JOb'RxAr. OF SF.DLXI~:NrARVPt:rROLOCr, VOL. 41, No. 1, p.

179-1r~5
t:ms 1-11. MARCY4, 107l

CLASSIFICATION OF FINE-GRAINED SEDIMENTARY ROCKS ~

M. DANE PICARD
University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah

ABSTRACT
Classifications of fine-grained sediments and sedimentary rocks are based on combinations of several cri-
teria. These include: (1) texture, (2) fissility, (3) tectonic association or environment of deposition, (4)
mineral composition, (5) color, (6) chemical composition and (7) degree of metamorphism. None of the
classifications are generally used, however.
For field studies, texture is the most significant property. The proportions of clay, silt and sand are used
herein to define four major groups: claystone (clay), siltstone (silt), mudstone (mud) and sandstone (sand).
Claystone, siltstone and sandstone are rocks containing more than 50 percent of clay-, silt- or sand-sized ma-
terial, respectively. Mudstone contains less than 50 percent of clay, slit or sand Silty and sandy are useful modi-
tiers of claystone when clay-sized material is less than 7~ percent but more than 50 percent. Clayey and sand?"
are used to modify siltstone when silt-sized material is less than 75 percent but more than 50 percent.
The expression good sorting is applied to fine-grained elastic rocks that contain more than 90 percent silt-
or clay-sized material. Fair-sorted rocks contain 75 to 90 percent silt or clay. Poorly sorted siltstone or clay-
storm contains less than 75 percent silt or clay. If fissile, fine-grained elastic rocks are so designated.
The mineral composition of most fine-grained elastic rocks can be determined reliably with the petrographic
microscope and by X-ray diffraction. Therefore, where possible, they should also be named according to one
of the sandstone classifications and on the dominant clay mineral present. Color, bedding types and sedimentary
strncmres, fossil content, type of cement and fissillty should be included in complete descriptions. An example
of a good field and laboratory description is : clayey silts/one, illite-subarkose, poor sorting, grayish red (5R4/2),
dolomite cement, slabby, horizontal lamination, peleeypods.

IXTROOU(:TION" study is their poor exposure compared with that

Fine-grained sedimentary rocks are the most
abundant rocks on the earth's surface. Quite
possibly, they may IJe more alnrndant than sand-
stone anti limestone combined (fig. 1). Despite
their abundance, the)' are the least studied of
the common sedimentary rocks.
In recent years, of the papers published in the
]vurnal of Sedimentary Petrology, about 41%
are on sandstone, 26% are on carbonate, 16%
are on fine-grained clastic rock or sediment, and
-I-% are on conglomerate (fig. 2). T h e r e are
about five times as many papers pnhlished each
year on sandstone and carbonate as there are on
fine-grained elastic rock (claystone, siltstone,
mudstone) or sediment. Although the n u m b e r of
papers has more than doubled in the ten-year
period 1960-1969, the percentage devoted to
each rock and sediment class has remained re-
markably constant (fig. 2).
Several reasons account for the lack of study
of fine-grained elastic rocks. Because of their
fine-grained size, mineral composition is more
difficult to determine than for sandstone and
limestone. Determination of the mineralogy and
paragenesis of some of the constituents is diffi-
cult, even for siltstone. Mechanical analysis is
also difficult and uncertain. A n o t h e r d e t e r r a n t to
~Manuscript received Tune 29, 1970; revised Au-
gust 25, 1970.
of most sandstone and limestone units.
Little economic impetus exists for the study of
fine-grained elastic rocks. Although they are the
dominant source beds of oil and gas, petroleum
geologists mainly study reservoir beds. Fine-
grained elastic rocks are also slighted in studies
of mineral deposits.
Greater detail and uniformity in classification
of fine-grained elastic rocks, sediments and soils
are needed. Such an advance will lead to better
communication within the subdisciplines of
e a r t h science. A uniform classification will also
improve interpretations of source areas, deposi-
tional processes and environments, diagenesis
and stratigraphic correlations. In the future,
"fifteen feet of gray shale" will no longer be an
acceptable description of possibly a million
years of history.
P R E S E N T ~ I E T H O D S OF C L A S S I F I C A T I O N
(Tener~l.--Many methods of classifying fine-
grained elastic sediments and corresponding
sedimentary rocks have been proposed. Most
classifications were introduced for field descrip-
tion but some were estahlished for field, labora-
tory or genetic use. In general, two broad
schemes have a r i s e n : descriptive classifications
with some genetic significance and genetic clas-
sifications based on environments of deposition
or tectonic associations.
180
PER CENT OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
20 40 60 80
I I I I
Meosuremeets
::..:.::...'.::.:::,.:.1[
:.:: :: }'::) Z :.:.' ~ :.:,~':'l
Computed Proportions
Not~: Also, see Blott (1970)
Shole
~' Sondstone
[~] Limestone
Fro. 1.--Estimates oi proportions of common sedi-
mentary rocks. Measurements are based on thick
nesses in many stratigraphic sections. Computed pro-
portions are based on calculations of the proportions
of the common sedimentary rocks (plus sea water)
required to make the nverage igneous reck.
.\uthors of classifications have proposed the
following different comhinations of criteria to
define classes : ( 1 ) texture (mainly modal parti-
cle size)', (2) fissility; (3) mineral composi-
tion; (4) color: (5) chemical composition; (6)
degree of metamorphism; and (7) tectonic as-
sociation or environment of deposition. Three
classifications use a coml)ination of four of
these criteria. The criteria stressed in classifica-
tions are summarized in Table I and are dis-
cussed briefly.
Texture.--For fiehl studies, texture is the most
significant property. The proportions of clay,
silt and sand, as plotted on triangular diagrams,
are the principal or the only basis of man), clas-
sifications. In nearly all classifications, particle
size relationships are stressed to some extent
(Table 1 ).
Wentworth (1922) proposed the general size
limits that are recognized and used for elastic
rocks and sediments t35" most North American
Ecologists. He also suggested class terms which
conform to certain percentages of mixtures of
the various size terms: silt), sand (sand > silt
> 10%, others < 10%) ; sandy silt (silt > sand
> 10%, others < 1 0 % ) : silt (sEt > 8 0 % ) :
clayey silt (silt ~> clay > 10%, others < 10%) :
silty" clay (clay > silt > 10%, others < 10%) ;
and clay (clay > 80%). \\;entworth omitted
"shale" as a textural class hecause he considered
it a structural expression and not dependent
upon grain size.
M. D A N E PIC.1R:)
One of Twenhofel's early classifications
100 (1937, 13. 98) was based on texture but it also
i
included modifiers based on fissility and meta-
I Leith ond Meod {1915) morphism. He suggested that mndstone be used
as a general term to inchule clay, claystone, silt,
I Schuohert (1951)
siltstone, shale and argillite. Shale, according to
Kuenen {1941) him is a fissile, indurated, non-metamorphosed,
Xrynine (1948)
fine-grained elastic rock.
On the basis of texture and composition,
Meo¢l 0 9 0 7 ) Shrock (1948, p. 123-124) proposed a fiehl clas-
sification. Class limits were defined only
Clorke (1924)
vaguely. Three groups were recognized: clay-
Holmes (19~7) stone (composed dominantly of clay material):
siltstone (composed mainly of indurated silt):
Wickmon (t954}
and mudstone (partly indurated argillaceous
rock). If these groups cannot he recognized,
rocks are designated "shale" until their exact
nature is established.
Many textural classifications are 'based almost
entirely on suhdivisions of a triangular diagram
whose end-points are clay, silt and sand (Tre-
fethen, 1950, p. 60; Shepard, 1054, p. 157; Gors-
line, 1960; Krumhein and Sloss, 1963, p. 150).
Fine-grained elastic rocks, unconsolidated sedi-
ments and soils are classified by these schemes.
Trefethen and Shepard illustrated several tex-
tural systems that were suggested by other
workers. Terms for mixtures of clay, silt and
sand were also proposed by Volk (1954).
Fissilily.--Fissility of sedimentary rocks is the
property' of splitting along closely spaced planes.
As applied to flue-grained elastic rocks, fissility
is a structural term nsed to indicate parting
along bedding planes (Ingrain, 1953). Many
classifications use fissility as a primary or sec-
ondary basis for distinguishing classes. In com-
mon usage, a "shale" is fissile, a "claystone" is
non-fissile. Fissility in shale generally reflects a
good to very good, parallel arrangement of mica
or clay particles, and non-fissitity suggests that
there is a poor or random arrangement (In-
gram, 1953, p. 869: White, 1961; Gipson, 1965;
Odom, 1967, p. 622).
lngram (1953, p. 877) suggested that break-
ing (splitting) characteristics of fine-grained
elastic rocks can be deserlhed as massive, flaky',
flaggy or some combination of these three types.
He proposed a nomenclature, based on fissility
(Table 2), for sedimentary rocks that contain
more than 50 percent silt and/or clay'. Simi-
larly, Folk (1961) used Ingram's terminology,
hut suggested numerical limits for each class
(Table 2). In Folk's terminology (1968, p. 141 ),
mudrock is a general term for terrigenons rocks
that contain 50 percent or more silt and/or clay.
Another classification, largely after Ingrain
(1953), was recommended by Dunbar and
 CL..I~g'X/t:IC.-IT/()_V ()F FI.VE-(;ICt[NI![) ~WE[)/3[E:\rT.qR)" t¢OCK~V 18;1

DISTRIBUTION OF PAPERS BY FIELDS OF RESEARCH

IN JOURNAL OF SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGY, 1960-1969
1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 TOTAL %
CONGLOMERATE f~
(Includes Recent) ~ i ~o

.50

40

• 3o

• zo

• IO

SANDSTONE o

30

SILT:
CLAY
MUD1 f20

I0

o
m

tO
CARBONATE 0

• I00

- 80

-60

"40

• 20

TOTALS .0
NUMBER 43 44 58 773 67 68 74 84 iOI 102 714
OF
PAPERS
LEGEND

ANCIENT
V-1
RECENT CLAY OTHER
SEDIMENT 8 MINERALS
EXPERIMENTS

FiG. 2.--l)istribntion of papers by fields o£ research in Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 1960-69.

Notes and discussions not included.
182 M. D . 4 N E PIC.qRD

"FABLEl,--Criteria used in North American literature for classification of fine-grained clastic rocks and sediments

Texture Fissibility Tectonic, Mineral Chemical Degree

(Particle (Strnc- Environ- Compo- Color Compo- of
mental
Size) ture) (Genetic) sition sition Meta.

Wentworth (1922) X
Twenhofel (1937) X X X
Ailing (1945) X
Krumbein (1947) X
Shroek (1948) X
Pettijohn (1949) X
Twenhofel (1950) X X X X
Trefethen (1950) X
Dapples and others (1950) X X X X
Krumbein and S[oss (1951) X X X X
Flawn (1953) X X X
Ingram (1953) X X
Shepard (1954) X
Pettijohn (1957) X X X
Dunbar and Rodgers (1957) X X
Gorsline (1960) X
Krumbein and Sloss (1963) X
Plcard (1966) X X
Folk (1961, 1968) X X

Rodgers (1957, p. 166; Table 2). They sug-
gested that mudstone be used for fine-grained
sedimentary rocks that are not fissile. According
to them, argillite should be applied only to argil-
laceous rocks that are very weakly metamor-
phosed. A more recent modification of Ingram's
classification was suggested by Beall (1964, p.
44).
Alling (1945) attempted to give quantitative
values to several terms (massive, platy, flaggy,
heavy-bedded, thin-bedded and fissile) that have
been applied to "shale." A scale of fissility was
proposed. Alling (1945, p. 751) also related fis-
sility to the composition of shale.
Terms that deseribe the splitting property of
layered rocks were given numerical limits by
MeKee and Weir (1953, p. 383). If specifically
defined, terms for fissility or splitting are useful
for field description. Recently, the terms for
splitting suggested by MeKee and W e i r (1953)
were applied to a dominantly siltstone sequence
and were found to be useful for correlation of

TABLE 2. Fine-grained clastic rock and sediment nomenclature of Ingrain

(1953), Folk (1961, 1968), and Dunbar and Rodgers (1957)

Ingrain Nomenclature
No Connotation Massive Fissile
as to Breaking
Characteristics
Relative Amounts of Silt
and Clay Unknown Mudroek Mndstone MtM Shale
Silt >Clay Siltroek Siltstone Silt Shale
Clay > Silt Clayrock Claystone Clay Shale
Folk Nomenclature
Grain Size of Mud Fraction Soft Indurated, Indurated,
Non-Fissile Fissile
Subequal Silt and Clay Mud Mudstone Mud Shale
Over ] Silt Silt Siltstone Silt Shale
Over ] Clay Clay Claystone Clay Shale
Dunbar and Rodgers Nomenclature
Uneonsolldated General Term Non-Fissile Fissile
General Term Mud, Dust Mudrock, Lutite Mudstone Shale, Mud Shale
Particles Mainly>4 Microns Silt Siltrock Siltstone Silt Shale
Particles Mainly<4 Microns Clay Clayroek Claystone Clay Shale
Weakly Metamorphosed Argilllte Clay Slate
 CL.qSSIt:ICATION OF t:INF~-GRAINED S E D I M E N T ' A R Y R O C K S
rock units (Picard, 1967, p. 52-53). Such terms
should be used, however, only as descriptive
structural terms and not as the primary basis of
classification of fine-grained elastic rocks.
Mineral Composition.--Unlike most sandstone
classifications, mineral composition is rarely
used in classifying fine-grained elastic rocks.
Although as important as their textural proper-
ties, the use of mineral composition is restricted
because of the difficulty of study. I-Iowever,
modern methods have made mineral identifica-
tion quicker and more accurate than it has been
heretofore. Through use of thin section and X-
ray diffraction techniques it is possible to do
modal analysis of medium and coarse siltstone,
determine the paragenesis, and reconstruct the
mineralogy of source areas (Picard, 1966). If
the detailed petrography of siltstone samplcs is
determined, use of the modal analyses enables
one to utilize chemical analyses and to calculate
normative minerals to a greater degree of cer-
tainty. Considerable information also can be ob-
tained about claystone through study of its min-
eralogy.
Color.--Fine-grained clastic rocks frequently
are described as (1) white, light gray, buff, tan ;
(2) green to blue; (3) red, brown, maroon; and
(4) dark gray to black. In older classifications
and in the description of subsurface samples,
rock color is especially stressed, commonly to
the exclusion of more significant properties.
The color of a elastic rock is dominantly the re-
sult of pigmentation by organic material or
iron. In many rocks, color differences are re-
lated to the oxidation state of the iron and to its
abundance. Red, maroon and some brown elastic
rocks are predominantly pigmented by fine he-
matite; green and gray rocks are frequently
pigmented by ferrous iron. Color should be re-
corded only as a secondary descriptive property
because it does not provide a fundamental
means of classification.
Chemic~l composition.--Until recently, chemical
analysis was the principal source of information
about the composition of fine-grained elastic
rocks (IPettijohn, 1957, p. 342). Chemical char-
acteristics therefore have provided several
methods of classification. Although chemical
analyses reflect the mineral composition, it is
difficult to relate chemical analyses to mineral
compositions. Because of this problem, a main
use of chemical analysis has been to distinguish
abnormal fine-grained elastic rocks. Variation
of the chemical composition of particular rocks
from "average" rocks has led to the following
183
terms: aluminous, siliceous, calcareous, carbo-
naceous, ferrnginous, phosphatic and potassie.
In certain situations this general approach is
fruitful, especially if it leads to detailed petro-
graphic study. Such expressions are not, how-
ever, generally useful or applicable to classifica-
tion of most fine-grained elastic rocks.
Dc9ree of metamorphism.--The degree of re-
constitution of clay minerals, the presence or
absence of cleavage or parting, and the grain
size have been used to classify argillaceous and
arenaceous sedimentary rocks that show varied
degrees of weak metamorphism (Flawn, 1953
and 1961 ). The classification is based on the de-
gree of reconstitution and/or recrystallization
and the presence or absence of preferred min-
eral orientation or parting, slaty cleavage or
foliation. Three grades of metamorphism below
what is commonly termed low-grade metamor-
phism are distinguished (incipient, very weak
and weak ; Flawn, 1961 ).
Recognition of metamorphic changes, where
they occur, is important. Such changes, how-
ever, are superimposed on original composition
and texture and are not primary attributes. The
degree of metamorphism is not, therefore, a
generally applicable means of classifying fine-
grained elastic rocks but is useful locally for
specific problems.
Genetic classification.--Several essentially ge-
netic classifications have been proposed. Krum-
bein (1947, p. 104) suggested that a broad clas-
sification of fine-grained elastic units is possible
on the basis of: (1) thickness of shale body;
(2) widespread or local occurrence of shale;
(3) lateral thickness changes; (4) lithological
uniformity or variability of shale and (5) asso-
ciated rock types. Four general tectonic and en-
vironmental situations were recognized: (1)
widespread stable platform, no strong positive
areas; (2) / a M y stable platform associated
with unstable source areas; (3) relatively shal-
low intraeratonic basins, source areas mildly
positive or relatively remote and (4) tectoni-
tally active marginally geosynclines, strong pos-
itive source areas. Each of the four broad
groups is based primarily on areal relationships.
Emphasis is placed on the magnitude and rates
of change of characteristics in shale sequences
which are considered to be "sheets" of rock that
may have accumulated in several different envi-
ronments of deposition.
Krumbein's classification does not stress tex-
ture or set limits for various classes. Sandy silt-
stone, claystone and shale were mentioned but
not defined (Krumbein, 1947, p. 105). Similarly,
184 M. D A N E t'IC:Ih'I)
fissility and mineral composition were not con-
sidered important parameters.
In a later paper, l)apples and others (1050)
followed the approach of Krumbein (1947) and
related types of shale to tectonic associations
and sandstone terminology. Shale classes were
defined for the following associations: stable
shelf (qnartzose shale); unstable shelf (quart-
zose, subgraywacke, and arkosic shale); and
geosynclinal (graywacke shale).
A. different genetic approach was suggested
hy Twenhofel (1950) who attempted to classify
fine-grained sediments and rocks on the basis of
their environments of deposition and the pro-
cesses responsible for deposition. Seven general
classes were distinguished: residual, glacial, flu-
vial, lacustrine, marine, volcanic and aeolian.
Within the marine group, Twenhofel (1950, p.
331-337) separated "red mud," blue gray mud,
red clay and hlack mud as a fimther refinement
according to rock color. Such schemes do not
really classify rocks or sediments, hut attempt to
establish criteria for recoffnition of depositional
environments and processes (Pettijohu, 1957, p.
2,35 ).
A genetic classification in which the terms
closely reflect the inferred origin of the rock
may he possible in the future, l[owever, too lit-
tle is currently known for such classification.
None of the genetic classifications have attained
general acceptance. Similar fine-grained clastic
rocks are produced in different environments of
deposition. Fine-grained elastic rocks that vary
in significant features are also formed in the
same environment of deposition.
PROPOSED FIELI) CI.ASSlF1CATION
GeneraL--On the basis of texture and mineral
composition, a uniform descriptive terminology
is proposed here for all divisions of fine-grained
elastic rocks. Textural properties are recognized
readily in the field and form the basis for field
classification. This textural classification can
also be used to classify fine-grained sediments
and soils.
Grain size nomenclatm'e.--Grain size and sort-
ing form the basis for the proposed field classifi-
cation. All possible mixtures of clay, silt and
Fro. 3.--Textural classification of fine-grained clastic rocks, unconsolidated sediments, and soil proposed here.
sand are inchuled. Based on the 50 percent
limit, four broad subdivisions (claystone, silt-
stone, mudstone and sandstone) are defined
(tiff. 3). Claystone, siltstone and sandstone con-
tain more than 50 percent of clay-, silt-, or
sand-sized material, respectively. Mudstone
contains less than 50 percent clay, silt or sand,
and has definite limits rather than uncertain
boundaries. The major groups are each subdi-
vided into three classes (fig. 9).
The terminology proposed follows present us-
age. However, the boundaries hetween classes
are different than those chosen by other work-
ers. Each of the four major groups occupies a
small triangle off the same size within the ter-
nary plot. The three subdivisions within each
major group occupy areas that are much closer
to being equal than is the case in most other
classifications. A total of nine rock or sediment
names are suggested (fig. 3) for fine-grained
sedimentary rocks, unconsolidated sediments, or
soils.
A classification should have as few areas as
possible where a slight error in determining the
percentage of components can change the tex-
tural name. The classification proposed here has
fewer off these points than other classifications,
hut still maintains logical and easily remem-
bered textural divisions. Uniform, simple and
useful subdividions are nsed. The classification
is logically structured. The terminology for
each subdivision of the major groups is similar
(fig. 3).
Many of the proposed classifications of sand,
silt and d a y mixtures cannot be applied without
a complete size analysis (Pettijohn, 1957, p.
25). The system proposed by Folk (1954) is
probably an exception. A complete size analysis
is also not necessary to determine rock or sedi-
ment names in the classification proposed here.
An example of the few decisions necessary to
distinguish one of the three siltstone classes
follows: (1) silt-sized grains are found to be
the dominant constituent; (2) silt is more than
or less than 75 percent; (3) if silt is less than
75 percent, it is determined whether clay is
more abundant or less abundant than sand. Sim-
ilar decisions can be made easily in the field for
the claystone and sandstone groups. In field
))))) )~
 CI...ISS[F1C..tTIOX OF FlArE-GRAINED S E D I M E N T i l R I " R O C K S 185

studies, it is not always possible to determine
whether a mudstone should be designated
elayey, silty or sandy (fig. 3).
.';umm(t~3' of rock lerms.--The terms proposed
here for the three broad groups need redefini-
tion because they are used differently by various
workers. ('la3'shmc is therefore defined as a
elastic rock consisting of more than 50 percent
material finer than 1/256 mm. Silty and sandy
are useful modifiers when the clay-sized mate-
fiat in less than 75 percent but more than 50 per-
cent. 5"iltslo.c consists of more than 50 percent
of material between 1/256 mm and 1/16 ram.
Clayey and sandy are used to modify siltstone
when silt-sized material is less than 75 percent
but more than 50 percent. Mudstone is com-
posed of a mixture of clay-, silt- and sand-sized
particles, none of which equals 50 percent of the
rock. T h e word mudstone is not used for fine-
grained elastic rocks for which the size distribu-
tion is unknown. None of the terms defined here
indicates anything about the presence or ab-
sence of fissi]ity.
]t is realized that historical usage will con-
timm to prevail and "shale" will be applied to all
fine-grained elastic rocks in many studies
(Tourtelot, 1960, p. 342). In its broadest sense,
shaIe will thus include claystone, siltstone and
mudstone. Shale will also be apphed by some in
a slightly more precise m a n n e r to laminated
clayey rock, which is consistent with the origin
of the word (Tourtelot, 1960).
Sorti~g a~d fissility,--Textural maturity is a
measure of the stability of the depositional site
and the iT~put of modifying energy (Folk,
1951). Four stages which are defined by clay
content, rounding and sorting, are recognized:
immature, submature, mature and supermature.

CLAY

TEXTURAL CLASSIFICATION CLAYSTONE

OF FINE-GRAINED ROCKS (CLAY)

AND SEDIMENTS
(NOMENCLATURE FOR SEDIMENT

SANDY SILTY
CLAYSTONE CLAYSTONE
(SANDY CLAY} (SILTY CLAY]

5O
CLAYEY

.f/f/f
~" MUDSTONE "~j_

X ~w..,~
~'~,. , (CLAYEY MUD)

CLAYEY SANDY Y SILTY CLAYEY

~ O ) ~UDSTONE II {
SANDSTONE \ ~UDSTONE S,LTSTONE
(CLAYEY SAND)

SILTY
IIsIIi~
I
(CLAYEY SILT)

SANDY
as
SANDSTONE SANDSTONE I SILTSTONE SILTSTONE
(SAND) (SILTY SAND) . (SANDY SILT) (SILT)

SAND 25 5O 75 SILT

PER CENT SILT

186 :1[. D A N E P I C A R D
Folk's concept and his terms are useful for
sandstone studies, but his nomenclature is inap-
propriate for fine-grained elastic rocks.
Because of possible genetic implications, it is
desirable to determine in the field the degree of
sorting and fissility. Three classes are proposed
for sorting: good, fair, and poor. The expres-
sion good sorting is applied to rocks that con-
tain more than 90 percent silt- or clay-sized ma-
terial. In appearance, such elaystone is
"smooth" and siltstone is "clean." A fair-sorted
fine elastic rock contains 75 to 90 percent silt or
clay. Claystone is gritty; siltstone appears dirty.
Poorly sorted siltstone or claystone contains less
than 75 percent silt or clay. Admixtures of 10 to
15 percent of sand, silt or clay can be recog-
nized with a hand lens.
Fine-grained elastic rocks are designated fis-
sile if that property is present. It is usefifl, how-
ever, to apply more precisely defined terms to
the splitting characteristic. Use of the bedding
and splitting terms proposed by McKee and
Weir (1953, p. 383) is recommended.
Other descriptiz.e features.--Several other
characteristics easily distinguished in the field
should be part of a good description. Color is
determined by comparison with a published
color chart. Where appropriate, the type of ce-
ment, degree of metamorphism and fossil con-
tent should also be part of the description. Sedi-
mentary structures and bedding types, although
generally inadeqnate/y described, are primary
characteristics. Horizontal laminations, small-
scale cross-stratification, graded bedding, cut
and fill structures, shrinkage cracks, burrows
and trails, ripple marks and many other features
are present. In hand specimens these structures
are sometimes difficult to see, but they can be
distinguished more readily than is commonly
supposed: many are revealed astonishingly well
in polished sections, in thin sections and by X-
radiography.
Examples of recommended field descriptions
of fine-grained elastic rocks are as follows :
Siltstone; good sorting, medium gray (N5),
calcite cement, flaggy, small-scale trough cross-
stratification.
Clayey Siltstone; poor sorting, grayish red
(5R4/2), do]omite cement, slabby, convoIute
bedding.
Silty Claystone; poor sorting, grayish green
(10GYS/2), calcite cement, pyritic, ostracods
common, disturbed bedding.
Siltstone, fair sorting, pale olive (10Y6/2),
calcite cement, flaggy, ripple-stratification.
PROPOSED LABORATORYCLASSIFICATION
GeneraL--Much can be learned about the min-
eral composition of fine-grained clastie rocks
through detailed study. Although clay mineralo-
gists study the clay fraction, they seldom exam-
ine the other minerals. Similarly, many other
workers only examine the non-clay fraction and
dq little with available X-ray diffraction meth-
ods. Because of the importance of the total min-
eralogy of fine-grained elastic rocks, all avail-
able means of study should be applied wherever
possible.
Mfineralogy.--The mineral composition of me-
dium to coarse siltstone can be determined reli-
ably with the petrographic microscope (Folk,
1960 and 1962; Picard, 1966; Miller, 1966) and
by X-ray diffraction. Quartz and feldspar are
the dominant detrital minerals in most siltstone ;
in some rock fragments exceed feldspar (Kry-
nine, 1940). In medium to coarse siltstone the
percent of quartz, quartzite, chert, feldspar,
rock fragments, "coarse" mica, opaque minerals,
authigenic carbonate, matrix ('material < 1/256
ram) and other constituents are determinable
with the petrographic microscope at high mag-
nifications. Modal analyses of siltstone are com-
parable with those obtained from sandstone,
even though siltstone is more difficult to study.
In many elastic rocks specific clay minerals
can be identified with the petrographic micro-
scope. X-ray diffraction techniques are prefera-
ble, however. Through use of an X-ray diffrac-
tion technique, Shaw and Weaver (1965) re-
cently determined the mineral composition of
300 shale samples. The average mineralogical
composition was: 30.8 percent quartz, 4.5 per-
cent feldspar, 3.6 percent carbonate, < 0.5 per-
cent iron oxides, 66.9 percent clay minerals, 1
percent organic material, and 2 percent other
materia]s. The samples analyzed were called
claystone, shale, mudstone and argillite. Silty
and calcareous fine-grained elastic rocks were
excluded.
Although much can be learned about the min-
eral eomposition of claystone, it is more difficult
to study than siltstone. The information ob-
tained from thin sections of claystone or from
X-ray diffraction studies can be reported in tab-
ular form and will be useful in interpreting its
origin,
Mineral classification.--Medium to coarse silt-
stone is gradational with very fine-grained
sandstone in mineral composition, bedding types
and sedimentary structures (Picard, 1966, p.
 CI..tSSIFIC..ITION OF F I N E - G R A I N E D S E D I M E N T A R Y R O C K S
912). It is logical therefore to relate siltstone
and, where possible, other fine-grained elastic
rocks to sandstone nomenclature. Unfortu-
nately, there is little agreement on the best sys-
tem of sandstone classification and there is con-
siderable nomenclatural and communicative
confusion among geologists (Klein, 1963, p.
556). According to Klein, seventeen field and
laboratory classifications of sandstone were pro-
posed in the North American geological litera-
ture between 1940 and 1960.
Several improvements in the classification of
fine-grained elastic rocks can be made on the
basis of their mineral composition. Modal analy-
ses are desirable, especially for medium and
coarse siltstone. The results of the modal analy-
ses should be reported both in tabular form and
on triangular diagrams whose endpoints are
quartz, feldspar and rock fragments. The clay
mineralogy should be determined by X ray dif-
fraction, preferahly before petrographic study is
commenced. Finally, it is snggested that a fine-
grained elastic rock be named according to one
of the sandstone classifications and on the domi-
nant clay mineral or mixed-layered clay that is
present. Several examples of the proposed no-
menclature follow: clayey siltstone, illite-sub]i-
tharenite; siltstone, kaolinite-subarkose; silty
mudstone, montmorillonite-litharenite; sandy
siltstone, illite-quartzarenite. A s]ight contradic-
tion in nomenclature of some of these examples
arises because a samlstone classification was
employed (Folk, 1968) that uses arenite as part
of some formal names.
Some fine-grained clastic rocks are so fine
that little petrographic information can be ob-
tained. In these rocks, the clay mineralogy can
he determined, but it may not be possible to as-
sign the rocks to their closest sandstone relative.
M E C H A N I C A L A S A L Y S E S OF F I S E - G R A I N E D
ROCKS .AND S E D I M E N T S
Grain-size analyses of ancient fine-grained
clastlc rocks, recent fine-grained sediments and
loess were plotted on triangu]ar diagrams (See
appendix for sources of information). The dis-
tribution of the recent sediments (fig. 4) indi-
cates the scarcity of postulated boundaries be-
tween "natural" divisions. However, there is a
concentration of samples along the clay-silt side
of the triangle between 57 and 78 percent clay
(fig. 4). Nearly all of these samples are within
the silt)" clay class. Similar plots of recent sedi-
ments by Shepard and Moore (1955, p. 1501)
show concentrations of silty clay, particularly in
some bays and on the outer shelf. Concentra-
tions of silty clay and clay in several gulf areas
]87
were also noted by Van Andel (1964, p. 246).
The boundaries of the silty clay class enclose
most of these samples. No other concentrations
are evident on the plot of recent sediments (fig.
4), and I believe that even this one may not be
real. It is probably the result of an "average
effectiveness" of currently used dispersive tech-
niques in fine-grained sediments. A large pro-
portion of those points clustered near 75 percent
clay probably contain more clay-sized material
than is indicated. It is also difficult to believe
that only about two percent of the samples con-
tain more than 80 percent clay-sized material
(fig. 4).
It is premature therefore to look /or
"natnral" classification boundaries. They proba-
bly do not exist. Arbitrary subdivisions will al-
ways be made, as has been done here. In nature
there are gradations between grain-size mix-
tures, mineral and chemical composition, fissility
and all other significant properties of fine-
grained rocks and sediments.
If the recent samples are classified according
to the nomenclature proposed here, the clay
(clay, silty clay, sandy clay) and silt (silt,
clayey silt, sandy silt) groups are about equal in
abundance, but there is slightly more silt than
clay (fig. 5). The mud group constitutes iess
than one-half of either of the other two groups.
I could find only a small number of mechani-
cal analyses of ancient fine-grained elastic rocks
(fig. 6). If these rocks are classified by my no-
menclature, the siltstone group is about three
and one-half times the claystone group (fig. 7).
The mudstone group is small and is abont one-
third of the claystone group. However, these re-
lationships are probably biased for several rea-
sons: the population is small; claystone and
mudstone are seldom studied by mechanica]
analysis; and disaggregation of claystone and
mudstone is more difficult than for siltstone. ]n
ancient rocks there is relatively more claystone
and mudstone than is indicated by the plots
(figs. 6-7) and less siltstone.
Of a group of 100 samples called "shale" in
the literature, fifty-four are clayey siltstone.
The remainder are: silty claystone, 34; clay-
stone (fair sorting), 10; and claystone (good
sorting), 2.
More than 90 percent of the loess is silt (fig.
8). In order of abundance, the loess is: silt,
clayey silt and sandy silt (fig. 9). The distribu-
tion of the loess samples is striking and proba-
bly can be used locally to differentiate sediment
deposited by air currents from that deposited by
water currents.
A close correlation exists between ancient, re-
188 .:lf. D A N E P I C A R D

C LAY

f~ R EC E NT
, ...~.~. N=751

7-: l--;X
I- : "'."..:', ,o
. i .. ,g

. . . . . -
/ \'--- ;4<iX v
/. \ "\ . .. . /- ;f::-...\ ~',,.

. \:. .r : . /.. -, \.
/ \ ' "" /''\\. ' ".- "/'.k

\ k . .t/. , " " - \ -;\- . "1

. - ' :? .. / - ~ '. . " :". : >- -" /. " / . k
,~. ...>-, \..]../;2: - . ../. .- \
k .".. ..-.:\ I / '. .... 5 ... . :.\
'.i " ., ::. , ,,:./.,...'...,:.....\
SAND 25 50 75 SILT
PER CENT SILT

cent, and, to a lesser degree, loess samtdes if the
relative al)undances of each textural class are
plotted (fig. 10). The distribution into textural
classes seems to be a real distribution and not a
consequence of sampling error. It is suggested
that the curves woukl approach each other more
closely if the ancient population was larger and
if fine-grained ancient elastic rocks were more
amenable to mechanical analysis. Sandy clay
(stone) or clayey sand (stone) are not abun-
dant mixtures because of grain size differences.
These size differences result from deposition of
d a y and sand in different environments. Sand
and sandstone were not plotted on Figure 10.
CARBONATE M I X T U R E S
Rocks and sediments that are gradational
mixtures of clay, silt, sand and carbonate are
locally abundant. Examples of such mixtures
are shown m Figure 11. Classification of these
rocks, many of which are fine-grained, is diffi-
cult.
In samples where clay, silt, sand or carbonate
exceed 50 percent, the rocks should be given the
appropriate name of the dominant constituent
(fig. 11). The name of each rock then depends
upon the formal classification used for the par-
ticular study. The other admixtures in each
sample can be denoted, in order of abundance,
as descriptive adjectives to the rock name.
It is possible, however, for a carbonate rock
to contain biogenic, detrital and authigenic car-
bonate. If these three fractions together exceed
50 percent, the rock should be classified accord-
ing to carbonate nomenclature, even though the
total detrital fraction of the rock (detritaI car-
 C L A S S I F I C A T [ O . ¥ OF FINE CR. tI37ED S E D I M E N T A R Y R O C K S
FIG. 4.--Plot oi fine-grained recent sediments. In order to show gradations, some silty sand and clayey samI
were plotted in instances where lhev are associated wltb fine-gralned sediment. Saud was not plotted, althouch
it is ~radational with silly sand an~l clayey sand. [%ints <nltside triangle project to triangle. The classificatio~q
prnl,osed here is shown hy dadwd lines (see fi~. 3). Sources of mechanical analyses are given in the appendix.
bonate plus other detritus) can exceed 50 per-
cent. Such rocks are difficult to study and clas-
sify, but the3" are rare.
T h r e e possibilities for classification of rocks
thai do not contain 50 percent clay, silt, sand or
carbonate are evident, l:irst, the3" can be given
the rock name of the most ahtmdant constituent.
The other components are then appended to the
rock name as descriptive adjectives. In this
scheme, sample 1 is a sandstone, samples 4 and 7
are carbonate, and the other numhered samples
are siltstone (fig. 11 ). Second, in rocks in which
clay, silt and sand together exceed the carbonate
fraction, the rocks can he designated elaystone,
siltstone or sandstone depending on which of
the three is more abundant. Appropriate de-
scriptive terms would be included with the rock
name. I f a large part of the carbonate is authi-
genie, the second method su.g.gested is prefera-
ble to the first. :\ccording to this method, sam-
ples 1 and 4 are sandstone and the remainder of
the numbered samples are siltstone. Third, stlch
mixtures mijzht he called carhonate mudstone.
The triangle containing them couhl be suMi-
vided into three divisions similar to the textural
classification of fine-grained elastic rocks.
All three suggestions are susceptible to criti-
cism. These gradational rocks are little studied
and poorly known. ]:or now, the best solution is
probably to describe them in terms of mineral
composition (modal analysis) and their para-
genesis. T h e requisite information will then be
available for future classification.
CONCLUSIONS
The need for a unified, descriptive classifica
tion of fine-grained sedimentary rocks is appar-
ent. Only about 5 percent of the papers on fine-
.grained elastic rocks that were published in the
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology d u r i n g 1960-
1969 cited a previously published classification.
Most authors did not use a formal classification.
T h e nomenclature proposed here is needed to
advance understanding. The immediate effect of
utilizing an appropriate classification will be im-
proved communication between geologists. In
lg9
time, greater understanding of the significant
processes in transportation, deposition and dia-
genesis of fine-grained elastic rocks will arise.
The reasons for lateral and vertical changes in
fine-grained sequences will become much clearer
when components of the rocks are separated
and distinguished in more detail. One need only
look at the progress that has been made in un-
derstanding sandstone and limestone since the
development of modern systems off classification
to realize what is possible for fine-grained elas-
tic rocks.
As nearly as possible, I am proposing a de-
scriptive classification. The distribution off clay,
silt and sand and the mineral composition are
the principal determinants. Recent advances in-
dicate that considerable information can be oh-
30-
W 25-
RECENT
(N=751}
20-
-I
g
I--
IO-
IIJ
0,_ 5-
i Jl Jl
NOMENCLATURE
FIG. 5.1Histogram of information shown in figure
4. Dashed horizontal line shows total percent of mud
class.
190 M, /L-'I.VE PIC.dRD

CLAY

•- ANCIENT
N=234

----'. 75

• ° . '~

• o. o

o'~
\
\ \ / / . ..J . .~

\ "I'" /'" ".".

\ I / " "" ." ..
/\ I 5
\\ j z \\ I / " <'\ ./ \
•\ I" / ~\.,// ".\
W / \ t / L .X
\
\ \ I./ ' ./-" .: " ' : . ~
\ • " ..
SAND 25 50 75 SILT
PER CENT SILT
FIG. ().--Plot of fine-grained clastic rocks. Sources of mechanical analyses are given in the appendix.

,,,"~) >

Fro. 8.--Plot of loess samples. Sources given in appendix.

 30-

Fro. 7.--Histogram of information shown in figure

W 25. 6. Dashed horizontal line shows total percent of mud-
stone class
lIE ANCIENT
(t~ 2 0 - {N=234) < ((<(<

O
I-- I5-
la.
o
F- tained about mineral composition even though it
z

1
tO-
I.d
was once thought to be inappropriate to classifi-
cation because of the fineness of these rocks.
LiJ
5- F. . . . . . . . . l The degree of fissility, bedding types and sed-
' I imentary structures, fossil content, color and
other attributes should also be determined
i
where possible and included in the basic descrip-
w
ILl tion. The primarily genetic approach of inferred
zw
w
Z 0 O Z tectonic associations and environments of de-
P-
gggg positions is not useful in actual classification.
Further, the reasoning is circular. An under-
z 5 0 O3 standing of the genesis of these rocks will only
>-
O3 result from the application of good descriptive
~ z techniques in the field and laboratory. The num-
It) U3 (~
ber of variables is too large for a completely ge-
NOMENCLATURE netic classification.
CLAY

LOESS
N=321

75
,7
I .
.I
I
I
I
I
L__ 5(

\ \ / /
%
\ \ / /.
\ "<. / / .....
\ "T'... / ..
\ i / "..::.
\ / \ / "%.
\ / / \ I / ..\~ ' / . ..:.
\ I /- .. .'-../,'," • : . .
\ \ / /
\ \ / .. • ,': b]
\ \../: .. / "~'..

SAND 25 5O 75 SILT
PER CENT SILT
192 .~. D.fArE P I C A R D

60 Recent sediments: Coakley and Rust (1968);

Connolly, Needham and lleezen (1967) ; 1)aboll
(1967) ; Eardley (1938) : Visk (1955 and 1%1) :
W
.J
5O l:isk and others (1954); ttorn (1967); tIough
( 1935 ) : Krumbein and Aberdeen (D)37) ; Mfiller
~E
(1966); Nota (1958); Reid (19,53); Shepard
40 (1056) ; Thompson (1956) ; Trowbridge (1030) :
J
LOESS Twe1~hofel and McKelvey (1942) ; Udden
(N=321) (1914) : and Van Andel (1964).
30 ¸
U. I;ble-grained closlic rocks: Folk (1960);
o Frakes (1967); Keller and Ting (1950); Me-
Z 20'
Kee (1938); Miller (1966); Payton and
LIJ Thomas (1959); Picard and IIigh (1963); Pi-
card (unpuh.) ; Rubey (1930) ; Scotford
bJ
10-
(1965); Stanley (1968); Swineford (1955);
ar, d Tourtelot (1962).
l_oess: Bollen (1945); Dahl, l)avidson and
I [ 1 Roy (1960) : Davidson, tlandy and Chu
o. . . . . . . 1-72 i
(1960); Fisk ( 1 9 5 1 ) ; H a n d y , Lyon and David-
- -
son (1960); Imgn (1962); ],yon (1960); Rus-
sell (1944): Swineford and Frye (1945, 1951
and 1955) ; Udden (1914) ; and Watkins
(1945).
NOMENCLATURE
]diG, 9.--Histogram of information shown in figure 8.

Study and classification of fine-grained elastic I !~TO 50.7

rocks is not impossibly complicated. It has only
appeared so. For those who choose to work wih ~ LEGEND
these rocks and with unconsolidated sediments II ~| RECENT
and soils much can he accomplished by use of 3o i ,NC,EN,___
the approach stressed here. il li LoEss .......
A C K N O W L EDG M F, N T S

[ had considerable help on this paper, which I

am glad to acknowledge, ttarvey Blatt, D. W.
P,oyd, 1£. F. McBride, L. R. Itigh, Jr. and W. L.
Stokes critically read the mammcript and of-
feted suggestions for its improvement. Several

4h'//i/iI
years ago, D. 1). Beckmaml contrihuted substan-
tiall 7 to my viewpoint about lhe classification of
fine-grained sedimentary rocks. I also profited
I)y discussions with E. F. McBride, R. L. Folk
aim K. :k. \V. Crook during the fall semester of
"i'[ /N.
1%7 when 1 was on leave at the University of
T e x a s . . \ l o r e recently I). P. Morrison plotted
most of the hfformation shown in Figures 4-10
and helped m other ways. l:igure 2 was com-
piled by I). A. ,.\ndersen. The figures were Z Z
drafted by I). 1.. Olsotl; V. R. Picard typed the
manuscript. Financial support was provided
through a National Science Foundation grant
03 03
(GA-12570).
APPENDIX

Sources of the information shown in Figures Fro. lO.--Comparison of distribution of recent sedi-
4-10 are as :follows : ments, fine-grained clastic rocks and loess.
 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N OF FlArE-GRAINED S E D I M E N T A R Y R O C K S 193

MICRITE,
MICROS PAR,
SPARRY CARBONATE

SUMMARY THAYNESFM.(TRIASSIC)
> 50 per cent silt, II spls.
> .50 per cent send, 8
> 50 per cent corbonote, 18
25
N=45
CARBONATE
< 5 0 per cent silt, send,
or carbonote. 8

50 50 r -

7. 8"/{~ ~

\\\\\ .4 5/.;7 "

• CARBONATE MUDSTONE (?) / .
\ 2" "3 /
\ .i /
\ / ?5
£ \ /
/ . . S~Dm'ON \\ /
/ Stt.TSTONE
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /
V
SAND 50 S I LT
FIc. ll.--Silt, sand and carbonate mixtures from rocks of the Thaynes Formation (Triassic) of western
Wyoming and adjacent Idaho. Note the gradation between siltstone and carbonate and the lack of a natural
boundary between them. In some carbonate mixtures clay-sized material is a major component. For these rocks,
a fourth axis can be used or three end-nlemhers can be retained if either sand- or silt-sized material are in-
significant and need not be plotted. A claystone group is then recognized.

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