Fawole O.

THE CONCEPT OF LIBRARY

A library is a collection of information resources organised for use and maintained by a

public body, institution or an individual.
Library can also be defined as a body of recorded information brought together for specific
purpose, organised and made available to users.
Library is a collection of graphics materials, books, films, magazines, maps, manuscripts and
so on organised for use.
The word library refers to a collection of books organised for purposes of reading, studies or
reference.
Library can also be seen as a system responsible for the acquisition, organisation,
preservation and dissemination of information to users.

Two 'B's and P that are mandatory in the present concept of a Library. These three Bs are
B = Books - Resources (print and non print materials)
B = Building - Physical Structure
B = Personnel (stuff who organise the resources for use)
Going by the concept of 3Bs, a Library could be seen as a building or part of a buiding which
contains book and non book information resources with personnel who manage the resources
for use.
In the contemporary, Library is now stretched to include the modern computer and the related
networks such as Internet. The new input is called virtual/digital library which is a collection
of information in electronic form made available and accessible through appropriate
computer networks (e.g Intranet/Internet)

History of Libraries:
The history of libraries can be broken into three phases:
- libraries of antiquity
- medieval libraries
- modern libraries

Libraries of Antiquity
The libraries of antiquity were the libraries owned by the Samarians, Egyptians, Assyrians,
Greeks and Romans. The Samarian temple libraries centered mostly on Mesopotamia (Circia
3000BC). The records of these libraries included commercial accounts, grammatical texts,
treaties etc. The form of writing used to record this information is Cuneiform.
The earliest Egyptian libraries probably emerged around 2400 BC. This library was often
associated with temples that were both religion and cultural centres. The form of writing
used by the Egyptians is known as Hieroglyphics. The writing material was the papyrus
scroll.

The Assyrian libraries which flourished around the eight century BC were found in
Mesopotamia. The person who was attributed to the establishment of Assyrian libraries was
king Ashurbanipal who expanded a library began by his great grandfather Sargon II at his
palace in Nineveh. The Assyrian libraries contained Sumarians and Babylonian materials
including literary texts, history, omens, astronomical calculations, mathematical tables etc.

The Greek libraries were developed at two centres in Athens and Alexandria. The most
prominent Athenian library was the Aristotle library. The Alexandrian library was founded
about 300BC. It was set up by Ptolemy 1. At its height, the library held nearly 750,000
scrolls.

The Medieval libraries:

The medieval libraries were found in Christian monasteries. This is why they are called
monastic libraries. The monk in these monasteries copied and re-copied what was extant of
the material of antiquity in special room called scriptoria. The Cathedral libraries were also
part of the medieval libraries.

The Modern Libraries:

The invention of the printing press coupled with the reawakening of secular and scientific
interests during the renaissance ultimately formed the foundation for the growth in number
and size of libraries and consequently broadened and widened the mission of modern
libraries.

One of the distinguished feature of the modern libraries in the emerging information age is
the integration of digital technologies such as the computers and the internet in the provision
of library and information services.

With technologies information and communication technologies in particular libraries can

acquire, process, preserve and disseminate information in a cyberspace or electrically without
the constraints of time and physical location.
Types of Libraries
Libraries are broadly categorised into types and resources based on the target audience.
The types of library are:
1. National Libraries: These are apex libraries of a given country. They are usually
established and funded by the national (federal) governments of different countries,
and are parts of the national archives. As apex libraries, they play a leading role in
library and information service development of the country. They act as repositories
for preserving and making available publications, records, collection and other
historical materials of every nation. Example in National library of Nigeria that was
established by an act of legislation in 1964. It has its headquarters in Abuja and
branches in all the state capitals in Nigeria.

2. Public Libraries: This was established to serve the general public and is generally
funded by public sources such as tax money. Every member of the society in locality
community where public library is situated is free to use the library. Public Libraries
typically focus on popular materials such as popular fiction and movies as well as
educational and non fiction materials of interest to the general public. The category
of users include both educated and uneducated, the rich and the poor and the young
including children.

In Nigeria, public library are established and funded by the state governments. That is
why they are also referred to as state libraries. Some local government can also build
and run public libraries. Each state in Nigeria has a public state libary.

3 Academic Libraries: These are libraries that are established to serve institutions of
higher learning or tertiary institutions such as universities, colleges of education and
polytechnics. Their main responsibility is to enhance the actualisation of the
objectives of the parent institution that established them through the provision
organisation and dissemination of information resources for teaching, learning and
research.

4. School libraries: These are libraries that are established to serve nursery primary and
secondary schools. The aim of the school library is to support the school curriculum
by providing information resources in all subject taught in the school. The range of
school libraries collection include books, periodicals, magazines, video tapes, slides,
computer, study kits etc.
5. Special libraries: These are libraries that provide specialise library information
services and are established to aid research and development in specific areas of needs
usually in government establishments agencies or corporate organisation. Special
libraries may or may not be accessible to outsiders. Examples of special libraries are:
International Institute for tropical agriculture (IITA) Library, Ibadan, Central Bank of
Nigeria (CBN) Library, Lagos, Nigerian Law School Library, Lagos

6. Private/Personal Libraries: These are libraries owned by individual/families to

support their information needs. Hence the collection of private library depend on the
interest of its owner. Examples of private libraries in Nigeria are Henry Carl Library,
Ibadan, Olusegun Obasanjo Presidential Library (OOPL) Abeokuta, Herbert
Macaulay library, Nnamdi Azikwe Library etc.
What is information?

Information is knowledge that one derives from fact placed in the right context with the
purpose of reducing uncertainty.

Information is the product of data processing. information is interrelated data .information is

equivalent to finished goods produced after processing the raw materials.

Seven characteristics of information

-accuracy and precision

Legitimacy and validity

Reliability and consistency

Timeliness and relevance

Completeness and comprehensiveness

Availability and accessibility

Granularity and uniqueness

Explanationer

Accuracy is freedom from mistake or error .correctness. accuracy means conformity to truth
or to a standard or model /exactness impossible to determine with accuracy

Precision-exactness ,the quality ,condition ,or fact of being exact and accurate. precision
can be seen as a measure of quality ,and recall as a measure of quantity.

Legitimacy-conformity to the law or to rules/ability to be defended with logic or justification

,validity.
Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to measure e.g .for a
test to be reliable ,it also needs to be valid.

Reliability is the quality of being trustworthy or of performing consistently well

Consistency –consistent behavior or treatment ,regularity, uniformity, unity ,orderliness

,lack of change ,lack of deviation.

Timeliness -the fact or quality of being done or occurring at a favourable or useful time.

Timeliness refers to the time expectation for accessibility and availability of information.

Relevance;the quality or state of being closely connected or appropriate.

Completeness :the state or condition of having all the necessary or appropriate parts,/having
everything that is needed.

Comprehensiveness :the state or condition of including all or nearly all elements or aspects
of something

So large in scope or content as to include much.

Availability :the quality of being able to be used or obtained/the quality or state of being able
to be reached or entered/ease of access ,availability ,nearness.

Granularity ;is a measure of the noise content of an image /refers to the extent to which a
material or system is composed of distinguishable pieces.

Uniqueness; the quality of being the only one of its kind /the ability to celebrate the
uniqueness of each individual.

Information sources:

Books

Encyclopeadias

Magazines

Databases

Newspapers

Library catalogue

Internet

Information can come from virtually anywhere

Social media

Blogs

Personal experiences

Books

Journal& magazines articles

Experts opinions

Newspapers and websites.

Primary sources are immediate ,first hand accounts of a topic from people who had a direct
connection with it.

Primary sources can include texts of laws and other original documents .Newspaper reports
,by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did.

Secondary source were created by someone who did not experience first hand or participate
in the events or conditions you are researching .Secondary sources are generally schlorarly
books and articles.A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources

Tertiary source :A tertiary source is an index or textual consolidation of primary and

Secondary sources .Some tertiary sources can be used as an aid to find other sources

Importance of information source:clearly,users consider the internet to be their key source for
the broad range of information needs.

The internets has surpassed all other major information sources.lnternet is a vital information
source.

Television remains the most important source of entertainment,followed by books

(50%,radio 48.9%,magazines 26.5%,the internet 25% and newspapers 22.8%

Uses of information:people use information to seek meaning in a variety of situations

.sometimes they use meaning in a variety of situations,sometimes they use information
instrumentally,to do something tangible e.g to acquire a skill or reach a goal )other times
information is used cognitively e.g to generate ideas. An organization uses information
strategically in three areas:

-to make sense of change in its environment,

-to create new knowledge for innovation

-and to make decisions about courses of action.

Formats of information (print ,audio –visual ,electronics etc

Information format is the type of source you are using but in information terms.

Formats also refers to specific ways information is organized.

Formats types :Books ,Academic journals ,magazines ,newspapers, video and audio
,government documents.

What do we means by information format?

Print format includes books and periodicals.

Digital format includes CDs and DVDs Film format.

Audio-visual –is electronic media processing both a sound and a visual component, such as
slide tape presentations ,films, televisions programs ,corporate ,conferencing, church
services, and live theater productions

Dr Ezeudu
USE OF LIBRARY AND STUDY SKILLS

1 INTRODUCTION TO LIBRARY RESOURCES

Library Resources are the reading materials found in the library and such library
resources can be grouped according to their format or media.

1 Printed Resources or media

2 Non print Resources or media

1 PRINTED MEDIA

The printed media comprises of Books, Pamphlets, Journals, Magazines,

Newspapers, Annual Reports, Theses, government publication, Conference papers,
Manuscripts and maps.

2 NON PRINT MEDIA

These comprises of library resources that are not in printed format. They are also
called Audio—Visual materials because they require the auditory and the visual
appreciation for their use. These media could be classified into three categories;

a Audio

b Visual

c Audio- Visual

AUDIO These are sound recordings produced on magnetic tapes. Example of

such materials is phono discs, audio tapes and audio cassette and audio cds only the
auditory senses are required for their use.

VISUAL Only the visual senses are required for their appreciation .Example of
such resources are microfilm, microfiche, ultra-fiche, film slides, Transparencies
and silent films.

AUDIO-VISUAL These information resources require both visual and auditory

senses for their use. They include sound films, televisions, videotapes, video
cassette, videodiscs and D V DS.
 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS SUBJECT CLASS MARK AND
IDENTIFICATION

The library of congress scheme was designed by the United States of America, this
scheme is widely used by tertiary institution like universities to catalogue and classify
their printed information resources.

The scheme uses both alphabets and numbers simultaneously that is it has an
alphanumeric or mixed notation, The Library of congress uses twenty-one of the
twenty-six letters of the alphabet to denote broad subject areas or classes, Letters (
I,O,W,X and Y) have not been assigned classes yet.

The broad classes in the LC are denoted by single capital letters while the main
subdivision are designated by two capital letters, further subdivisions involve the use
of numbers,

THE BROAD CLASSES OF LIBRARY OF CONGRESS SCHEME

CLASS DISCIPLINE

A General works, Polygraphs

B Philosophy, Psychology and Religion

C History (General Civilization, Genealogy)

D History (General and old world)

E-F American History

G Geography, Anthropology, recreation

H Social sciences

J Political science

K Law

L Education

M Music

N Fine Art

P Language and Literature

Q Science

R Medicine

S Agriculture

T Technology/ Engineering

U Military Science

V Naval Science
 Z Bibliography and Library science.

These broad subjects are subdivided by the use of double alphabet using Q for science as
example

Q science (General)

QA Mathematics

QB Astronomy

QC Physics

QD Chemistry

QE Geology

QH Natural History (General) Biology (General)

QK Botany

QL Zoology

QM Human Anatomy

QP Physiology

QR Microbiology

These classes are further narrowed down to more specific subject classes by the combination
of both the alphabet and numerals as shown below using QA for mathematics as example

QA Mathematics

71-90 Instrument and Machine

75.5-76.95 Computers, Computer science

101-145 Arithmetic

150-272 Algebra

273-280 Probabilities, Mathematical Statistics

299.6-432 Analysis

440-699 Geometry, Trigonometry

801-939 Analytic Mechanics

The further subdivision of QA “150-272” (Algebra) can be further narrowed down as shown

below

QA150 Algebra

QA156 General Work

 QA159 Study and teaching, Research

QA166 Graph Theory

QA205 Theory of equation

QA224 Theory of numbers

QA255 Machine Theory, Abstract machine

QA269 Game theory

QA272 Probabilities.

SHELF LABELLING AND IDENTIFICATION, SHELF ARRANGEMENT.

The shelves are labelled using the LC scheme, the labelling of the shelves are done in such

a way that each of the subject area is labelled according to the assigned class. For example all

printed resources on Technology and Engineering are found on the “T” labelled shelves and

all printed resources on science are found on “Q” labelled shelves and to identify them you

need to read through the front view of the shelves to know the actual discipline you want

information on.

THE LIBRARY CATALOGUE

The library catalogue is a form of bibliographic database that describes information resource

Accessible in a specific library, or in a library network on the Internet, Usually arranged in

Alphabetical order. The library catalogue is a register of all bibliographic items found in the
libraries such as networks of libraries at several locations.

THE USES OF LIBRARY CATALOGUE

1 The library catalogue gives a comprehensive record of information resource owned by

the library

2 The library catalogue fastbacks the easy retrieval of information resources in the library.

The absence of library catalogue in a large library leads to confusion and waste of time.
3 Helps users to identify, select and locate either specific known resources (for example,
works by a known author) or resources that contain information on a specified subject.

KINDS OF LIBRARY CATALOGUE

Library catalogue can be grouped according to PURPOSE and PHYSICAL FORMAT

1 THE PURPOSE group has four main types

A public catalogue

B official catalogue

C union catalogue

D Depository catalogue

2 THE PHYSICAL FORMAT group has the following types of catalogue

A The card catalogue

B The book catalogue

C The computer or Automated or on-line catalogue

D Stripdex, Kalamazoo and kardex catalogue

ARRANGEMENT OF THE CARDS CATALOGUE

Each drawer of the catalogue cabinet has in the front a brief indication of the section of the

alphabet covered in it. The arrangement of the cards varies with the type of catalogue. The

four most popular arrangements are;

1 Author catalogue

2 Title Catalogue

3 Subject catalogue
4 shelf list catalogue

AUTHOR CATALOGUE

Author catalogue is a formal catalogue sorted alphabetically according to the names of the

author, editors, illustrators etc.

The cards are arranged in an alphabetical order inside catalogue cabinet using the author’s

personal surname or corporate names as the main entries.

TITLE CATALOGUE

The title catalogue is a formal catalogue sorted alphabetically according to the article of the

entries,

The entries are filled in the catalogue cabinet using the title as the main heading. It enables

the library patron to find library material when the title is known

SUBJECT CATALOGUE

The subject catalogue is a type of catalogue in which books or other materials are listed only

under the subject treated and are arranged in alphabetically or by classes. This enables library

user to find information resource when the subject is known.

SHELF-LIST CATALOGUE

The cards are arranged in the same sequence as the books are on the shelves and according to

the classification scheme in use.

MANUAL CATALOGUE

This is simply using the manual cataloguing tools in cataloguing our information resources,

inscribing the physical description of a book on “3 by 5” card and filling them in the author,

title, subject or shelf list catalogue cabinets for easy location and retrieval on the shelves.

AUTOMATED OR ON-LINE PUBLIC ACCESS CATALOGUE

The Online Open Access Catalogue (OPAC) is a comprehensive catalogue containing records

of the items in a library (for any institutional organisations)

In automated catalogue entries are in magnetic tapes and disc which are fed into the

computer. The automated catalogue provides the fastest means of retrieving information and

bibliographic data. The entries in the on line public access catalogue can be up-dated easily

and records are reflected in the next print out

DEFINITION OF REFERENCE MATERIALS

Reference materials are those sources that are used to obtain specific answers to a question or

to indicate other sources to use during the research process. Reference material is that record

of knowledge that is consulted for vital information and not meant to be read from cover to

cover as the case with textbooks.

A reference book is usually labelled “NOT TO BE BORROWED” or “REF”. They are

different from other library collection such as books and journals. Reference materials are

specifically for consultation in the library only. They cannot be loaned or borrowed out of the

library.

FEATURES/CHARACTERISTICS OF REFERENCE MATERIALS

1 They are more costly than any other book

2 Limited in number

3 Highly demanded for

4 Located in separate area of the library

5 For consultation of particular information

6 Consulted from time to time

7 Not usually borrowed out of the library.

TYPES OF REFERENCE MATERIALS AND THEIR USES

1 Dictionary The dictionary gives the definition and meaning of words or terms. They are

arranged in alphabetical order. Examples include oxford dictionary, dictionary of mechanical

engineering etc.

2 Biographies This contains the account of a person’s life, written, composed or produced

by another person, the account of series of event making up a person’s life e.g. who is who in

Nigeria, international who is who, African who is who.

3 Encyclopaedia: This reference material provides information and facts on a variety of

topics, they provides background information on any topic as well as current information.

The articles are usually written by experts in the field and the topics are arranged

alphabetically. It could be general e.g. Encyclopaedia Britannica, or specific subject like

Encyclopaedia of the social sciences.

4 Directory: This contains the list of names and addresses of persons, organizations,

institution and business concern in an area, town or country in an alphabetical order

eg.Telephone directory.

5 Handbook: This reference books deals with specific or particular subject. It is very useful

for quick reference of information. Handbook serves as background material to specific

subject area. It is usually a small book giving useful facts or simply put a guide book e.g.

Handbook of engineering, Handbook of thermodynamic.

6 Manual: They provide detailed information on a particular area or subject. E.g.

Engineering and technology manual, use of library manual.

7 Reports: Reports is a formal account of the proceedings or transactions of a group.it is a

written document describing the findings of small individual or group e.g. law reports, case

study, media reports, Bulletin e t c.

7 Almanacs These are regarded as annual publication containing facts , figures and

significant information usually with index to guide the retrieval of such information.
 8 Gazette: These are publication designated to report current event, particularly

government documents and official papers. Whatever is published on gazette becomes

a law. E.g. federal and state government gazette.

9 Maps: These are pictorial representations of geographical areas. Maps is a

representations usually on a plane surface of a region of the earth. It is diagrammatic

representation of the earth surface.

10 Thesis: These are research works carried out solely or jointly by a scholar in partial

fulfilment of an academic degree beyond the bachelor.

11 Dissertation: This is a lengthy, formal treaties, especially one written by a candidate

for the doctoral degree of university.

12 Bibliography: A bibliography is a systematic list of material which gives description

and identification of the edition, date of issue, authority, e t c.

GENERAL REFERENCE MATERIALS

General reference materials contains a broad range of subject areas e g oxford

dictionary,encyclopedia Britannics,world telephone, general handbook, federal gazette,

general bibliography e t c.

SPECIFIC SUBJECT REFERENCE MATERIALS

The specific reference material have content that is focused in one particular area of

study example include dictionary of mechanical engineering, Handbook of mathematics,

Encyclopiea of the social sciences, Engineering and technology manual, local

government gazettes.

Appah H D

GES 107 LECTURE NOTE

Learning is the process of acquiring

new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. It is a
modification of behavior through experience and training. Learning can also be defined as
any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. The ability
to learn is possessed by humans, animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some
kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g.
being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated
experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to
distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved.

Human learning starts at birth, or even before and continues until death as a result of ongoing
interactions between people and their environment.

Learning without reflection is a waste, so also reflection without learning is dangerous.

IMPORTANCE OF LEARNING

 It helps the individual to acquire the necessary skills through learning and knowledge
so that he can achieve his set goals.

 It nourishes our minds and soothes our soul.

 It is a necessity for both personal and professional career as it makes us capable of

understanding and handling things in a better way in life.

 Learning aids in acquiring critical thinking skills and discovering numerous ways in
which we can relate with people from different cultures. It is the only way to deal
with the continuous change in our life so that we can move forward with ease.

 Learning is a continuous process that encourages acquiring competencies, knowledge,

and skills to develop future and new opportunities.

 It encourages the habit of reading, building a network that encourages learning, asking
questions, conducting investigations and research and exploring all other avenues of
learning to make you learn a new thing daily and also make every day a new.

 Curious minds are developed through learning. They do not hesitate to explore
different and challenging horizons. Show your intent, be sincere, ask for clarity,
experiment, keep reflecting, be inquisitive and keep the momentum going always. It is
intellectual growth that helps us to observe the world through bright eyes, evaluate the
things we are seeing, appraise on what we have learned and apply our learning into
everyday life.

 Learning is a sure way to grow your income and status and improve the standard of
life. Learning helps to acquire knowledge and skill that can enhance your potential in
the job market and your standing in the society.
 It helps in finding satisfying jobs, become successful in desired job profiles and
increase earnings. It helps to maintain a positive attitude in life because when your
earnings are as per your desires, it boosts your self confidence, enhances your status
and improves quality of life

Learning expands our knowledge and skills so that we can reach our full potential. It
is a significant influencer and what we learn decides what we will become in life.

 Human behavior and outlook require learning. It gives an individual the opportunity
to engage in new experiences that will lead to new opportunities. Learning is a
fundamental skill that helps to strengthen our inner well-being in life.

 Learning helps in building self-confidence. It leads to progress, exposure and further

connections. The learner is able to meet his emotional and mental needs through the
acquired knowledge.

 Learning makes you happy. Skilled people perform better compared to others and can
sustain their happiness. Several of the skills are interrelated, and one often leads to
achieving others because of relevance. Even one specific skill is enough to boost ones
chances in life and make one happy.

 Learning is important for personal development. It assists in gaining knowledge that

proves beneficial in personal life and leads to contentment and development. A
fulfilling life is no doubt a satisfying one that keeps a person healthy, wealthy, fit and
fine. Whatever the reason, age or status is no bar for learning, and one must start on
the right path of self-development.

Learning is important for professional development. It provides a sure pathway to

make an individual better at whatever he is doing which leads to professional
development. A rewarding day boosts personal satisfaction, gives broader experience
to gain transferrable skills, leads to faster promotion and provides job satisfaction.

 Acquisition of Leadership Qualities. Learning encourages and motivates individuals

to reach out and grasp viable opportunities. It helps to improve communication skills
to boost self-confidence and self-reliance, making hiring and delegating easy. Most
people are followers, and if they find someone strong enough to lead, they follow
unconditionally.

LEVELS OF LEARNING

The Six “Levels” of Learning

 Level 1 – REMEMBER
 Level 2 – UNDERSTAND
 Level 3 – APPLY
 Level 4 – ANALYZE (critical thinking)
 Level 5 – EVALUATE (critical thinking)
 Level 6 – CREATE (critical thinking)
The Six “Levels” of Learning
Learning is a multi-step process of increasing cognitive complexity. This information is
important to know because questions used on national boards generally require higher-level
reasoning. Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain, revised by Anderson and
Krathwohl in 2001, includes six categories, beginning with the simplest level (REMEMBER)
and concluding with the sixth and most complex level (CREATE). As you study for your
boards, stretch your learning to include higher level thinking (i.e., analyzing, evaluating, and
creating). Here’s what you need to know about the six “levels” of learning:
1. Level 1 – REMEMBER. Learners are able to recall a wide range of previously learned
material from specific facts to complete theories. But, this level merely requires bringing to
mind the appropriate information. Sample verbs include: label, list, choose, read, recall,
record, relate, review, select, and write.
2. Level 2 – UNDERSTAND. Learners demonstrate their understanding of material by
explaining ideas or concepts or interpreting and translating what has been learned. Sample
verbs include: define, describe, discuss, explain, interpret, classify, translate etc.
3. Level 3 – APPLY. Learners apply their knowledge by using it in another familiar situation
from the one in which it was learned. The application may include rules, methods, concepts,
principles, laws, and theories. Sample verbs include: adapt, apply, change, compute,
construct, generalize, interpret, illustrate, make, show, solve and so on.
4. Level 4 – ANALYZE (critical thinking). Learners analyze when they break information
into parts to explore understandings and relationships in an attempt to identify evidence for a
conclusion. Sample verbs include: analyze, distinguish, deduce, compare, contrast, infer,
deconstruct, differentiate, calculate etc.
5. Level 5 – EVALUATE (critical thinking). Learners evaluate when they use in-depth
reflection, criticism and assessment to justify a decision or course of action. Sample verbs
include: appraise, argue, assess, choose, compare, conclude, criticize, critique, debate,
determine, differentiate, discriminate, evaluate, infer, judge, justify, measure, recommend,
validate.
6. Level 6 – CREATE (critical thinking). Learners create when they generate new ideas,
products, or ways of viewing things. Sample verbs include: act, assemble, combine, compose,
construct, create, design, develop, formulate, generate, hypothesize, imagine, predict, plan,
prepare, produce etc.
Because questions used on national boards rely on critical thinking, make sure that you
include the full spectrum of learning that includes taxonomy levels 4 through 6. When you
think actively about the material (using critical thinking), you process the ideas more
thoroughly and construct extensive cognitive networks connecting new ideas together and
linking them to what you already know.
Remember that you do not learn much just by reading, memorizing, and recalling material.
You must “activate” your learning by talking about it, writing about it, relating it to past
experiences, applying it to your daily life–in short, making it part of yourself.

The taxonomy – levels of learning are based on the following:

1. Knowledge
2. Understanding
3. Application
4. Analysis
5. Synthesis
6. Evaluation

In terms of learning, Bloom and his colleagues had pretty precise meanings for each of these
areas of the hierarchy:
Knowledge – means just the ability to regurgitate or repeat something. There is no ability at
this level of being able to do anything more complex but to repeat the content from memory.
You are with the knowledge if you can repeat it.
Understanding or comprehension – Comprehension is an internal process. You can’t see it
or test it directly. Rather we tend to make an inference of comprehension based on what the
person does with the knowledge. If they can use it appropriately for the context we make the
assumption they understand it. This is why many universities for example combine
knowledge and understanding. Actually comprehension should be combined with application.
Application- The ability to do something with the knowledge that is appropriate to the
context. Again we tend to make an inference of comprehension based on the appropriate
application of the knowledge.
Analysis- This refers to two things. The analysis of the application, or being able to see if it is
working and work out why or why not.
Secondly analysis refers to the context. Being able to work out if the application of the
knowledge is suitable for this context or if it needs to be changed or altered to fit the context.
This leads on to the penultimate level of learning which is -
Synthesis- The ability to change or transform the knowledge and application to suit the
context or bring in or add new knowledge to create something new.
Evaluation- This refers to the ability to be able to make good judgments using the
knowledge and being able to evaluate the worth of the knowledge in different contexts.
 Each level down is a different order of ability and complexity from the one above. So using
this taxonomy to describe levels of ability, learning or complexity of functioning is both
important and useful.
If our learning does not pass the usability / useful test or evaluation first then we have a
problem.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND LEARNING

The term learning environment can refer to an educational approach, cultural context, or
physical setting in which teaching and learning occurs. The term is commonly used as a more
definitive alternative to "classroom", but it typically refers to the context of educational
philosophy or knowledge experienced by the student and may also encompass a variety of
learning cultures—its presiding ethos and characteristics, how individuals interact, governing
structures, and philosophy. In a societal sense, learning environment may refer to the culture
of the population it serves and of their location. Learning environments are highly diverse in
use, learning styles, organization, and educational institution. The culture and context of a
place or organization includes such factors as a way of thinking, behaving, or working, also
known as organizational culture. For a learning environment such as an educational
institution, it also includes such factors as operational characteristics of the instructors,
instructional group, or institution; the philosophy or knowledge experienced by the student
and may also encompass a variety of learning cultures—its presiding ethos and
characteristics, how individuals interact, governing structures, and philosophy in learning
styles and pedagogies used; and the societal culture of where the learning is occurring.
Although physical environments do not determine educational activities, there is evidence of
a relationship between school settings and the activities that take place there.

The 6 Environmental Factors that Affect the Learning Process

 Family size
 Family culture, traditions
 Socio-economic status
 Occupation/profession
 Parents
 Other factors

Learning as the process of acquiring new knowledge, understanding, skills, attitude, behavior,
and preferences is both an emotional and intellectual process that starts with every individual
immediately after birth, and their behavior keeps changing throughout their life, through
direct or indirect experiences.
This continuous process of learning is often affected by the environment in which it takes
place. One’s individual situation and the environment contain several factors that affect the
learning capacity of a person.

Learning in a healthy environment helps you acquire a deeper understanding and sound
knowledge of the subject matter. So, it is essential to be aware of such environmental factors
that hamper the learning process of an individual, and learn to avoid negative stimulants to
increase one’s performance.

Learning has been made effortless and accessible through distance learning, and this became
the new normal during the global pandemic.

Students can now take their school and university classes from home and access all the
information available on their fingertips.

Online learning has also facilitated professors to provide an adequate education for students
in the most straightforward ways.

Along with the emergence of online learning, the pandemic has also drastically shifted the
education system and learning process.

Although it has numerous benefits, it has caused an imbalance in the education system. Only
students with gadgets and broadband have access to study resources, while those without
devices are struggling to get a proper education.

Some other home environmental factors that affect the learning process directly or indirectly
are:

1) Family size

The children may be in a nuclear or joint family. In a nuclear family, the learner may find
silence with a peaceful learning environment but may not get anyone to assist in their lessons.

However, it may be a bit noisy and messy in a joint family, but the children can find other
individuals, who can help and support their studies and learn better. So, both family sizes has
its pros and cons, affecting the learning process of children accordingly.

2) Family culture, traditions

All families have their own culture and follow their customs differently.

The culture implanted in the children during their growth shapes their perception and
cognitive capacity.

Hence, the learning process is affected by family culture, traditions, religion, and other
similar factors.

3) Socio-economic status

The socio-economic status of a family influences the children’s academic inclusiveness and
performance during their learning.
The social class also affects the parents’ educational expectations towards their children and
their educational participation. The higher the status, the higher are the chances of
educational opportunities being presented to the students and vice versa.

4) Occupation/profession

The parents and other guardians in a family can teach many divergent things to a child since
infancy. As such, the job of parents also affects their personality and thinking.

Parents learn many things related to their occupation and teach their children the same.

5) Parents

Parents are the caregiver of their offspring and play a crucial role in shaping the children’s
personality, cognition, and behavior. They affect the learning process of children directly.

Children inherit parents’ traits and develop other attributes from their parents’ activities as
they grow up.

Parents are the first teachers for their children and that is why their learning is affected by
parents’ behavior, character, cognition level, attitude, and personality.

6) Other factors

Apart from the factors above, some other factors can adversely affect children’s learning.
Factors like the luminosity of light, the intensity of noise, and greenery around the home
influence children’s concentration while learning.

For example, students find it difficult to read and focus on a dim light and high bright light,
so the light needs to be at optimum luminosity.

The surroundings can highly influence young brains, and everything present in the learning
environment has the potential to positively or negatively affect the learner’s competence,
confidence, and understanding.

Misalignment between the resources and needs of learners cannot facilitate the process.
Instead, it de-motivates the person. The surrounding environment and family should support
the learner, as it is essential for a more in-depth focus and insight into the particular subject
matter.

Being aware of the home environment factors that affect learning, parents, and guardians
should provide a conducive learning environment to the learner for best learning practice.

LIBRARY COMPORTMENT AND CRIMES

Library is an indispensable institution where valuable and relevant educational materials,

both print and electronic, are stored for human consumption, while Comportment is a
dignified manner or conduct. It is a manner of behaving and a sound state of mind. Library
comportment therefore is the manner and conduct expected in the library by both staff and
patrons.
Crimes on the other hand are defined by criminal law, which refers to a body of federal and
state rules that prohibit behavior the government deems harmful to society. If one engages in
such behavior, they may be guilty of a crime. It can also be seen as an act or omission to act
which flouts the core values, rules and regulations guiding a particular establishment. By
implication, library crime can be described as a process of using unauthorized method(s) to
gain access to library materials, and this includes forging of Library Identification Particulars,
mutilation, pilfering, theft or stealing, fraud, and the like. Noteworthy here is that library
crime in Nigerian academic library is on the increase with deleterious effects. Despite the
public outcry and existing draconian measures to control all forms of crime, there are still
increasing violation of this act in academic libraries by its patrons which include students,
staff and other academic community members.

Library policies and code of conducts includes: There are policies and code of conducts
that must be strictly adhered to in the library for example; lost and found items, interlibrary
loan, masks and social distancing, dress code, photocopying, reserving of spaces, code of
conducts, penalty on lost library materials, overdue notices/penalty, renewal of materials,
borrowing, damage to library materials, food and drinks etc
In the past few decades, libraries have ceased to be places of quiet reading, study and
reflection. Today they face many of the same issues and problems as do other social
institutions. Crime and other incivilities have found their way into the library. Theft of library
materials, vandalism, assaults, inappropriate use of library computers (resources) use of the
library as refuges by the homeless, street people, and the mentally ill, and other problems of
crime and incivilities. These call for development of strategies like the application of
situational crime prevention to deal with these issues.

Crime in and against libraries is becoming a serious problem. Despite these developments,
crime in libraries has been ignored by most social scientists studying crime. The impact of
crime appears to affect not only the institution but the staff and library users as well. Damage
to buildings, materials, and equipment is common in some libraries. Vandalism against staff
and library users, automobiles and assaults against persons in the libraries is a serious
problem.

Users in university libraries in Nigeria and other developing countries, imbibe various
methods of stealing books, like: throwing book down through the library windows that have
no barrier to hinder book passage through them, borrowing one book legally and using its
date due slip to the library, and female students getting ‘pregnant’ with stolen books. It was
revealed that the most common method of library crime was the hiding of stolen items under
clothing such as suits, laboratory coat and free flowing or loose dresses. Another method
adopted by students and other library users in committing various kinds of crime in libraries
is coming into the library at odd times, or peak period during the closing time in a particular
school library with the intent to steal. Some students, very often than not, capitalised on
confusion resulting from rush around and last-minute rush to outwit library porters and
unlawfully remove books belonging to the school.

Book theft, pilfering, mutilation or whatever name and dimension library crime has assumed,
has negative effects on the academic performance and capabilities of student. Most mutilated
or stolen books cannot be replaced easily because most of them are foreign publications
which are difficult to obtain locally, except where the library is fortunate to have those books
among the ones donated by the International Agencies like the British Council and the United
States Information Service. The social implication of library crime in all indications is
devastating, and has certainly affected every user of library materials. The social impact and
dynamics, that crime have on the services and its users has gained wide currency in library
studies, but has seemingly, if any, received little attention in sociology.

Library crime comes in different forms, such as throwing stolen books down through the
window; hiding them in the clothes, particularly inside the suit and flowing garments;
conniving with the library staff; and altering library slip and identification materials in order
to steal books. All these crimes have deleterious effects on individual students, library staff,
academic community and society in its entirety. Specifically, book theft, pilfering and
mutilation have negative implications on the academic performance and capabilities of
students as they cannot access these material as and when due.

There are measures available that are even already put in place in some libraries in Nigeria ,
which are by no means exhaustive, that includes: the furnishing of libraries with sufficient
volumes of expensive, knowledge-enhancing and sought-after materials for students to access
at all times by the government alongside the school authorities, discouraging the wearing of
free-flowing garments by both male and female patrons into the library , Conscientious
efforts are made to decongest the library any time the patrons are of uncontrollable and
unmanageable size, Electronic security system like Close Circuit Television (CCTV) are
installed in academic libraries. (CCTV is a specially designed crime detection gadget that
monitors the activities and movements of people within its scope). These will enable easy
prediction, prevention and control of library crimes.

STUDY TIPS & STUDY SKILLS

Students with better study methods and strategies score higher on their exams.
Everyone is different. Different methods work for different people; the following are only
suggestions on improving upon your current studying techniques.
1. It is best to review the material right after class when it's still fresh in your memory.
2. Don't try to do all your studying the night before the test. Instead space out your
studying, review class materials at least several times a week, focusing on one topic at
a time.
3. Have all of your study material in front of you: lecture notes, course textbooks, study
guides and any other relevant material.
4. Find a comfortable and quiet place to study with good lighting and little distractions
(try avoiding your own bed; it is very tempting to just lie down and take a nap).
5. Start out by studying the most important information.
6. Learn the general concepts first, don't worry about learning the details until you have
learned the main ideas.
7. Take notes and write down a summary of the important ideas as you read through
your study material.
8. Take short breaks frequently. Your memory retains the information that you study at
the beginning and the end better than what you study in the middle.
9. Space out your studying, you'll learn more by studying a little every day instead of
waiting to cram at the last minute. By studying every day, the material will stay in
your long-term memory but if you try to study at the last moment, the material will
only reside in your short-term memory that you'll easily forget.
10. Make sure that you understand the material well, don't just read through the material
and try to memorize everything.
11. If you choose to study in a group, only study with others who are serious about the
test.
 12. Test yourself or have someone test you on the material to find out what your weak
and strong areas are. You can use the review questions at the end of each chapter,
practice tests that the teacher may give out or other pertinent materials.
13. Listening to relaxing music such as classical or jazz on a low volume can relieve
some of the boredom of studying.
14. Don't study later than the time you usually go to sleep, you may fall asleep or be
tempted to go to sleep, instead try studying in the afternoon or early evening. If you
are a morning person try studying in the morning.

HOW TO STUDY
Knowing how to study is crucial for maximizing test performance. While differences in
material may require slight changes of strategy, a similar process can be applied to virtually
any subject. Here is how to get the most out of your study time.
1. READ THE MATERIAL ONCE: The first time you read through the material,
whether it is a chapter or an entire book, you should avoid spending time re-reading
sections or memorizing terms or concepts along the way. Instead, this step will
familiarize you with the material and create a framework upon which you can build
your knowledge until test time.

2. RE-READ AND TAKE NOTES: After you have read through the material once,
you should go back and read the material again. This step might appear redundant at
first glance, but you will more easily assimilate information and connect concepts this
time because you have already formed a rough picture of the material in your mind.
Reading complex sections aloud can enhance your absorption of the information by
involving more areas of your brain. To stay engaged and increase your retention of
the material, make notes of key points and diagrams along the way. You should also
ask yourself questions about the material and write them down to explore later.

3. TEST YOURSELF FOR THE FIRST TIME: It is time to assess your progress.
If you are using a textbook, you are likely to find in-book reviews, chapter tests and
cumulative reviews. These can be ideal for checking your knowledge of the material
and identifying areas that need improvement. After you write down the sections of the
material that correspond to the questions you answered incorrectly, focus on those
sections as you prepare to test yourself again.

4. MAKE STUDY AIDS: The study aids you make can vary according to the type of
material involved and the type of test you expect. For multiple choice tests, consider
making flashcards with index cards. Write down questions and multiple answer
choices on the front of the cards and the correct answers on the other side.
Alternately, you can write phrases with blanks where words should be inserted and
write the answers on the back. Flashcards are also excellent for memorizing math
rules and formulas.

If you expect essay questions, you should practice tying related information together.
One way to solidify your comprehension of the material is to write out concepts in
your own words. In many cases, textbooks list questions at page margins or section
endings that you can practice answering. Again, explaining concepts aloud uses some
different parts of the brain compared to writing those concepts on paper, and you may
find that your mastery of the material will increase if you practice both.

5. TEST YOURSELF AGAIN: This is your final pretest before the actual exam.
After focusing on areas that were problematic for you during the first pretest, you
should be able to answer questions on those topics successfully this time. For this
second test, include more questions covering those areas as well as new versions of
questions regarding the rest of the material.
 6. REVIEW YOUR TEXT AND NOTES BEFORE THE TEST
As you prepare to sit for the exam, read through the text and your notes a final time.
By this point, you should feel comfortable with the material and should only be
cementing concepts that are already in your mental framework rather than learning
anything for the first time. You have over learned the material and tested yourself
repeatedly, and the actual exam will simply give you the opportunity to prove your
mastery to yourself and the instructor.

7. USE YOUR TIME WISELY: The time you have until your exam must be
considered as you prepare for it. The longer you have to study and the more space
between your own pretests, the better you will retain the material. Cramming just
before the exam is unlikely to produce optimal results. Furthermore, you will be less
likely to recall the information later if you learn it over a short period of time.

8. TAKE BREAKS REGULARLY: Just like a muscle, the brain benefits from rest.
This means that, if time allows, you should take breaks regularly during extended
study sessions. Physical exercise, even a short walk, has also been shown to improve
long-term retention of information that has just been learned. Naps can also be a
powerful way to recharge your brain.

9. USE THE RIGHT STUDY APPROACH

Besides boosting your ability to retain and recall the material you are learning, the
right study approach can help you stay confident during your test. This confidence can
help you keep a clear head as you work through the questions. Once you have
practiced this strategy repeatedly, you are likely to find that your performance
improves not only in school but in virtually any setting where extensive learning is
necessary.

10. USE THE SQ3R STRATEGY FOR READING (EG.TEXTBOOKS): The

following SQ3R formula, adapted from FP Robinson's Effective Study will help
improve your understanding, recall and retention of textbook material:
S = Survey the pages you plan to read.
Q = Question what you intend to take from your study session.
R3 = Read, Recall, and Review.

SURVEY
 Before reading your text, get a general idea of the main themes, topics and
concepts by skimming through the text or chapters.
 Identify and read the chapter headings, subheadings or introductions.
 Notice any graphics, such as charts, maps or other diagrams.
 Read the chapter summaries and conclusions.
 Try to develop an idea of what the author is going to say and communicate.
 Surveying the text provides your reading with focus and direction.
 Helps you develop an idea of what you'll be reading. And it also allows you to
anticipate the text.

QUESTIONS
 As you survey the text, turn chapter headings and subheadings into questions.
For example, the heading "Causes of World War II" changes to "What are the
primary factors that led to World War II?"
 Turning chapter headings and subheadings into questions provides direction
for your reading and keeps you engaged. When your mind is actively
searching for answers as you read, you stay engaged.
 Write out the questions you develop from chapter headings.
 Examine the questions to find the direction of the text.
 Try to develop plausible answers to these questions before reading.
  Attempt to answer these questions as you read.

R3
READ
 Now that you have surveyed the text and developed a set of questions, read the
text paying close attention to the direction of the text keeping in mind the
information you already know and that you want to discover.
 As you read you may find the need to develop additional questions.
 Read for meaning and understanding.
 Seek to answer the set up questions you developed in the previous step.
 Take notes in the margins or on a separate piece of paper.
 Take breaks if necessary.

RECALL
 Recall is one of the most important steps for comprehending, mastering
and retaining information from textbooks.
 More time should be spent on recall than reading itself. Without referring
to your notes or your textbook, immediately after completing each section
of reading, develop in your own words a summary of what you read,
highlighting the most important topics, concepts and themes. Recite your
summary to yourself or someone else.
 Recall enables you to:
 Make sure you understood what you read
 Transforms information you retained from reading into a useable form.
 Find out what you didn't understand.
 Forces you to think about what you read.

REVIEW
 Now go back over the question you developed using chapter headings and
subheadings.
 Can you develop a compelling answer to each without relying on the text
or your notes?
 If not, look back over your notes, the answer you wrote down and the
annotation you put in
your textbook.

COPYRIGHT

What is a Copyright?
The exclusive right to make copies, license, and otherwise exploit a literary, musical, or
artistic work, whether printed, audio, video, etc.: works granted such right by law on or after
January 1, 1978, are protected for the lifetime of the author or creator and for a period of 70
years after his or her death.
Copyright refers to the legal right of the owner of intellectual property. In simpler terms,
copyright is the right to copy. This means that the original creators of products and anyone
they give authorization to are the only ones with the exclusive right to reproduce the work.

Copyright law gives creators of original material the exclusive right to further use and
duplicate that material for a given amount of time, at which point the copyrighted item
becomes public domain.
Key Points:

 Copyright law protects creators of original material from unauthorized duplication or

use.
 For an original work to be protected by copyright laws, it has to be in tangible form.
 In the U.S., the work of creators is protected by copyright laws until 70 years after
their death.

How Copyrighting Works

When someone creates a product that is viewed as original and that required significant
mental activity to create, this product becomes an intellectual property that must be
protected from unauthorized duplication. Examples of unique creations include computer
software, art, poetry, graphic designs, musical lyrics and compositions, novels, film, original
architectural designs, website content, etc. One safeguard that can be used to legally protect
an original creation is copyright.

Under copyright law, a work is considered original if the author created it from independent
thinking void of duplication. This type of work is known as an Original Work of Authorship
(OWA). Anyone with an original work of authorship automatically has the copyright to that
work, preventing anyone else from using or replicating it. The copyright can be registered
voluntarily by the original owner if they would like to get an upper hand in the legal system
in the event that the need arises.

Not all types of work can be copyrighted. A copyright does not protect ideas, discoveries,
concepts, or theories. Brand names, logos, slogans, domain names, and titles also cannot be
protected under copyright law. For an original work to be copyrighted, it has to be in
tangible form. This means that any speech, discoveries, musical scores, or ideas have to be
written down in physical form in order to be protected by copyright.

In the U.S., original owners are protected by copyright laws all of their lives until 70 years
after their death. If the original author of the copyrighted material is a corporation, the
copyright protection period will be shorter.

U.S. copyright law has experienced a number of amendments and changes that have altered
the duration of copyright protection. The "life of the author plus 70 years" protection can be
attributed to the 1998 Copyright Term Extension Act, (also known as the Mickey Mouse
Protection Act or Sonny Bono Act), which generally increased copyright protections by 20
years.

Copyright protection varies from country to country, and can stand for 50 to 100 years after
the individual’s death, depending on the country.

Fundamentally, copyright is a law that gives you ownership over the things you create. Be it a
painting, a photograph, a poem or a novel, if you created it, you own it and it’s the copyright
law itself that assures that ownership. The ownership that copyright law grants comes with
several rights that you, as the owner, have exclusively. Those rights include:
 The right to reproduce the work;
 to prepare derivative works
 to distribute copies
 to perform the work
 and to display the work publicly
These are your rights and your rights alone. Unless you willingly give them up: A Creative
Commons License, no one can violate them legally. This means that, unless you say
otherwise, no one can perform a piece written by you or make copies of it, even with
attribution, unless you give the OK.

Inversely, if you are looking for material to use or reuse, you should not do any of these
things without either asking permission or confirming that the work is in the public domain,
which means that the copyright has expired and all of the above rights have been forfeited.
Simply put, if the work is not in the public domain and you do not have permission to use a
piece, you put yourself in risk of legal action, regardless of your intentions.

Because, beyond fair use and parody, issues for later essays-, the holder of a copyrighted
piece has near carte blanche to do what they want with their work. It’s no different than
owning a car, a house or a pen. One can lend it out to a friend, sell it, modify it or even
destroy it. In short, if you own the copyright to something, you have the same rights that you
do with anything else and, in some instances, even more. After all, you did create it. It only
makes sense that you would own the fruits of your labor.

Moral Rights
Moral rights are a set of rights that are separate from the author’s copyright on a piece. These
rights are generally considered inalienable, which means that they cannot be given away or
sold, and thus persist even if the copyright to a work is completely sold. As defined by the
Berne Convention, the moral rights of an author are as follows:
1. The right to claim authorship of the work
2. The right to object to any distortion, mutilation or modification of the work
3. The right to object to any derogatory action that may damage the authors honor or
reputation
It is easy to see how moral rights can be useful in fighting plagiarism since such an act is not
only a violation of the author’s copyright, if he or she holds it, but also the moral rights. It
may also be useful in cases where the copyright of a work has been lost, either sold or given
away, but plagiarism continues.

Works Unprotected by Copyright Law

 Unfixed. Works that have not been fixed in a tangible form of expression are not protected
under the Copyright Act, since fixation is one of the prerequisites for copyright protection
 Titles, names, short phrases, slogans. Titles, names, short phrases, and slogans are not
protected by copyright law
 Ideas

REFERENCING YOUR SOURCES - A SIMPLE INTRODUCTION

In higher education whenever you include a fact or piece of information in an assignment or
essay you must also include where and how you found that piece of information. Even if you
'just know it, it has to have come from somewhere. This is because in higher education
assignment writing you are not just being tested on what you know, but rather what you are
able to find out and what you think it means.

Details about where you found the information utilized to write your assignment are kept in
two chapter’s right at the very end, called the reference list and bibliography. The reference
list is where you list the direct quotes or paraphrased findings of another author. The
bibliography is where you list sources you've read for background information, but did not
directly include in your work. In addition, a small mention to the author and year of
publication, within brackets, must be given in the main body of your assignment wherever
you make a reference.
Referencing Styles
To make the reference list and bibliography consistent and easy to read across different
papers there are predefined styles stating how to set them out - these are called citation styles.
Different subjects prefer to each use different styles. The following are the most popular:
 APA. APA is an author/date based style. This means emphasis is placed on the author
and the date of a piece of work to uniquely identify it.
 MLA. MLA is most often applied by the arts and humanities, particularly in the USA.
It is arguably the most well used of all of the citation styles.
 Harvard. Harvard is very similar to APA. Where APA is primarily used in the USA,
Harvard referencing is the most well used referencing style in the UK and Australia,
and is encouraged for use with the humanities.
 Vancouver. The Vancouver system is mainly used in medical and scientific papers.
 Chicago and Turabian. These are two separate styles but are very similar, just like
Harvard and APA. These are widely used for history and economics.
Regardless of what subject you are writing for, you should use the style your university and
lecturer recommend and you must not mix-and-match.

Plagiarism: The process or practice of using another person’s ideas or work and pretending
that it is your own
If you quote or paraphrase another author's work without including a reference to it, you are
plagiarising. Not only is it very easy to detect plagiarism using online services like Turn It
In, but it is also very easy for your lecturer to spot it just by reading your work. Remember,
you are not being marked on your ability to write facts or show off what you know. Any
assumptions or facts you state must have someone else's credible work to back you up.
Plagiarism does not only mean cheating, it is mainly used to describe forgetting or not
realising to include a reference to other's work or theories.

Fair Use: Fair use is a doctrine in law that permits limited use of copyrighted material
without having to first acquire permission from the copyright holder.
Fair use is a legal doctrine that says you can reuse copyright-protected material under certain
circumstances without getting the copyright owner's permission.

The rights of individuals and society to the intellectual property of a creator is addressed
through attempt to balance absolute ownership with the concept of limited right of use. There
are limits on the amount one may copy from a single book. One may not photocopy an entire
book or journal, but one chapter or an article is probably acceptable

WHAT IS A CITATION?
A citation is a way of giving credit to individuals for their creative and intellectual works that
you utilized to support your research. It can also be used to locate particular sources and
combat plagiarism. Typically, a citation can include the author's name, date, location of the
publishing company, journal title etc.

Citation Style
A citation style dictates the information necessary for a citation and how the information is
ordered, as well as punctuation and other formatting.
Citation style can also be seen as a standard approach for documenting sources quoted,
consulted or summarized in a research paper. Proper use of citation styles helps you construct
effective papers, share knowledge efficiently with others and avoid plagiarism. For most
styles, the sources are cited in 2 ways (1) within the work/paper, immediately after using a
source; include a parenthetical citation, footnote or endnote
(2)At the end of the work, assemble a complete list of all the sources known as a
bibliography or Reference List

How do I choose a citation style?

There are many different ways of citing resources from your research. The citation style
sometimes depends on the academic discipline involved. For example:
 APA (American Psychological Association) is used by Education,
Psychology and Sciences
 MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used by the Humanities
 Chicago/Turabian style is generally used by Business, History, and the Fine Arts
*You will need to consult with your professor to determine what is required in your specific
course.

Example of citation using APA style. If the quotation is more than 40 words, you indent,
but if it is less, use inverted comas open and close and the page number.

For in text citation, if more than one author put all the authors name for the first time, using
ampersand (&) to separate one from another but subsequently, only the first author’s name
should be cited

Examples of Referencing for Book

Appah, Helen D. (2021). Use of Library

Lagos: Academic Publishing House, 2021

For Journal

Appah, Helen D. (2021). Study Skills and Tips.

Nigeria Library Journal, 1(2), 20-36.

REFERENCES

1. Association of Colleges and Research Libraries (2006a) Guidelines Regarding Theft

in Libraries. Chicago: American Library Association.

2. Association of Colleges and Research Libraries (2006b) Guidelines for the Security of
Rare Books, Manuscripts, and other Special Collections. Chicago: American Library
Association.
3. Bingham, K.H. (1989) Building Security and Personal Safety. Washington, DC:
Association of Research Libraries.

4. Brantingham, P.J. and Brantingham, P.L (1993) Nodes, Paths, and Edges:
Considerations of the Complexity of Crime and the Physical Environment.
Environmental Psychology. Vol. 13, No. 3, pp 3–28.

5. Clarke, R.V. (1980) Situational Crime Prevention: Theory and Practice. British
Journal of Criminology. Vol. 20, No. 1, pp 136–147.

6. Clarke, R.V. (1997) Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies. (2nd ed.)

7. Clarke, R.V. and Eck, J. (2003) Becoming a Problem Solving Crime Analyst in 55
Small Steps. London: Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science.
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Decisions: A Reply to Wortley's Critique of Situational Crime Prevention In Smith,
M., Clarke, R.V. and Cornish, D. (eds) Theory and Practice of Situational Crime
Prevention. Vol. 16, Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.

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Belmont, CA; Wadsworth.

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Environment/June Lester, Wallace C. Koehler, Jr. 2nd ed. 2007

Adeyemi Johnson A
 Information Literacy

What is information literacy?

Information Literacy is a combination of two words; Information and Literacy.

Traditionally, literacy simply means the fundamental ability to read, write and calculate while
Information is used interchangeably as news, facts, data and knowledge.

Information is a data presented in readily comprehensible form to which meaning has been
attributed within a context for its use (Reitz, J.M, 2004)

Information is data that have been organized and communicated (Porat, 1977)

A record of resolved uncertainty (Derr, 1985)

Information denotes any stimulus that alters cognitive structure in the receiver (William
Paisley, 1992)

Bruce (1997) has defined several concepts influencing and coexisting with information
literacy.

1. Computer literacy

2. IT literacy

3. Library skills

4. Information skills

5. Leaning to learn

Information literacy is quite different to the above. It is a combination of all these concepts
but goes beyond them

Shapiro and Hughes (1996) define IL as ‘A new liberal art that extends from knowing how to
use computers and access information to critical reflection on the nature of information itself,
its technical infrastructure and its social, cultural and philosophical context and impact

According to the American Library Association, information literacy is the ability to

"recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use
effectively the needed information" (ACRL, 2000, p. 1).

According to the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), information

literacy is a set of abilities requiring individuals to "recognize when information is needed
and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information" (ACRL,
2000).
“Information Literacy encompasses knowledge of one’s information concerns and needs, and
the ability to identify, locate, evaluate, organize and effectively create, use and communicate
information to address issues or problems at hand; it is a prerequisite for participating in the
Information Society, and is part of the basic human right of lifelong learning.” - UNESCO
(US National Commission on Library and Information Science, 2003)

Dictionary for Library and Information Science define IL as skills that is requires in finding
the information one needs, including an understanding of how libraries are organized,
familiarity with the resources they provide. The concept also includes the skills required to
critically evaluate information content and employ it effectively, as well as an understanding
of the technological infrastructure on which information transmission is based, including its
social, political and cultural context and impact.

Information Literacy is the ability to identify what information is needed, understand how the
information is organized, identify the best sources of information for a given need, locate
those sources, evaluate the sources critically, and share that information. It is the knowledge
of commonly used research techniques

Information Literacy is the set of skills needed to find, retrieve, analyze, and use information.

Information Literacy is an intellectual framework for identifying, finding, understanding,

evaluating and using information

Bundy, (2004) defines the relationship between information literacy and lifelong learning as
follows. "Hence information literacy is the foundation for the independent learning and
lifelong learning."

History of IL

The phrase IL first appeared in print in 1974 report by Paul G. Zurkowski written on behalf
of the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science. He used the phrase IL to
describe the techniques and skill known by the information literate for utilizing the wide
range of information tools as well as primary sources in molding information solutions to
their problems.

Why is Information literacy so important?

At the start of the millennium, the world has become smaller and well-connected because of
the wide spread of the Internet. With the power of the Internet, most information is readily
available at one’s fingertips. However reliable and useful information may not be freely
available on the Internet. Most information seekers cannot differentiate between credible
sources and junk sources. Finding, evaluating, and using information efficiently are among
the most significant challenges to all students.
The twenty-first century has been named the information era, owing to the explosion of
information and the information sources. One cannot achieve the study target without
practicing special information literacy skills. In other words information literacy skills
empower the people with the critical skills which will help them to become independent life
long learners

Due to information explosion it has become increasingly clear that students cannot learn
everything they need to know in their field of study, within a few years, at school or the
university. Information literacy equips them with the critical skills necessary to become
independent lifelong learners.

Students need to be adaptable, flexible, and effective workers. Information literacy skills
acquired in college improve a student’s success and lead to lifelong learning ability that can
adapt easily to a constantly changing work environment.

Information literacy is important owing to the amount of information that is available in

contemporary society. Simply being exposed to a great deal of information will not make
people informed citizens; they need to learn how to use this information effectively, ACRL
(2000).

Information literacy is considered as the solution for the data smog. Due to the information
explosion and data smog all students and the society face many difficulties to locate,
evaluate, use, and communicate information. Due to the expansion of internet services we
receive a lot of information that is not evaluated, unlike the printed sources. Hence the
authenticity, validity, and reliability of this information is in doubt.

Data Smog refers to the idea that too much information can create a barrier in our lives.
Especially students and the society require a special skill to handle this fast increasing
information, in order to use their educational and economical purposes more effectively..
Information literacy allows us to cope with the data smog, by equipping us with the necessary
skills to recognize when we need information, where to locate it, and how to use it effectively
and efficiently. Consequently it will help decision making and productivity which is
beneficial to the society. Student centered, inquiry based, problem solving, and critical
thinking proactive learning environment with the help of information literacy skills, will
develop deep learners in the society.

Furthermore, information skills are vital to the success in education, occupation, and day to
day communication of all citizens. In the twenty first century, lifelong learning has become
one of the main themes in the higher education sector. Therefore the students need to be
educated with regard to the abilities and skills of how to learn, or learning to learn, by
developing the aspects of reasoning and critical thinking. Information literacy skills will help
students to achieve this target in a broader sense, in student centered learning.

Basically, everybody in the society is in need of information literacy skills. Information

literate individuals improve the society's quality of life in general and academically.
Information literacy helps us in our day to day life such as buying a house, choosing a school,
making an investment, voting for the election, and many more. Information literacy skills are
of prime importance in order to achieve every body's academic goals. Truly information
literacy is the foundation of the democratic society. A society that is capable to access,
evaluate, use and communicate information in an effective and efficient manner is called an
information literate society.

Information literacy is critically important because we are surrounded by a growing ocean of

information in all formats. Not all information is created equal: some is authoritative, current,
reliable, but some is biased, out of date, misleading, false. The amount of information
available is going to keep increasing. The types of technology used to access, manipulate, and
create information will likewise expand.

Information literacy skills are used for academic purposes, such as research papers and group
presentations. They're used on the job—the ability to find, evaluate, use and share
information is an essential skill. Consumer decisions, such as which car or vacuum cleaner to
purchase, are critical. You'll also use these skills by participating fully in a democratic society
as an informed citizen by understanding issues and voting.

IL is applicable to all disciplines, learning environments and levels of education. Within the
context each discipline, information literacy programme requires an individual to be able to
define problem, initiate a plan to find information, locate and access resources, use the
information, synthesise information and carry out some forms of evaluation. This is summed
up in the acronym TILUSE meaning;

T: Task definition

I: Information seeking strategies

L: Location and access

U: Use of information

S: Synthesis

E: Evaluation

These are the steps for solving information problem.

Who is an Information Literate?

In 1974, Paul Zurkowski used the term Information Literacy in a report to the National
Commission on Libraries and Information Science (NCLIS). He defined Information
Literates as “People trained in the application of information resources to their work” and
observed that they have learned techniques and skills for using the wide range of information
tools as well as primary sources in molding information solutions to their problems.”

To be information literate, a person must be able to recognize when information is needed

and have the ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively the needed information.

As the American Library Association Presidential Committee on Information Literacy (1989)

explains. "Ultimately, information literate people are those who have learned how to learn.
They know how to learn because they know how knowledge is organized, how to find
information, and how to use information in such a way that others can learn from them. They
are people prepared for lifelong learning, because they can always find the information
needed for any task or decision at hand." It further states that “to be information literate, a
person must be able to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate,
evaluate, and use effectively the needed information”. These abilities are essential
characteristics for lifelong learning because information literate people can always find the
information needed for any task or decision that they face in life. According to Association of
College and Research Libraries ACRL (2006), Information Literacy is the set of abilities
requiring individuals to “recognize when information is needed and the ability to locate,
evaluate, and use effectively the needed information.”

According to Californian University Information literacy fact sheet, (2000); an information

literate individual is able to: Determine the extent of information needed Access the needed
information effectively and efficiently. Evaluate information and its sources critically
Incorporate selected information into one's knowledge base Use information effectively to
accomplish a specific purpose Understand the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding
the use of information, and access and use information ethically and legally

An information literate individual is able to:

 Determine the extent of information needed

Access the needed information effectively and efficiently

 Evaluate information and its sources critically

  Incorporate selected information into one’s knowledge base

 Use information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose

 Understand the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of information,
and access and use

 information ethically and legally..

Information Evaluation

What to Evaluate

Evaluating Objectivity

ISSUE

Does the author state the goals for this publication?

(i.e. to inform, explain, educate, advocate, persuade or dissuade, sell a product or

service, or serve as a soapbox?

STRATEGIES

Read the foreword, preface, abstract and/or introduction

ISSUE

Does the author exhibit a particular bias?

(i.e. commitment to a point of view, acknowledgement of bias, presentation of facts and

arguments for only one side of a controversial issue, language full of emotion-arousing
words and bias?)

STRATEGIES

 Read the abstract and/or introduction

 Examine the work for
o Inflammatory language
o Images or graphic styles (e.g., text in color or boldface type) to persuade you of the
author's point of view
 o Propaganda
o Author's arguments or supporting facts
o Author's conclusions
o Bibliography that includes multiple points of view

ISSUE

Does the information appear to be valid and well-researched?

(i.e. reasonable assumptions and conclusions, arguments and conclusions supported by

evidence , opposing points of view addressed, opinions not disguised as facts, cited
sources authoritative?) (i.e. to inform, explain, educate,

STRATEGIES

 Verify facts and statistics with a reliable source

 Examine cited sources for authority and objectivity

Evaluating Quality

ISSUE

Is the information well-organized?

(i.e. logical structure, main points clearly presented, main ideas unified by overarching idea,
text flowing well (not choppy or stilted), argument not repetitive )

STRATEGIES

 Look at the section headings to indicate structure

 Look for agreement among reviews
o Magazines for Libraries
o Book reviews

ISSUE

Has the author used good grammar and kept the text free of spelling or typographical
errors?

STRATEGIES

Read carefully for errors

ISSUE
Are graphics – images, tables, charts, diagrams – appropriate and clearly presented?

(i.e. clearly labelled, with descriptive title(s), understandable without explanatory text )

STRATEGIES

Consider other ways to present the information

ISSUE

Is the information complete and accurate?

(i.e. facts and results agree with your own knowledge of the subject and with those of other
specialists in the field, documents sources, describes methodology, addresses theories and
facts that may negate the main thesis, and avoids questionable assumptions )

STRATEGIES

 Verify facts and statistics with a reliable source

Examine cited sources for authority and objectivity

Evaluating Coverage/Currency

ISSUE

When was the work published?

STRATEGIES

Look for a publication or copyright date on the

 Title page (books, journals)

 Reverse of the title page (books)
 Cover (journals, magazines, newspapers)
 Table of contents (journals, magazines)
 Bottom of the page (web sites)

Dates on web pages may indicate

 When the page was created

 When the page was published on the web

ISSUE

When the page was last revised

STRATEGIES

Look for a publication or copyright date on the

 Title page (books, journals)

 Reverse of the title page (books)
 Cover (journals, magazines, newspapers)
 Table of contents (journals, magazines)
 Bottom of the page (web sites)

Dates on web pages may indicate

 When the page was created

 When the page was published on the web

When the page was last revised

ISSUE

Is your topic one that requires current information?

STRATEGIES

Topic areas requiring the most up-to-date information may include Science, Medicine, or
current events

ISSUE

Has this source been revised, updated, or expanded in a subsequent edition?

STRATEGIES

Search catalogs and other databases for more recent editions

ISSUE

Does the work update other sources?

STARTEGIES

Compare publication dates and content to other sources you have found

ISSUE

Does it substantiate other materials you have read, or add new information?

STRATEGIES
Seek out multiple points of view and include a diversity of sources and ideas

ISSUE

Have you found enough information to support your arguments?

STRATEGIES

Look for gaps in your arguments and evidence

 Facts
 Statistics
 Evidence
 Evaluating Relevance

ISSUE

Does the work address your research question or meet the requirments of your assignment?

STRATEGIES

 Review your research question and/or assignment

 If you created a concept, or brain map, consult it for gaps in your information

ISSUE

Is the content appropriate for your research topic or assignment? Consider scholarly vs.
popular, fact vs. opinion, format/medium (e.g., book, journal, government report, web site,
etc.), subject coverage, language, time period, geographical area, audience, primary (e.g., raw
data, diaries, literature, photographs, first-hand accounts of an event, research reports, etc.)
vs. secondary (information that has been analyzed and interpreted, e.g., literary criticism,
most books, review of an art show or play, etc.)

STRATEGIES

 Check the table of contents or scan the subheadings

 Read the preface, abstract, introduction, and/or conclusion
 Look for footnotes or endnotes and/or a bibliography
 Look for reviewsl
o Magazines for Libraries
o Book reviews
o Internet Scout Report
Evaluating Websites

All information sources need to be evaluated, but Websites offer additional challenges and
need more scrutiny.

In selecting free Web based information sources pay attention to the following criteria:

AUTHORITY

Examine: Credentials of the producer or sponsor delivering the information

 Look for "about us," "home," "biography", and "credits" on the home page
 Check other publications by the author or sponsor
 Search Google or Amazon for other publications or sites done by the author.

CURRENCY

Consider: Information currency at the time of publication

 Check the frequency of updates

 Look for dates, updates, revision dates
 Avoid undated information sources

PURPOSE

Consider or determine: Why was the site created?

 To inform
 To entertain
 To advertise/sell a product
 To promote a point of view or belief

Criteria for Information Evaluation

Criteria for Evaluating Information includes: Currency, Relevance, Authenticity, Accuracy

and Purpose (CRAAP)
Currency - the timeliness of the information

 When was the information published or posted?

 Has the information been revised or updated?
 Does your topic require current information, or will older sources work as well?
 Are the links functional?

Relevance - the importance of the information for your needs

 Does the information relate to your topic or answer your question?

 Who is the intended audience?
 Is the information at an appropriate level?
 Have you looked at a variety of sources before determining that this is the one you
will use?

Authority - the source of the information

 Who is the author / publisher / source / sponsor?

 What are the author's credentials or organizational affiliations?
 Is the author qualified to write on this topic?
 Is the source information provided? Are the sources credible?
 Does the URL reveal anything about the author or source?

Accuracy - the reliability, truthfulness, and correctness of the content

 Where does the information come from?

 Is the information supported by evidence
 Does the tone seem unbiased and free from emotion?
 Are there spelling, grammar, or typographical errors?

Purpose - the reason the information exists

 What is the purpose - to inform, teach, sell, entertain, or persuade?

 Do the authors / sponsors make their intentions clear?
 Does the point of view appear objective and impartial?
  Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, or personal biases?

Meriam Library. Evaluating Information – Applying the CRAAP Test, California State
University, Chico, 17 Sept. 2010, www.csuchico.edu/lins/handouts/eval_websites.pd

SIFT (The Four Moves)

Caulfield, Mike (2019) comes up with list of things to do when looking at information
source called “ moves” and there are four of them:
The four moves: Stop, Investigate the source, find better coverage, trace the original context.

Stop

The first move is the simplest. STOP reminds you of two things.
First, when you first hit a page or post and start to read it — STOP. Ask yourself whether you
know the website or source of the information, and what the reputation of both the claim and
the website is. If you don’t have that information, use the other moves to get a sense of what
you’re looking at. Don’t read it or share media until you know what it is.

Second, after you begin to use the other moves it can be easy to go down a rabbit hole, going
off on tangents only distantly related to your original task. If you feel yourself getting
overwhelmed in your fact-checking efforts, STOP and take a second to remember your
purpose. If you just want to repost, read an interesting story, or get a high-level explanation
of a concept, it’s probably good enough to find out whether the publication is reputable. If
you are doing deep research of your own, you may want to chase down individual claims in a
newspaper article and independently verify them.

Please keep in mind that both sorts of investigations are equally useful. Quick and shallow
investigations will form most of what we do on the web. We get quicker with the simple stuff
in part so we can spend more time on the stuff that matters to us. But in either case, stopping
periodically and reevaluating our reaction or search strategy is key.

Investigate the source

The idea here is that you want to know what you’re reading before you read it. If you’re
reading a piece on economics by a Nobel prize-winning economist, you should know that
before you read it. Conversely, if you’re watching a video on the many benefits of milk
consumption that was put out by the dairy industry, you want to know that as well.
This doesn’t mean the Nobel economist will always be right and that the dairy industry can’t
be trusted. But knowing the expertise and agenda of the source is crucial to your
interpretation of what they say. Taking sixty seconds to figure out where media is from
before reading will help you decide if it is worth your time, and if it is, help you to better
understand its significance and trustworthiness.

Find better coverage

Sometimes you don’t care about the particular article or video that reaches you. You care
about the claim the article is making. You want to know if it is true or false. You want to
know if it represents a consensus viewpoint, or if it is the subject of much disagreement.
In this case, your best strategy may be to ignore the source that reached you, and look for
trusted reporting or analysis on the claim. If you get an article that says koalas have just been
declared extinct from the Save the Koalas Foundation, your best bet might not be to
investigate the source, but to go out and find the best source you can on this topic, or, just as
importantly, to scan multiple sources and see what the expert consensus seems to be. In these
cases we encourage you to “find other coverage” that better suits your needs — more trusted,
more in-depth, or maybe just more varied. In lesson two we’ll show you some techniques to
do this sort of thing very quickly.
Do you have to agree with the consensus once you find it? Absolutely not! But understanding
the context and history of a claim will help you better evaluate it and form a starting point for
future investigation.

Trace claims, quotes, and media back to the original context

Much of what we find on the internet has been stripped of context. Maybe there’s a video of a
fight between two people with Person A as the aggressor. But what happened before that?
What was clipped out of the video and what stayed in? Maybe there’s a picture that seems
real but the caption could be misleading. Maybe a claim is made about a new medical
treatment based on a research finding — but you’re not certain if the cited research paper
really said that.

In these cases we’ll have you trace the claim, quote, or media back to the source, so you can
see it in it’s original context and get a sense if the version you saw was accurately presented.

It’s about REcontextualizing

There’s a theme that runs through all of these moves: they are about reconstructing the
necessary context to read, view, or listen to digital content effectively.

One piece of context is who the speaker or publisher is. What’s their expertise? What’s their
agenda? What’s their record of fairness or accuracy? So we investigate the source. Just as
when you hear a rumor you want to know who the source is before reacting, when you
encounter something on the web you need the same sort of context.

When it comes to claims, a key piece of context includes whether they are broadly accepted
or rejected or something in-between. By scanning for other coverage you can see what the
expert consensus is on a claim, learn the history around it, and ultimately land on a better
source.

Finally, when evidence is presented with a certain frame — whether a quote or a video or a
scientific finding — sometimes it helps to reconstruct the original context in which the photo
was taken or research claim was made. It can look quite different in context!

In some cases these techniques will show you claims are outright wrong, or that sources are
legitimately “bad actors” who are trying to deceive you. But in the vast majority of cases they
do something just as important: they reestablish the context that the web so often strips away,
allowing for more fruitful engagement with all digital information.

INFORMATION LITERACY FOR LIFELONG LEARNING

Learning is defined as a behavioral change and the construction of the knowledge. An

obtaining a behavioral change using knowledge to enhance the personal and social
development can be considered as learning which starts from the mother's womb and ends in
the tomb as lifelong concept" (Pemadasa 2006).

Lifelong Learning is the provision or use of both formal and informal learning opportunities
throughout people’s lives in order to foster the continuous development and improvement of
the knowledge and skills needed for employment and personal fulfillment. It shares mixed
connotations with other educational concepts such as Adult Education, Training, Continuing
Education, Permanent Education and other terms that relate to learning beyond the formal
educational system. In today’s information society, the most important learning outcome for
all students is their ability to function as independent lifelong learners. The essential enabler
to reach that goal is information literacy.

IL is a fundamental prerequisite for lifelong learning, and a basic requirement for the
information society. It is common to all disciplines, all learning environment and all levels of
education.IL is very useful for knowledge based development and lifelong learning, even
long after they would have left school. It affords people the skills to pursue knowledge at any
age, independent of a formal educational institution

The learning process is now increasingly based on the capacity to find and access knowledge
and to apply it in problem solving. Learning to learn, learning to transform information into
new knowledge and knew knowledge into application become more important today than
memorizing specific information.

Information literacy abilities both enhance student performance in formal learning settings
and allow students to learn independent of such offerings. On the other hand, information
literacy is a solution without a problem or audience, if people do not understand their need
for lifelong learning. Information literacy forms the basis for lifelong learning.

Information literacy and lifelong learning have a strategic, mutually reinforcing relationship
with each other that is critical to the success of every individual, organization, institution, and
nation-state in the global information society. Developing lifelong learners is central to the
mission of higher education institutions. By ensuring that individuals have the intellectual
abilities of reasoning and critical thinking, and by helping them construct a framework for
learning how to learn, colleges and universities provide the foundation for continued growth
throughout their careers, as well as in their roles as informed citizens and members of
communities.

The Interrelationship Both of these concepts:

Are largely self-motivated and self-directed. They do not require the mediation of an outside
individual,

 an organization, or a system beyond the individual himself or herself, although advice and
assistance from a respected friend such as a mentor or coach can be helpful.

Are self-empowering. They are aimed at helping individuals of all age groups to help
themselves,

 regardless of their social or economic status, role or place in society, gender, race, religion
or ethnic background.

Are self-actuating. The more information literate an individual becomes, and the longer the
individual

 sustains good information literacy learning and practices those habits, the greater the self-
enlightenment that will occur, especially if practiced over an entire lifetime. Harnessed
together, information literacy and lifelong learning substantially improve the:

Set of personal choices and options opened up for, and offered to, an individual in the context
of personal,

 family and societal matters.

Quality and utility of education and training in both formal school settings preceding entry
into the

 workforce, and later in informal vocational or on-the-job training settings.

Prospects of finding and keeping a satisfying job and moving up the career ladder rapidly and
with

 appropriate rewards, and making cost-effective and wise economic and business decisions.

Participation of the individual effectively in social, cultural and political contexts, both at the
local

 community level and at higher levels, and in identifying and fulfilling professional goals
and aspirations.

Bundy, (2004) defines the relationship between information literacy and lifelong learning as
follows. “Information literacy is the foundation for the independent learning and lifelong
learning.” Information literacy is a “set of skills” that can be learned. That set of skills
includes a certain attitude toward learning itself, the use of tools, such as online tutorials, the
use of techniques, such as working with groups, and the use of methods, such as a reliance on
mentors, coaches and ombudspersons. In contrast, lifelong learning is a good habit that must
be acquired and accompanied by the adoption of a positive frame of mind. The willingness to
change and a curiosity or thirst for knowledge is very helpful pre-conditions to lifelong
learning.

Information Problem-Solving: The Big6 Explained

The Big6 is an approach that can be used whenever people are faced with an information
problem or with making a decision that is based on information. Students—K-12 through
higher education—encounter many information problems related to course assignments.
However, the Big6 is just as applicable to their personal life.

The Big6 Skills comprise a unified set of information and technology skills (see Figure 1).
Taken together, these skills form a process. The process encompasses six stages from Task
Definition to Evaluation. Through the Big6, people learn how to recognize their information
needs and how to progress through a series of stages to solve information problems
effectively and efficiently. Many problem-solving models provide a set of specific activities,
or outline of isolated skills. These models may encourage a lockstep strategy that forces one
specific method for problemsolving and decision-making. Like these others, the Big6
approach is systematic, however, it differs in a significant way. Big6 Skills provide a broad-
based, logical skill set that can be used as the structure for developing a curriculum or the
framework for a set of distinct problem solving skills. These fundamental skills provide
students with a comprehensive set of powerful skills to conquer the information age.

But the Big6 is more than simple a set of skills—it is also an approach to helping students
learn the information problem-solving process. Learning more about the Big6 as a process
and as an approach should make it easier and more useful for teachers and their students. For
teachers, the Big6 provides a definitive set of skills that students must master in order to be
successful in any learning context. Teachers can integrate lessons about the Big6 into subject
area content and assignments. For students, the Big6 provides a guide to dealing with
assignments and tasks as well as a model to fall back on when they are stuck. The Big6
represents “metacognition” – an awareness by students of their mental states and processes

1: Task Definition:

1.1 Define the problem.

1.2 Identify the information needed.

2. Information Seeking Strategies:

2.1 Determine all possible sources.

2.2 Select the best sources. 3. Location and Access:

3.1 Locate sources.

3.2 Find information within sources.

4. Use of Information:

4.1 Engage (e.g., read, hear, view).

4.2 Extract relevant information.

5. Synthesis:

5.1 Organize information from multiple sources.

5.2 Present information.

6. Evaluation:

Judge the result (effectiveness).

Judge the process (efficiency).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The term bibliography is the term used for a list of sources (e.g. books, articles, websites)
used to write an assignment (e.g. an essay). It usually includes all the sources consulted even
if they not directly cited (referred to) in the assignment
Bibliography is a list of books and writing of one author or about one subject. It is the study
of authorship, editions etc of books. A list of books and other publications which are arranged
in a logical order which have some relationship to each other.

A bibliography is a systematic list of materials which gives description and identification of

the editions, dates of issue, authorship and typography of books or other written material.
Bibliography is a list of writings with time and place of publication (such as the writings of a
single author or the works referred to in preparing a document etc.) It gives a list of works of
a specific author or publisher. It is a list of writings relating to a given subject or a list of
writings used or considered by an author in preparing a particular work

Types of Bibliographies

General Bibliography: They are not limited to one author, subject, country or period of
time

Author Bibliography: They list the works by and about one author

Subject Bibliography: This is restricted to one particular subject.

National or Regional Bibliography: It list materials for publications in relation to one

particular country or region

Trade Bibliography: It supplies information necessary in buying and selling books.

A bibliography can be either complete or selective, when it is complete, it includes all work
of particular class and when selective, it covers only an integral part of the work. Some
bibliographies simply list items while others give descriptive and or evaluative information
about the item listed. These bibliographies may be found in individual books, in periodical
articles and in encyclopaedia or other reference books. They may also be separate books.

A bibliography is a useful source in any search because it provides useful and needed
information such as :

Locates materials in the subject in question and provide a means of verifying such
information as author’s name, complete title of the work, place of publication, publisher, date
of publication, edition and number of pages.

The ones which give information on the terms listed indicate the scope of the subject and if
the information is evaluative, it comments upon the usefulness of the publication

HOW TO WRITE A BIBLIOGRAPHY

A bibliography is a list of all the books and web sites used in research to write your report or
project

In a bibliography:

1. All resources are listed in alphabetical order

2. Titles are written in italics or underlined

3. Where there is no author then the work is listed by title

The bibliography should always be on a separate page and should be headed: Bibliography

Akinlade O.O

Introduction

What is Information?

Information is processed, organized and structured data. It provides context for data and
enables decision making process.

Sources of Information

1. Primary Information Sources

2. Secondary Information Sources
3. Tertiary Information Sources

1. Primary Information Sources

A primary information source provides direct or firsthand information about an event, person,
object, or work of art. Primary sources are contemporary to what they describe. They are
original materials which have not been interpreted, condensed, or evaluated by a second
party.

Here are some examples of primary information sources.

 Diaries
 Experiments
 Poems
 Personal correspondences
 Speeches
 Paintings
 Interviews
 Annual reports of an organization or agency
  Patents
 Court records

2. Secondary Information Sources

A secondary information source analyzes, interprets, or discusses information about a

primary information source. Secondary sources are subsequent to what they describe, as they
are produced at some point after a primary information source appears. Papers written by
students typically contain mostly secondary sources.

Here are some examples of secondary information sources.

 Textbooks
 Biographies
 Magazine articles
 Book reviews
 Histories

3. Tertiary Information Sources

A tertiary information source lists, compiles, or indexes primary and secondary information
sources. These sources are most often used to look up facts or to get a general idea about
something.

Here are some examples of tertiary information sources.

 Almanacs
 Chronologies
 Directories
 Manuals
 Handbooks
 Guidebooks
 Indexes
 Statistics

Information Availability, Accessibility and Utilization

Information Resources: Are information bearing materials that are both in printed and
electronic formats. They are the raw materials that the library acquires, catalogue, stock and
make accessible to users as well as use to provide various other services. They include but
not limited to textbooks, newspapers, magazines, journals, encyclopedia, internet, and CD-
ROM technology.

Availability: The quality or state of being available. This is a situation whereby a needed
information resource is ready for use or at hand.
Accessibility: It refers to the ability for everyone, regardless of disability or special needs to
use and benefit from every information resources within the library.

ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

WHAT ARE THE ELECTRONIC RESOURCES?

Electronic resources are library materials that have been digitized for electronic access and
consumption.

The process involves 6 key stages: gathering, organizing, digitizing, accessing, retrieval and
consumption. In libraries, the above processes are the role of LIS professionals.

TYPES OF ELECTRONIC RESOURCES

Types of electronic resources include: E-Journal, E-Books, E-Thesis, E-Mail, E-Dictionary,

E-Encyclopedia, E-Magazine, Video and Audio Lectures.

USES OF E-RESOURCES

Electronic resources are used for two broad reasons:

1. Provision of information
2. Research aid

GUIDELINES FOR USE OF E-RESOURCES

Bells University Library contracts with different vendors and publishers (third party
licensing) in other to provide electronic resources in form of e-journals, e-books, e-databases
and others.

E-resources are issued out on basis of fair use and each is delivered with license agreement.
Violation of such terms by users of e-resources leads to temporary suspension or
outright revocation of rights.

Guidelines for proper use of e-resources are given below:

 Users can only print limited pages of full text book or journal articles at a time
 E-resources can only be used for personal, instructional or research needs. Selling or
redistribution violates the intellectual property rights of the author
 Users are allowed to share with only fellow students, staff of Bellstech.
 Users should always acknowledge the sources on any published materials used or
found on any resources.

ADVANTAGES OF E-RESOURCES

 E-resources consume less storage space than print resources. An entire bookshelf can
be stored in a removable memory devices consuming less than 100GB space.
 E-resources are cheaper to acquire as electronic digitizing saves cost of paper printing
and binding.
 They are more portable and easier to move about. They can also be easily shared or
transferred.
  E-resources help gain access to some information that may not be readily available in
print.
 E-resources provide access to wider range of magazines and news publications more
than library could possibly subscribe to in print format.
 They are generally easier to evaluate.

USING SEARCH ENGINES

What is a Search Engine?

A search engine is a tool designed to search for information on the web by processing
keywords as queries entered by a user. The result are produced in form of a list on pages
known as search engine result pages (SERPs)

The first search engine ever created was called w3catalog in 1993. This has however become
inactive. Google search engine amongst others have risen to prominence based on the
algorithm on which it is based. Other search engines include:

Bing (formerly, msn search), Ask (formerly, ask jeeves), Yahoo, Baidu , Lycos.

How Search Engines Work

Most search engines use the page rank method to determine how results are listed on search
engine results pages.

If a user submits a query (let’s say NIGERIA ELECTION 2019) to a search engine, the first
step is to determine which web pages contain relevant result to the query to pick up from its
database (i.e. all pages that have at least one occurrence of Nigeria, Election and/or 2019 in
them).

These pages are processed by the indexer which allows entries from the keyword to be
entered into the inverted files on the database after which they are listed on the SERPs.

The first step is to parse the pages into words; the occurrence of spaces in between word is
always not enough to determine word boundaries, punctuation marks, special symbols and
specific syntax are taken into account.

Once these pages have been split into words, the next step is to determine which word to get
rid of. Examples are words containing numbers or special characters to be indexed?
Submitting a query 3:0 will output all results about soccer matches.

Some words are so frequent that they appear in all almost all web documents, for example of,
an, a, to and the. They are known as Stop Words.

Most search engines index stop words to give results to queries. For instance in the phrase,
‘’I am who God says I am’’ except they are enclosed in parentheses like ‘’I am who God says
I am’’. The parenthesis forces the engine to return results with specific phrases as the one
entered on the search engine.
The way by which the number of results on a page is increased is known as The Stem. Until
the 2003, Google did not support stemming and it did not increase the relevance of the results
on the first page of the SERPs. However, it used partial stemming which includes singular
and plural forms.

Another feature called truncation allows users to query just a portion of the word e.g. the
search keyword metro* will return web pages with keywords beginning with metro such as
metro such as metropolis, metronomic, metropolitan. As with stemming, truncation increases
results but not necessarily precision.

How do I use Search Engine?

Your success in using search engines depends on 3 things:

1. The search engine you use
2. The way you enter your key words
3. How well you evaluate the information on a site

How can I best enter key words in a search engine?

Using key words effectively for web searches requires some understanding of Boolean
Logic.

A Quick Primer in Boolean Logic

Boolean logic simply is a way to link words and phrases together to ensure you get a list
of sites that are valuable to you, so you don't waste a lot of time looking at sites that
aren't useful.

(For you math fans, it is based on a mathematical logic concept which is related to Set
Theory and was developed by French mathematician George Boole.)

It works like this.

You will use words called Boolean operators to link key words and phrases. These
Boolean operators are:

AND, OR, and NOT.

When you want 2 or more key words to be searched together as a phrase, you usually
must put quotations around that phrase.

example "Harlem Renaissance"

How can I use these Boolean Operators to make good searches?

1. If you are getting too many unwanted hits, limit your search by linking your key
words with the phrase AND (some search engines use the plus '+' sign instead). This will
ensure that the words on either side of the AND are in all of the sites on your hit list.

Example
 If you want AIDS statistics in France, type:

AIDS AND France AND statistics

or try

AIDS + France + statistics

2. If you are getting sites that include related words that you don't want, use the
word NOT (some search engines use the minus '-' sign instead) before a word to exclude
sites with those words.

Example

If you want sites on the Renaissance in Europe, but you keep getting sites on the Harlem
Renaissance, type:

Renaissance NOT Harlem

or try

Renaissance - Harlem

Is your hit list too small, or you get no hits at all? Try using the word OR between
related words or synonyms.

Example

AIDS OR HIV AND France AND Statistics

You see that you can combine the Boolean operators into a long string of linked words and
phrases. Experiment with this so that you can upgrade your web searching skills.

How can I evaluate the information I find on websites?

You will need to learn to criteria for evaluating websites. The criteria are:

1. Reliability of the author (Is there a way to contact them? Are they an expert in their
field?)

2. Accuracy of the information (How does the information compare to reliable

information you have already found in encyclopedias, books, or periodical articles - all
of which have been written or edited by an expert?)

3. Bias of the author/site (Is there a motive in creating this site other than simply giving
you information? Do they want to buy something, take something, do something? Know
what the authors motive is.)
 4. Currency of the site (When was it last updated? In some cases, you want to avoid
outdated information.)

5. Ease of navigation (How easy is it to get around on the site? Professionally made
sites are usually easy to navigate.)

INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION RETRIEVAL

Information Retrieval is the tracing and recovery of specific information from stored data.
The term ‘’information retrieval’’ was coined in 1952 and become popular from 1961.

The main goal of information Retrieval was to generate or retrieve information based on prior
organization of information into one or more subject are making sure that library patrons are
aware of the existence or non-existence of such information relating to his request.

The term ‘’IR’’, refers to the retrieval of unstructured records, that is, records consisting
primarily of free-form natural language text. Of course, other kinds of data can also be
unstructured, e.g. photographic images, audio, video, etc. However, IR research has focused
on retrieval of natural language text, a reasonable emphasis given the importance and
immense volume of textual data, on the internet and in private archives.

The records that IR addresses are often called ‘’documents’’. IR often addresses the retrieval
of documents from an organized (and relatively static) repository, most commonly called a
‘’collection’’.

METHODS OF INFORMATION RETRIEVAL

Information retrieval methods are the methods used to search bodies of library collections to
generate needed information.

Information retrieval methods are essential in both the storage and retrieval of information
based on the fact that it helps to make the retrieval of information less cumbersome. This has
become important as the advent of the World Wide Web has led to the proliferation of the
internet with huge amount of information uploaded daily. According to research indices (as
at Friday, 03 January 2014), the estimated size of the internet based on the number of pages
indexed by Google, Bing, and yahoo is about 1.66billion pages. Subsequently, this has
resulted in the recent state if information termed ‘’information overload’’.

Libraries all over the world build their information retrieval systems to service their
communities of users. It is important to note that two categories of users exist in a typical
library environment:

 The library personnel who is the intermediary between the IR methods and the end
use.
He could also be an end user, seeking information for self or decision making.
 The end user who is a patron at the library or member of the library community
requesting information for research, academic or leisure.

There are three methods of information Retrieval in a digital library:

 1. Free browsing: by this means, a user browses through a collection and looks for
desired information.
2. Text based retrieval: this is the most popular techniques used today. Through this
method, full text of text-based documents and/or metadata of multimedia documents
(textual information) are indexed so that a user can search the digit library by using
keywords or controlled terms.
3. Content-based retrieval: this enables a user to search multimedia information in
terms of the actual content of image, audio, or video (Marques and Furht 2002). This
method increases the accessibility of data in these digital libraries immensely. Some
content features that have been studied so far include color, texture, size, shape,
motion, and pitch.

LIBRARY MANAGEMENT SOFTWARE

Bells University Library uses Alexandria Library Management Software to manage its
routine activities. This Software is web-based and provides remote access to library
holdings. The Web Public Access Catalogue (WebPAC) can be viewed remotely using
any smart device that is connected to the Internet. This makes access to the library
holdings possible on a 24/7 basis. The URL is bellstech.goalexandria.com

KEY ELECTRONIC RESOURCES AVAILABLE IN BELLS UNIVERSITY OF

TECHNOLOGY INCLUDE:

1. Web based: This requires a personified username and password for user access. It is
available 24/7 and requires internet connectivity.
 Proquest Ebook Central- Academic Complete customized for Bells University of
Technology located at http:/bells.bravecontent.com
 Ebscohost located at search.ebscohost.com
 JSTOR located at www.jstor.org
 AGORA located at www.aginternetwork.org
 AJOL located at www.ajol.info
 NUC Virtual Library located at www.nigerianvirtuallibrary.com
2. Intranet based: These resources are cited on the intranet of the University Campus
and requires the presence of the Local area network or wireless internet connection to
be accessed. They cannot be accessed beyond the reach of the University internet
connections.