
pounds (VOCs). EOs have been receiving greater interest in the preser­
vation of foods, such as fish, due to their antimicrobial and antioxidant
properties. There is also growing consumer demand for the use of nat­
ural preservatives in fish preservation (Bhavaniramya et al., 2019;
Hussain et al., 2021). EOs extracted from bay, cinnamon, clove,
lemongrass, marjoram, oregano, sage, and thyme were evaluated for
their antimicrobial activity against Photobacterium phosphoreum, a
bacterium involved in the spoilage of seafood (Mejlholm & Dalgaard,
2002). Results indicated that oregano oil (0.05%, v/w) inhibited the
growth of P. phosphoreum in naturally contaminated cod (G. morhua)
fillets that had been subjected to MAP and extended their shelf-life from
11 to 12 d to 21–26 d at 2 ◦ C. Nine of the chemical constituents (allyl
isothiocyanate, carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, citral, cuminnaldehyde,
eugenol, isoeugenol, linalool, and thymol) found in EOs were evaluated
for their antimicrobial activity against the microflora of common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) (Mahmoud et al., 2004). Results demonstrated that
thymol, carvacrol, and cinnamaldehyde exhibited the greatest level of
antimicrobial activity, followed by isoeugenol, eugenol, and citral. In
contrast, only a low level of antimicrobial activity was exhibited by
cuminnaldehyde, linalool, and allyl isothiocyanate. The shelf-life of carp
fillets was extended from 4 to 12 days by dipping the fillets in a 0.5%
carvacrol and 0.5% thymol solution prior to storage at 5 ◦ C, which also
significantly reduced bacterial growth. The effect of oregano, thyme and
star anise EOs on the microbial composition, antioxidant status, and
quality of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) fillets was more
recently investigated by Huang et al. (2018). Their results demonstrated
that the EO treatments were effective in inhibiting microbial growth,
delaying lipid oxidation, and retarding increases in TVB-N, putrescine,
hypoxanthine, and the K-value, the latter of which is an index used to
indicate the freshness of fish and is based on the level of ATP degrada­
tion and the subsequent formation of by-products. The shelf-life of the
treated carp fillets was extended from 6 to 8 days based on a sensory
analysis of the fillets. Oregano oil, among the tested EOS, exhibited the
highest antimicrobial and antioxidant activity.
Despite the potential ability of EOs to be used to preserve fish, their
use has several limitations. Importantly, the efficacy of EOs as pre­
servatives, relative to chemical preservatives, is inconsistent. This
inconsistency may be potentially due to differences in the composition
of the extracted EOs and/or the type of fish on which they are being
used. Notably, the chemical composition of EOs is affected by many
factors, including when and where they are harvested, the genotype of
the plants being harvested, environmental conditions present during
their growth, the part of the plant being extracted, and the extraction
process being used (Hyldgaard et al., 2012; Martínez-Ávila et al., 2021;
Mugao et al., 2020; Rodriguez-Garcia et al., 2016). Tajkarimi et al.
(2010) noted that the potential commercial use of herbs, spices, and EOs
to preserve products is still very remote due to limited data on their
efficacy and impact on food products (especially taste), their strong ol­
factory properties, and high cost. Therefore, considerable research on
the use of EOs individually or in combination will be required before
their use realistically represents a feasible alternative to other strategies
and methods of food preservation.
Films and coatings for use on food products are commonly derived
from natural polymers, such as proteins and polysaccharides, and have
often been combined with EOs for the preservation of fish and fish
products. For example, whey protein-based films can function as a
moderate moisture barrier and a good barrier of oxygen. Cinnamon oil
was incorporated into a whey-protein coating and applied to Beluga
sturgeon (Huso huso), extended the shelf life of beluga sturgeon by about
8 days, due the ability of the EO-modified film to retard lipid oxidation
and microbial deterioration (Bahram et al., 2016). Tarragon oil was
incorporated into a whey-protein coating and applied to brook trout
(Salvelinus fontinalis), inhibiting the growth of total mesophilic and
psychrotrophic bacteria and retarding the increase in the level of TVB-N,
pH, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and FFA
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Food Control 135 (2022) 108805
(Farsanipour et al., 2020). Esmaeli et al. (2019) combined EO extracted
from Pimpinella affinis with a zein extract (a prolamine protein derived
from corn gluten) to make an edible coating and applied it to rainbow
trout (O. mykiss) fillets prior to vacuum packaging. More recently, Hu
et al. (2021) assessed the effect of a combination of EOs (cinnamon,
oregano, and clove) incorporated into a collagen coating on the quality
of Pacific mackerel during cold storage. They found a smaller increase in
microbial counts, relative to a control, when the fillets were treated with
the EO-collagen film. The level of total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N),
TBARS, and the pH of mackerel fillets were all lower in fillets treated
with EO-collagen film, relative to the control, and somewhat lower than
in fillets treated only with the collagen film.
Regarding the use of film-forming polysaccharides, Martins et al.
(2021) reported that oregano oil incorporated into a rice starch film
prolonged the shelf-life of the marine catfish (Genidens genidens), and
inhibited the growth of Salmonella enteritidis, Escherichia coli, and
coagulase-positive Staphylococci. In another study, two concentrations
(1% and 1.5%) of clove oil integrated into a pectin coating were eval­
uated for their ability to extend the shelf-life of refrigerated bream
(Megalobrama ambycephala) fillets (Nisar et al., 2019). Results indi­
cated that the clove oil/pectin films decreased the lipid oxidation rate,
based on the measurement of TBA, PV, and TVB-N, and also reduced
microbial growth, extending the shelf-life of the fillets by at least 6 days.
Chitosan (poly-β-(1 → 4) N-acetyl-D-glucosamine), a naturally occurring
polysaccharide, has been studied in great detail. Chitosan-based coat­
ings have been reported to effectively preserve fish and represent an
excellent alternative biopreservative, due to its biodegradability, edi­
bility, biocompatibility, and antimicrobial properties (Dehghani et al.,
2018). Chitosan-based coatings can also function as a barrier to oxygen
exchange. The incorporation of clove oil into a gelatin-chitosan-based
edible film for the preservation of cod (G. morhua) was investigated by
Gómez-Estaca et al. (2010).
3.3. Nanoemulsions
Nanoemulsions, characterized by their nano-scale droplet size, are
kinetically stable colloidal systems and have been investigated for their
ability to enhance the efficacy of a variety of alternative preservation
materials, including edible coatings (Aswathanarayan & Vittal, 2019).
Nanoemulsification has been reported to improve the physicochemical
and antimicrobial properties of chitosan-EO coatings and increase the
effect of the coatings on the texture, color, and overall freshness
perception of rainbow trout (O. mykiss) fillets (Shokri et al., 2020).
Homayonpour et al. (2021) prepared a biodegradable coating from free
and nano-encapsulated cumin oil and a nano-chitosan film, and evalu­
ated its effect on the microbial, chemical, and sensory properties of
sardines (Sardina pilchardus) stored at 4 ◦ C for 16 days. They found that
the nano-EO-chitosan film significantly extended the shelf-life of treated
sardines. A nanoemulsion of ginger oil at different concentrations (0.5%,
1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, and 3.0%) was incorporated into a coating comprised
of fish sarcoplasmic protein (FSP) and chitosan, and the physical, me­
chanical, antioxidant, and thermal properties were evaluated by Cai and
Wang (2021). Their results indicated that FSP blended with chitosan
created an excellent film-forming material and that mixing a specific
concentration of a ginger oil nanoemulsion into the film enhanced its
physical and antioxidant properties. A nanoemulsion of laurel essential
oil was reported to improve its antibacterial activity (Özogul et al.,
2022), and to increase the anesthetic properties of Nectandra grandi­
flora Nees essential oil in fish, while reducing unwanted side effects
(Rodrigues et al., 2021). In a review of EOs and chitosan as alternatives
to the use of chemical preservatives on fish and fisheries products,
Hussain et al. (2021) reported that the use of EOs incorporated into a
chitosan film provided a greater preservative effect than the use of the
individual components alone. In fact, a synergistic effect has often been
observed in the combined use of a chitosan/EO films and this approach
should be more thoroughly investigated. In general, the use of
X. Nie et al.
nanoemulsified preparations of edible coatings, new extraction tech­
nologies, the thermo-stability of EOs under high pressure,
temperature-related effects, and long-term storage all require further
investigation. In addition to EOs, food additives (e.g., potassium sorbate
[Motavaf et al., 2021]), salting, and vacuum packaging (Frangos et al.,
2010) have also been combined with EOs and investigated for their
ability to extend the shelf-life and quality of fish and fish products.
The combined use of nanoemulsions of bioactive compounds with
edible coatings have great potential for the preservation of fish quality
and shelf life. At present, however, the cost of preparing nanoemulsions
will need to be reduced and their ability to meet food safety standards
will have to be investigated before their use will become commercially
feasible. Further optimization of the bio-activity and the determination
of the bio-safety of nanoemulsions and encapsulated compounds will
require additional studies (Aswathanarayan & Vittal, 2019).
3.4. Plant/algal extracts
Similar to EOs, plant and algal extracts have also been evaluated as
preservatives for the fish industry (Mei et al., 2019). In particular,
polyphenols extracted from tea leaves, and composed of catechins, fla­
vones, anthocyanins, etc, have been extensively evaluated. The multiple
components comprising tea polyphenols possess antioxidant, antimi­
crobial, and other biological properties (Yan et al., 2020). In a recent
study, Pan et al. (2021) reported that fish fillets treated with tea poly­
phenols exhibited lower bacterial growth and reduced TVB-N levels,
relative to untreated fillets, and their shelf-life was extended from 10 to
16 days. Notably, Pseudomonas was the most abundant bacterial genus
present in tea polyphenol-treated crisp grass carp fish fillets at the end of
their shelf life, while Pseudomonas and Aeromonas were the most
abundant bacteria in control samples. These data suggest that tea
polyphenols can alter the abundance of bacterial taxa responsible for
spoilage of fish fillets and be potentially used to extend their shelf-life.
Importantly, the toxicity of plant extracts and dose-response effects of
different extracts need to be determined before they can be considered
to have commercial potential. These studies are especially important for
standardizing the use of plant extracts for fish preservation. The mo­
lecular mechanisms responsible for the ability of plant extracts to inhibit
“unwanted” microorganisms, their potential impact on the physico­
chemical properties of food products (e.g., fish fillet), and understanding
the contribution of the various components of plant extracts, individu­
ally and together, on antimicrobial activity, all need to be further
studied (Bouarab Chibane et al., 2019; Ofosu et al., 2020).
Additional concerns about the use of plant extracts are associated
with their poor solubility, strong odor, and lack of efficacy in controlling
Gram-negative bacteria. Therefore, researchers have focused on the use
of marine algae as a source for natural food preservatives. A recent re­
view by Surendhiran et al. (2021) discussed bioactive molecules in
marine algae and their possible application on extending the shelf life of
food products without causing any toxicity. In this regard, the bioactive
properties of sodium alginate, a polymer of L-guluronic acid and
D-mannuronic acid isolated from brown algae, has been investigated.
Due to its distinctive colloidal properties and ability to form a strong,
insoluble, polymer gel in the presence of multivalent metal cations,
alginate can be used as an edible coating on foods and extend their
shelf-life (Kontominas. 2020). Sáez et al. (2021) evaluated the ability of
algal extracts of Crassiphycus corneus, Ulva ohnoi, Arthrospira pla­
tensis, and Haematococcus pluvialis to preserve rainbow trout
(O. mykiss) fillets. Their results indicated that the algal extracts inhibited
microbial growth and lipid oxidation processes in trout fillets, relative to
control fillets, throughout the period they were kept in cold storage, and
also improved their textural parameters. Our research group previously
evaluated the effect of a sodium alginate coating infused with tea
polyphenols on the quality of fresh Japanese sea bass (Lateolabrax ja­
ponicas) fillets stored for a period of 20 days at 4 ± 1 ◦ C (Nie et al.,
2018). Our results demonstrated that a sodium alginate coating, a
6
Food Control 135 (2022) 108805
solution of tea polyphenols, and a sodium alginate coating infused with
tea polyphenols could all effectively maintain the overall quality of
Japanese sea bass fillets during refrigerated storage. Among the tested
treatments, the tea polyphenol infused into a sodium alginate coating
consistently provided the best level of preservation. Tayel et al. (2021)
recently reported that plant extracts derived from Hibiscus sabdariffa
calyxes, Curcuma longa rhizomes, and Rhus coriaria fruits exhibited
strong antibacterial activity against the spoilage pathogens, E. coli,
Salmonella typhimurium, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeru­
ginosa when used for the preservation of cod (G. morhua).
3.5. Microbial-derived compounds
Compounds derived from a variety of microorganisms also have
potential for use in fish preservation (Mei et al., 2019). In particular,
lactic acid bacteria (LAB) have been comprehensively investigated as
they typically dominate the natural microflora of many foods and can
produce antimicrobial metabolites. These include, bacteriocins, reuter­
icyclins, cyclic dipeptides, phenyl-lactate, propionate,
hydroxyphenyl-lactate and 3-hydroxy fatty acids (Gálvez et al., 2010;
Ghanbari et al., 2013). Bacteriocins are a family of potent antimicrobial
peptides consisting of approximately 30–60 amino acids that form
amphiphilic helices. Bacteriocins differ in their spectrum of activity,
mode of action, biochemical properties, molecular weight, and genetic
origin (Mei et al., 2019). They are typically categorized into four classes:
I: lantibiotics, low molecular weight (<5 kDa) thermostable peptides,
characterized by the presence of lanthionine and its derivatives; II: small
thermostable peptides (<10 kDa), composed of three subclasses: IIa
(pediocin and enterocini), IIb (lactocin G), and IIc (lactocin B); III: high
molecular weight (>30 kDa) thermolabile peptides, represented by
helveticin J; and IV: large peptides complexed with lipids or carbohy­
drates (Balciunas et al., 2013; Johnson et al., 2017). Interestingly, LAB
strains of bacteriocin-producing bacteria can express a specific immu­
nity protein, encoded in the bacteriocin operon, that can protect them
from their own toxins (Chikindas et al., 2017). Some LAB strains have
been used as bioprotective agents in a ‘hurdle’ strategy. In this regard,
Wiernasz et al. (2017) assessed a host of parameters in 35 LAB strains,
including their antimicrobial activity, their tolerance to being incorpo­
rated in a chitosan coating, their tolerance to superchilling, cross inhi­
bition, biogenic amine production (histamine, tyramine), and antibiotic
resistance. Their results indicated that six out of the LAB strains were
suitable for use in a ‘hurdle’ strategy for use on cod- and salmon-based
products.
Information on other types of microbial-derived compounds, such as
reuterin and organic acids, can be obtained in the review by Mei et al.
(2019). The major drawback of using microbial-derived compounds
instead of plant/algal bioactive extracts, is the safety of the microbes
being employed. Additional studies are needed to comprehensively
assess the safety of specific strains. The ever-growing number of avail­
able microbial genome sequences and the use of high-throughput
sequencing technologies for investigating microbial genomics and mo­
lecular function will greatly enhance our understanding of the safety of
using different microorganisms, their potential impact on the innate
microbial community, and their effect on the physicochemical proper­
ties of the food products on which they are being utilized.
3.6. Temperature/pressure treatments
Temperature and pressure treatments are an important strategy for
extending the shelf life of fish. The use of these treatments for preserving
fish quality are based on the ‘hurdle’ concept for preservation of food
products. Choulitoudi et al. (2017) evaluated the combined application
of hot smoking, an edible-coating infused with rosemary EO, and vac­
uum packaging on eel fillets at refrigerated temperatures. More recently,
Messina et al. (2021) reported on the effect of cold smoking (a mild
thermal treatment of fish) and natural antioxidants on the quality traits,
X. Nie et al.
safety attributes, and shelf life of farmed meagre (Argyrosomus regius)
fillets, to evaluate it as a method that could be used to diversify the
treatment of aquaculture products. The combined application of modi­
fied atmosphere with a low aw (brought about using osmotic dehydra­
tion) and the addition of nisin in the osmotic solution was reported to
extend the shelf life of refrigerated, gilthead seabream fillets stored at
0–15 ◦ C (Tsironi & Taoukis, 2010).
High-pressure processing (HPP), which inactivates endogenous en­
zymes and microorganisms, is becoming more commonly used for the
preservation of the sensory and nutritional properties of fish. Notably,
while HPP effectively inhibits spoilage, it does not affect the level of
vitamins and flavor compounds, thus, extending shelf life without
impacting the sensory and nutritional qualities of the preserved fish
product (Aubourg, 2018). HPP has been reported to have a beneficial
impact on the preservation of frozen and re-thawed, sliced cod and
salmon fillets (Arnaud et al., 2018), as well as on the quality attributes of
haddock and mackerel minces during freezer storage by increasing
protein carbonylation and fluid drainage (Cropotova et al., 2020).
HPP has been combined with cold smoking to extend the shelf life of
salmon and to avoid the use of an intense thermal treatment, which
would affect the sensory profile and nutritional value of the treated fish
product (Erkan et al., 2011). A more recent study indicated that treat­
ment of European sea bass fillets using a combination of HPP (600 MPa,
5min) and refrigerated storage resulted in a three-fold extension in shelf
life at 0–2 ◦ C (Tsironi et al., 2019). Presently, additional research should
be conducted on combining physical treatments, such as temper­
ature/pressure treatments, with other treatments, including the use of
plant/algal extracts, microbial-derived compounds, EOs, and natural
polymers. Inclusion of pressure/temperature treatments in ‘hurdle
technology’ may greatly enhance the efficacy of alternative methods of
food preservation while reducing treatment costs.
4. Conclusions and future trends
There is an increased need to develop bio-safe methods to preserve
fish fillets (Mahmud et al., 2018; Yu et al., 2020). The ability to monitor
fish freshness and preserve fish quality is essential as the consumption of
fish in the human diet continues to grow (Jennings et al., 2016; Prab­
hakar et al., 2020). Thus, preventing the loss of marketable fish and fish
products is becoming more critical as ocean resources are becoming
more strained, the impact of climate change on ocean ecology becomes
more tenuous, and the human population continues to expand. An in­
tegrated, environmentally safe and effective approach for preserving
harvested fish is a key component of a sustainable fishing industry.
Further research on molecular modes of action of preservation methods,
however, are needed, as well as continued physiological studies. For
instance, the recent utilization of CRISPR/Cas9 technology in the ge­
netic manipulation of organisms has already been used in fish (Gratacap
et al., 2020; Hamar & Kültz, 2021), and offers potential application in
the development of new strategies for preserving the quality of fish and
fish products after harvest.
The development of innovative packaging for food products,
including fish, is needed to address problems of food waste and loss by
preserving food quality, while also addressing food safety issues, such as
food-borne pathogens and chemical contamination. Packaging materials
should also meet biodegradability criteria to address the environmental
problem of persistent plastic waste accumulation. Regarding this issue,
Guillard et al. (2018) stated that the production of microbial biode­
gradable polymers from agro-food waste residues represents a promising
approach to the generation of innovative, waste-based food packaging.
Mathematical simulations based on the modeling of mass transfer is a
tool that will greatly facilitate the development of packaging systems
that both extend the shelf-life of food products and have a minimal
impact on the environment.
The durability of biodegradable packaging materials at freezing
temperatures is essential to their use in fish preservation. Cossa et al. (in
7
Food Control 135 (2022) 108805
press) reported that biodegradable packaging served as a suitable ma­
terial for use in the storage of frozen pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus) for
360 days at − 18 ◦ C. These results indicate that it is possible to utilize
biodegradable packing materials at freezing temperatures for extended
periods of time. The biodegradable packaging material maintained its
structural properties while contributing to the preservation of fish
quality parameters. Therefore, biodegradable polymers from natural
resources represent a potential raw material for the development of
novel food packaging materials. In particular, bacterial cellulose fibers
or nanocrystals, among natural polymeric materials, represent a
resource with unique properties that differ from other
polysaccharide-based polymers (Cazón & Vázquez, 2021). A novel
pH-sensing indicator was developed for monitoring fish/seafood fresh­
ness utilizing bacterial cellulose nanofibers and black-carrot anthocya­
nins. The pH-sensing indicator displayed distinct changes in color during
the shelf life of fish fillets. The color of the indicator changed from a deep
carmine color when the fish fillets were fresh, to a pink color when fillets
were at their optimum eating quality, and a blue and khaki color when
the fillets were spoiled (Moradi et al., 2019). Immobilization of Echium
amoenum flower anthocyanins in a bacterial cellulose film was also
investigated as a novel colorimetric pH indicator of freshness/spoilage
of shrimp (Mohammadalinejhad et al., 2020). Bacterial cellulose fibers
or nanocrystals have become the focus of many studies due to their
unique properties, such as their high surface area, their ability to bond
with infused materials, such as EOs, plant extracts, etc., and their water
insolubility. The use of this material, and their combined use with other
alternative technologies, as part of a ‘hurdle’ strategy needs to be fully
explored in future studies.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
We thank Prof. Michael Wisniewski (Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA) for his critical review and
thorough editing of the manuscript. This work was supported by
Huai’an Natural Science Research Project (HAB201901).
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