Chapter 15 Metrology Tolerances , limits and fits Linear measurement Angular measurement Thread measurement Surface texture Gauges and gauge designIntroduction Metrology Metrology is the science of measurement of dimensions. It is important to know that when a dimension is produced by a manufacturing process, it is also important to know that the dimension can be measured accurately enough such that it can be ascertained that the dimension was actually achieved by the process. History Gauging It is defined as the acceptability of a given dimension, whether it lies in its specified or allowable limits or not.Introduction Accuracy It is the agreement of the result of a measurement with the true value of the measured quantity. It refers to the condition whether a particular dimension is within its stated size. Precision It refers to the exactness of the dimension or the repeatability of a measuring process. It depends upon the overall size that is being measured. Reliability It is the ability to obtain the desired result to the degree of precision required. Discrimination Discrimination refers to the degree to which a measuring instrument divides the basic unit.Introduction Surface plate is an important tool for precision-measuring applications in a shop. It provides an accurate flat reference plane for many inspection requirements.Questions Q1. What is the function of surface plate, and what is the requirement of it? Q2. If a hole 30.0078 and a shaft 29.95+9-025 , what is the type of fit? Q3. Why hole bias system is most commonly used? Q4. Why should we use selective assembly?Tolerances, limits and fits It is almost impossible to produce any component to the exact dimension through any of the known manufacturing processes. It is in engineering practice to allow a permissible deviation from the nominal size, which is termed as tolerance. Tolerance on a dimension can be specified in any of the two forms; unilateral or bilateral. Sometimes, the nominal size may be outside the allowable limits. The dimensioning can also be specified in terms of the limits. * Unilateral * Bilateral + Limits * Nominal size outside a is allowable Ba umeTolerances, limits and fits + For example, 30%; is a unilateral tolerance. Here, the nominal dimension 30 is allowed to vary between 30 and 29.99 mm. + In the bilateral tolerance, the variation will be on both the sides. For example,30.00* 0.02 or 30.00*3:95 . In the bilateral tolerance, the variation of the limits can be uniform. Alternatively, the allowed deviation can be different. * Sometimes, the nominal size may be outside the allowable limits. For example, a given dimension is to vary from 29.95 to 29.85. 29.95%} 49 or 30.00—}:73 . The second form is preferred since it contains the nominal size 30. * The dimensioning can also be specified in terms of the limits. 30.00*§-03 the upper limit is 30.05 while the lower limit is 29.92.Tolerances, limits and fits In engineering, when a product is designed it consists of a number of parts will be mating with each other in some form. In the assembly, it is important to consider the type of mating or fit between two parts. Take for example a shaft and hole, if the dimension of the shaft is lower than the dimension of the hole, then there will be clearance. Such a fit is termed as clearance fit. Alternatively, if the dimension of the shaft is more than that of the hole, then it is termed as interference fit. . shpft r st ote (@) Clearance fit (8) Interferencefit Lddttla]Tolerances, limits and fits * The maximum size of the shaft is smaller than the minimum hole and as a result, there will always be clearance. Such a fit is termed as clearance fit. + Similarly in the interference fit, there will be interference for all sizes. » At times there will be clearance and other times there will be interference. Such a fit is termed as transition fit. oe aE a (@) Clearance ft (eyeterterence i t ‘ Disneor we (oy TranitonTolerances, limits and fits In the ISO system of limits and fits, a range of tolerances and deviations can be specified with reference to a line of zero deviation called the zero line. The tolerance, being a function of the basic size, is designated by a number symbol called the tolerance grade. Eighteen standard grades are identified as IT01,ITO, IT1, ..., IT16. The value of tolerance unit, /is identified as i=0.45*YD+0.001*D where D is the dimension in mm. The ISO system identifies the holes by capital letters A, B, C, D, ..., and the shafts by the lower case letters a, b, c, d, ... Though automatic calculations are possible for some of these fits, it is tedious and generally the tables provided in the standards are referred for actual deviations.Tolerances, limits and fits Can choose any one of the following two possible systems practically. Hole basis system The nominal size and the limits on the hole are maintained constant and the shaft limits are varied to obtain the requisite fit. Shaft basis system The shaft size and limits are maintained constant while varying the limits of hole to obtain any fit. 77 Hole Unilateral hole Unilateral hole Basie J size R Bilateral Shaft Stat hole —_ i jlateral Unilateral shaf based f hole based fitTolerances, limits and fits n because standard tools such as drills and reamers are used for producing the holes whose size is not generally adjustable.Tolerances, limits and fits Selective assembly In selective assembly, all the parts produced are measured and graded into a range of dimensions within the tolerance groups. Shafts A(Small) B(Medium) C (Large) Holes A (Small) B (Medium) C (Large) By mating the shafts from group A with that of holes from group A, we can ensure that the fit is much tighter than that by choosing any hole from A, B or C with any of the shafts from A, B or C. But this creates problems in terms of the replacement parts.Linear measurement The standard unit of length as per the SI units is the meter. The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second. Some of the instruments used for this purpose are: Rules Vernier Micrometer Height gauge Bore gauge Dial indicator Slip gauges or gauge blocksLinear measurement Vernier The main scale units are divided into a smallest division of 0.025 units each. The auxiliary scale divides this smallest unit of 0.025 units into 25 divisions. With the advent of electronic =o measuring systems, many of the new measuring units are provided with direct digital readout to reduce the possible inaccuracieS gress la likely in reading the mechanical scales. 0Linear measurement Micrometer The auxiliary scale is made on the thimble, which rotates about the main scale. Reading t90.1 mm TTT BH Ratchet StopLinear measurement Dial indicator The movement of the plunger Ais magnified through the intermediate gearing B and C to show with the painter. The typical least Count is 0.01 mm to 0.00imm. Slip gauges are used in the manufacturing shops as length standards. The slip gauges are hardened and finished to size. When two slip gauges are 'wrung' together, considerable force is required to separate them in view of the high finish and flatness of the surfaces in contact.Linear measurement Dial indicator To build any given dimension, it is necessary to identify a set of blocks, which are to be put together. One of the principles to be remembered is that the number of blocks used should always be the smallest. To assemble a dimension of 62.225 mm the following combination will be used: 1.005 + 1.220 + 60.000 62.225Linear measurement Comparators Comparator is quick and more convenient for checking large number of identical dimensions. This cannot be used as an absolute measuring device but can only compare two dimensions. ‘somes essen ressure ee. Eston Pater Measurin ‘surge gare] | nyse catuedete (a) Senn be compara wih a gauge book Nf (e) Measurement of devia tom the set dimensionAngular measurement Bevel protractor The flat base of the protractor helps in setting it firmly on the workpiece and then by rotating the rule, it is possible to measure the angle. It will typically have a discrimination of one degree. r — Taal smn ©) Dy) Oo Bevel protractor Combination square headAngular measurement Sine bar Asine bar is a bar consisting of two precision ground rollers at the two ends whose center distance is fixed. The sine bar surface can be aligned with the surface to be measured. Knowing the height differential of the two rollers, the angle can be calculated using the sine formula. Dial indicator (no deviation wanted) [ Gauge blocks Surface plateThread measurement The most common thread encountered is the metric V-thread. Root Depth: Minor Pitch Major Diameter —_Diameler OiametorThread measurement The parameters that are normally measured are: + Major diameter » Micrometer + Pitch diameter » Screw thread micrometer » Wire method * Pitch e Screw pitch gauge » Pitch measuring machine + Thread form © Optical projector Major diameter can be measured using an external micrometer.Thread measurement To measure the pitch diameter, screw thread micrometers have a specially designed spindle and anvil.Thread measurement Measurement over wires Small hardened steel wires are of precision size and accurately ground. The size is measured using a micrometer with touching the wire surface. Dp=M+P. P=0.866p-G for metric threads p= pitch of the thread G= diameter of the wire used YY WL | |. Micrometer spindleSurface texture Typical surface texture characterisation is shown in figure bellow. Flaw Roughness height Waviness / height lay | a direction Roughness: > width Waviness |_Roughness width cut-offSurface texture Roughness height It is specified either as arithmetic average value or the root mean square value. Roughness width It is the distance parallel to the nominal part surface within which the peaks and valleys, which constitutes the predominant pattern of the roughness. Roughness width cut-off This is the maximum width of the surface that is included in the calculation of the roughness height. Ya % we)Surface texture Arithmetical Average This in equation form is given by -if b@ldx =<) iyi 1 Rams = N Waviness Waviness refers to those surface irregularities that have a greater spacing than that of roughness width. Lay direction It is the direction of the predominant surface pattern produced on the workpiece by the tool marks.Surface texture Flaw These are surface irregularities that are present which are random. Generally, the surface roughness is measured by a stylus type of instrument. The stylus moves over the sample length of the surface and records the peaks and valleys of the surface. various types of parameters that are relevant for analysing the surface texture can be calculated.Gauges and gauge design To inspect all the parts to see whether they confirm to the requirements or not. Gauges or limit gauges are used for such purpose. Gauges are used for inspecting a given dimension whether it is within the tolerance limits specified or not. Thus a gauge is used for accepting a dimension rather than measuring it. The gauge consists of two elements. A ‘GO’ section represents the maximum limit on the possible dimension of the shaft. A ‘NOT GO’ section represents the minimum limit on the dimension of the shaft. £7) 8 ¥ ° ~ (|Gauges and gauge design The gauges themselves have to be manufactured. Whatever be the manufacturing process adopted and whatever care is exercised during the manufacture, it is impossible to manufacture the gauges to the exact dimensions. Hence, it is necessary to allocate tolerances on the gauge dimensions. The tolerance is generally applied inside the part tolerance. The components allowed by such a gauge will all be within the tolerance limits. Tolerance on ‘Weer stowance Upper mit 5% of workpiece ‘3% of workpiecel tolerance tolerance Tolerance on Upper iit lower imit Lower simi tdorance GO NOTGauges and gauge design Another aspect to be considered in the design of the gauges is the contact surfaces of the gauge, which are likely to wear out. There is a suggestion that the GO section should be made initially bigger to allow for the wear. About 5% of the work tolerance is normally allowed. Tolerance on Wear allowance upper limit 5% of workpiece 5% of workpie folerance tolerance thee tolerance| _ Tolerance on Upper tit ower limit, Lowertimit 5% of workpiece Go Not tolerance real