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Abram Loft
To Jill
Contents
Preface ix
1
Of Time and Temper 1
2
Sonatas by Three Italian Composers of the Early Seventeenth Century: Cima, Marini,
Fontana 11
3
Violin-Virtuoso/Composers in Germany in the Later Seventeenth Century:
Schmelzer, Biber, Walther 20
4
Italian Violinist/Composers of the Bologna School in the Later Seventeenth Century:
Cazzati, the Vitalis, degli Antonii 43
5
Italian Violin-Virtuoso/Composers in the Early Eighteenth Century: Coreilli, Vivaldi,
Geminiani, Others 48
6
Sonatas of Telemann and Handel 88
7
The Sonatas of J. S. Bach 109
8
Some Lesser Sonatas of the Bach Era 138
9
Italian Virtuoso/Composers in the Mid-Eighteenth Century: Veracini, Tartini,
Locatelli 151
10
Some Violinist/Composers in Paris in the Eighteenth Century: Leclair, Mondonville,
Others 185
11
Schobert and Contemporaries: The Sonata for Keyboard with Violin Accompaniment
in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century 206
12
Some Violin and Continuo Sonatas of the Later Eighteenth Century 223
13
Mozart: The Childhood Sonatas and the First Mature Sonatas (through K. 306) 228
14
Mozart: Sonatas K. 296, 376 to 380; Variations, K. 359 and 360 255
15
Mozart: The Last Sonatas, K. 402, 454, 481, 526, and 547 285
Postlude 305
Notes 307
Bibliography 317
Editions Used 327
Acknowledgments 347
Index 351
Preface
People are never satisfied! I have been having the time of my life these many years rehearsing, performing, and
recording some of the most challenging and satisfying repertoire that music affordsthe string-quartet literaturefrom
Haydn to Bartók and beyond. That should be enough for anyone; but no, I have not been able entirely to give up
an older allegiance to the duo-sonata repertoire, for violin and piano (or harpsichord, depending on the age of the
work); and an even older love, the duo for viola and keyboard. So I have tucked sonata recitals, here and there, into
the already crowded schedule of a quartet-player/teacher. And when an opportunity offered itself to write about the
violin sonata repertoire, I rose to the bait.
If I didn't know it when I started, I know now: everyone has written violin sonatas. At any rate, it seemed that way
to me as I contemplated the iceberg I had offered to demolish. But my task was simplified by the fact that this
book is for playersstudents, amateurs, professionalswho want to know about music that they can read, rehearse, and
perform. It is for performers who want to know what kind of music is available, so that they can move beyond the
ordinarily rather limited store of works that many of us have in our personal libraries, and finally (as I see it), it is
for those who want some guidance as to the type of music in question, its difficulty, what particular points of
interest it has, and how it can be approached in performance.
Accordingly, I limited myself, first, essentially to music available in modern, in-print editions. Some of this music
I had in my home library already; the rest I was able to purchase. Obviously, some of the titles included here are
not to be found, in stock, on the shelves of your local
Errata
Numbers = page/paragraph/line.
Contents/Chapter''Corelli," not "Coreilli"
5
81/3/9 progress
83/3/3 Ignore left parenthesis
85/1/10 , (comma) after "Brussels"
93/3/7 " (quotation) after]
108/2/1 "E," not "E flat"
111/4/5 Ignore words, " . . . not at Lubeck, but"
166/3/5 " . . . measures 3 and 4 after letter C"
166/3/9 " . . . (as in measure 2 after letter C)"
179/4/1 , (comma) instead of ; (semi-colon)
207/5/1 "former" instead of "reformed"
215/2/1 Omit hyphen in Robbins Landon. Same error in Notes (No.
145), as well as Bibliography and Index, with author
incorrectly listed under R.
308/Note 18 No apostrophe in "Bibers." Same error in Bibliography.
1
Of Time and Temper
Think of a pursuit that demands the dexterity of Houdini, the patience of Job, the firmness of purpose of Captain
Ahab, the alertness and reflexes of a jet pilot, the conviction of a fine actor, the tact and adaptability and integrity
that everyone would want to possess. . . . Enough! The description is too high-flown to be tolerated. And the
endeavor in question must be impossible of human achievement.
The hyperbole is, after all, only slight. Playing chamber music in general, and the violin-piano duo specifically, is a
hard job. Consider a fine performance of a sonata. First, there is the sound of the playing. The violinist's left hand
moves precisely over the fingerboard, intoning the notes not only accurately, but also with the proper shades of
intensity, grading the color from palest coolness to the warmest glow that vibrato can provide. And the violinist's
right arm urges the bow into the string firmly, smoothly, whether in the broadest legato or the most sparkling,
pointed, or bouncing stroke. The pianist reveals an accurate and agile pair of hands, and an ability to coax from the
instrument its great range of tone colors and variety of sound textures. The pianist's feet must be almost as
educated as his hands, for the judicious use of the pedals is essential to the dynamic and sonorous palette of the
piano.
Both instrumentalists play sweetly or brusquely, as the occasion demands. To choose the temper of the moment:
this and all other decisions in the performance are the privilege and responsibility of the players. When
This composition dates from 1910. Since then, composers have far exceeded the density of instruction of this
Webern example. But it is impossible, through notation, to guide and control the performer in the smallest detail of
nuance and shading of the musical line. The composer must finally rely on the performer's musical experience,
familiarity with the particular author's idiom and style, and insight into the specific work being played. The
practiced ear must interpret the information absorbed by the eye.
How the skilled performer places his experience at the service of the composer's invention and intent can be seen
from the following illustration. Let us compare two performances of the opening measures of the Beethoven
Kreutzer Sonata, in A major, op. 47. We'll not identify the performers, but these observations are drawn from
careful inspection of the recorded performances of the Kreutzer by two different duos.
Figure 1-2.
In version one, the introductory Adagio is taken at a tempo of about (this numerical reference is, of course,
to the Maelzel metronome system, whereby musical time is generally measured today*). Owing to the declamatory
nature of the solo violin opening, one should not force every note into the frame of a rigid metronomic pulse. The
tempo figure given,
* M.M. (i.e., Maelzel's metronome) 60, indicates one pulse per second; M.M. 120, two pulses per second.
Thus, means that one eighth note occupies slightly less than one second of time.
In version two, the Adagio is set at about . The violin tone is rather quiet, somewhat on the cool side. The
pacing of the line is variable, more agitated, more "nervous" than in version one. There is a quite noticeable thrust
forward, carrying the line through to the downbeat of measure 4 before letting the music relax and settle into the
cadence. The chords of measures 3 and 4 are played with a quick roll of the bow, as though to present each chord
as nearly as possible as a simultaneously heard cluster of tones.
In this version, moreover, the phrase is inflected so that the breaks in the line are emphasized. The total impression
given in the opening violin measures is one of a certain leanness, excitement, search.
Now, let us see what the pianist does with his opening statement, in response to the violinist's lead, in each of these
two performances. In version one, the pianist plays the quarter-note chords of his phrase (measures 5 ff.) as though
tolling a bell; each cluster of tones is struck with solemn gravity, giving the effect of a processional that matches
the massiveness of the violinist's way. The eighth notes (measures 6 and 7) move just as steadily as the opening
quarters. There is very little pushing of the tempo.
The pianist in version two takes another tack. His approach is rather light and flowing. The performer moves ahead
noticeably in the eighth-note passage of measures 6 and 7. The treatment of the entire phrase is forward leaning,
matching in this the trend of the opening violin statement in this particular performance.
Clearly, each pianist is acting in the light of a musical agreement he has reached with his violinist partner, so that
the approach of each duo to the music at hand is unified in intent. In the Presto that follows the introduction,
each duo proceeds in a fashion consistent with its handling of the prologue. In version one, the tempo of the Presto
is about . In version two, the tempo of the Presto is . The faster introduction in version two has
unfolded into a correspondingly faster Presto. Moreover, the two performers in version two use a less detached,
more connected treatment of the quarter notes that begin the Presto. The emphasis, again, is on the forward-leaning
drive. Also, the treatment of the grand cadences (measures 25 to 27, 34 to 36) is less portentous in the second
version than in the first.
Which version is preferable? Each one obeys its own logic. The introduction, as played by the given duo, sets its
own frame, casts its own implications; and these are borne out by the way of playing the Presto. Which duo has
struck closest to Beethoven's intent? The listener will decide, convinced that he, after all, has the true insight into
Beethoven's musical purpose. But first the performer must act with this kind of conviction, making clear-cut
choices so that a coherent musical organism can be discerned and evaluated by the listener. Through choice of
tempo, bowing style, specific string color, piano touch, inflection and pacing, shading of tone, logical relating of
successive events in the music, the performers must recompose the work for the listener. A musical composition is
experienced in sequence, from first note to last. The interrelating of these tones to one another, the assembly of
successive sounds into meaningful patterns must be accomplished by the performer, not left entirely to the
imagination and diligence of the listener.
These sustained chords reflect not only the stentorian chords heard near the beginning of the Presto (see Figure 1-3,
measures 25 to 27, 34 to 36)and at intervening points as wellbut also refer back to premonitory musical events in
the introductory Adagio.
Let us retrace our way, step by step. The closing Adagio reveals weighty half-step progressions (these are
bracketed in Figure 1-4). These progressions mirror similar, but faster motions that are predominant in the entire
Presto, from its very opening (see bracketed notes, Figure 1-3). These, in turn, are previewed by intervallic
fragments scattered throughout the introductory Adagio (refer to bracketed notes, Figures 1-2 and 1-5).
Figure 1-5.
The first four measures are heard completely alone, the whole notes moving along with disarming slowness. (Are
they really whole notes, or are they actually lazy quarter notes? The ear cannot be sure.) As the other voices make
their successive entries, however, the texture thickens. More quickly paced motions (see Figure 1-6, measures 5 ff.)
take over to accom-
2
Sonatas by Three Italian Composers of the Early Seventeenth Century:
Cima, Marini, Fontana
The repertoire for violin and keyboard dates from the early years of the seventeenth century. The violin
familyviolin, viola, cello, and basscame into being in Europe before the middle of the sixteenth century. By 1600,
these instruments, strong and penetrating in tone, were beginning to displace the earlier, softer-voiced family of
bowed instruments, the viols.
Generally speaking, the musical taste of the sixteenth century had favored the spinning of polyphonic webs of
sound, several equally important strands of melody being woven together so that the ear's attention was directed to
all parts in turn. The ''new music" of the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries championed monody, in
which a clearly exposed, intensely expressive melodic line was set off against a supporting background of
accompanying harmony.
First and foremost, the performance of the "intensely expressive melodic line" was assigned to the human voice,
able to clothe words, and their specific meanings, in tone. The possibilities of vocal monody were realized in
various kinds of composition, but most impressively in opera, and especially in the operas of Claudio Monteverdi
in the early decades of the seventeenth century.
In his operatic writing, Monteverdi specified that particular instru-
Biagio Marini
That sonata, one of the most effective for violin and continuo, is also one of the earliest: the Sonata per il violino
per sonar con due corde, by Biagio Marini, written no later than 1628. It was contained in the composer/violin-
virtuoso's opus 8, "Sonate, Symphonie, Canzoni . . . for all kinds of instruments,"all three titles serving in that
period as generic names for instrumental musicpublished in Venice in that year. The piece is not, as the title might
literally imply, intended for some sort of two-stringed
Bartolomeo Montalbano
A sonata from the same period as Marini's opus 8, the sinfonia number 4 (1629) of the Bolognese-born Bartolomeo
Montalbano, reprinted by Franz Giegling in his anthology, The Solo Sonata, is again filled with violinistic
busywork. As Giegling points out in his fine historical introduction, this kind of writing shows the violin
establishing its prerogatives as a distinct and soloistic instrument in the seventeenth century, pulling away from
any subservience to the singing voice. The composer designates the organ as the continuo instrument, and the long,
sustained background chords presented to the active violin part may well preclude any real interest in the piece for
a performing duo. The work is available for inspection and enjoyment, nonetheless.
The subtitle of the piece, incidentally, promises a certain piquance, because it reads, ''Geloso." Before leaping to
any conclusions about the composition's exploration of a jealousy theme, however, see Giegling's source
information, and be aware that the sonata was dedicated to one Girolamo Geloso.
b. Same, written in 3/4 time
To Fontana's eye, his own setting of the piece seemed quite lively (which, indeed, it is). Today's player needs
imagination to break the psychological barrier set up by the appearance of so many fat, slow white notes. Over the
centuries, musical usage in our notation has tended toward ever shorter note values, the tempo frame adjusting
itself to match. That is, we read ''shorter" notes than our remote ancestors, but we see them as slower units of time
than our forebears would have.
Conversely, ifwith Friedrich Cerha, the editor of the Fontana setwe jump back in time and read the apparently long
tones of the past, we must bring them into musical focus by "thinking" short. This amounts to a kind of musical
translation (which, indeed, editors should do for us), except that, unlike literary translation, we should end with
something that sounds fairly like the original. Our objection may be cantankerous, because Cerha does use our
"normal" values for all movements except an occasional one; but the appearance of a Presto (sonata 1) with lazy
note values comes as a shock.
However, the more important question is, Can one agree with the
In largest view, the six sonatas break down into two types: 1, 3, and 5 are the more sober, stately, dignified,
"learned" pieces. Sonatas 2, 4, and 6 are somewhat more excited, flighty, freewheeling. But these are differences in
degree only. The fifth and sixth sonatas come closest to sustaining the interest of the listener, and should be played
for the insight they give us into the early efforts in the field of the sonata"a piece to be played" (as contrasted to a
piece for singing). One should also recommend these sonatas as learning or intermediate-difficulty pieces for
ensembles of varying ages. The fingers of the violinist are well exercised within the first position; the bow is
thoroughly used in on-the-string style, from articulate short notes to legato flourishes and slower lines. The
continuo is fairly simple, even when the player is called upon to reflect specific turns of phrase of the violin part.
Greater involvement of the continuo is to be found in the Tenth Sonata of the Fontana set, offered by Giegling.
This example, as Giegling indicates, hovers on the verge of trio sonata (it is written for violin, bassoon, and
continuo), except for the fact that the bassoon line is actually an elaborated version of the given bass line of the
continuo. If a bassoonist is on hand, our duo may well play the work as stipulated by the composer.
3
ViolinVirtuoso/Composers in Germany in the Later Seventeenth Century:
Schmelzer, Biber, Walther
In germany of the seventeenth century, English musicians, notably William Brade and Thomas Simpson, and
Italian violinist-composers such as Biagio Marini (the courts of Neuburg and Düsseldorf) and Carlo Farina
(Dresden and Danzig)during the first four decades, collectivelyjoined with native Austrian and North German
composers and violin virtuosos in the development of string playing. These musical currents interacted with each
other, the English contributing vigorously to the cultivation of dance-style music already current in Germany; the
Germans, significant advances in the technique of string playing, especially as regards polyphonic texture and
chordal passages; and the Italians, a sense of the lyric possibilities and formal cohesiveness of violin composition.
One of the earliest significant German composers in the field of the solo sonata was Johann Heinrich Schmelzer.
Of the three composers considered in this chapter, Schmelzer typifies the violin virtuoso exploring the possibilities
of his instrument with some dignity and a feeling for the coherence and structural integrity of his music. His
younger contemporary, Johann Walther, is a virtuoso of the kind encountered in every agethe pyrotechnics of the
instrument seem enough to interest him. The result, in his compositions, is music that often runs
b. Score, page 4, mm. 1-2
The importance of the entire question of mood and tempo relationship, of nuance and flexibility in performance, is
made emphatic when we think of the kind of interpretation of music, especially ''old" music, to which we are often
subjected. Conductors, instrumentalists, singers, and more than one scholar all are too prone to assume that older
music (and sometimes not so old music) is dead music. The inflexible, unvarying level of speed and dynamics that
is imposed on music and the relentless flow of note after note, with scant heed to the inflection and nuance called
for by the text, let alone the musical lineall this makes a performance sound
The tempo of the Allegro must be such that the predominant (slower) rhythms of the movement can have enough
swing and thrust, and yet not force the one rapid flourish of thirty-second notes (violin, measure 5) into a garbled
pace. The 3/4-time section that makes up the second half of the Allegro must be taken at a speed such that one bar
of the 3/4 equals approximately one-half measure of the duple-meter Allegro.
The same holds true for the relationship between the long- and short-note passages in the Adagio that follows. The
rapid passage-work, like many an episode in these pieces, displays (from our viewpoint) a rather innocent
enjoyment of violinistic acrobatics. If played with a light and
And in sedate portions of the sonata as well as in friskier moments (see below), the keyboard can reserve for itself
some part in the festivities.
Figure 3-4
Score, page 19, mm. 1-2
It is a sense of curiosity about a past era in music making and about a luminary from the early ages of sonata
writing, as much as any intrinsic excitement in the pieces themselves that draws us to these works. One need not
stage a Schmelzer-fest, however, to justify the inclusion of one of these compositions in an evening's musical fare.
They are useful, too, as moderately challenging study material for the intermediate ensemble.
As will be noted from tunings for sonatas 7, 9, and 12, the raising of the lowest string is carried to such degree that
it is necessary in these cases to replace the G-string with a D-string. The G-string, raised to the pitch of C, would
not only be in immediate danger of breaking, but would impose a significant strain on the violin. The substituted
D-string, lowered a whole tone, is safer. For sonata 11, as the editor points out, the A- and D-strings must be
interchanged, so that the indicated tuning sequence of G-G-D-D can be carried out. 10
There is a further difficulty: the violin and its strings need to adjust themselves to the strains and intonation
patterns of the several tunings. Moreover, the tuning process itself takes getting used to on the part of the player,
for the tuning of a perfect fourth (called for in many of the specifications) is a more difficult hearing problem than
the tuning of the normal fifth.
Why bother? Indeed, one editor-commentator on these works manages to raise that question, answer it, and wipe
out all of Biber's effort with one stroke. In the introduction to the Universal Edition of these works, ''newly
arranged for concert-use" by the violinist Robert Reitz on the occasion of his performance of the entire cycle of
sonatas in Berlin, Weimar, and Vienna, in 19151917, Alfred Heuss has this to say:
For every sonata of this cycle, Biber chose a different tuning, of which most are such that the tuning in the
concert-hall is in general difficult, and would require the use of half a dozen specially tuned and played-in
violins, which is not easy to arrange. Robert Reitz has arranged the sonatas for the first time in a new
setting for concert-use . . . 11
What Reitz actually did was to set the pieces so that they could be played on the normally tuned (i.e., G-D-A-E)
violin.
The venerable Guido Adler, a dean among European musicologists and most sympathetic to the work and purposes
of Biber, starts down this same path of reasoning when he writes, of a Biber scordatura sonata in another opus, that
the tuning specified by the composer leads to some problems of reading. He states:
In order to avoid these confusions and since anyway in normal tuning only very few notes of the specified
part have to be omitted, the present edition gives the separate violin part in normal tuning [the original
notation being reserved for the score version].12
The violinist, in first position, places his third finger on A; and, because the string is tuned one step low (to D, as
Biber instructs), the note actually sounds G
that is, every string is tuned normally except the top string. Thus, notes on the three lower strings sound as they are
written; those on the top string sound a whole step lower than written. Similar mixtures of actual and figurative
pitch indications will prevail in other sonatas of the set, except for those pieces where all four strings have been
altered (sonatas 3, 6, 8, and 12).
The player quickly learns that (as David Boyden points out) only first position will produce the tones called for by
the composer (unless
This passage seems to the violinist's eye as difficult and, in spots, impossible (note double trill, second beat,
measure 2, in Figure 3-6), as it actually would be on the normally tuned violin. But the sheer joy, I repeat, of
playing this passage with the ease indicated by the "mistuned" part is worth the effort.16
Figure 3-7
Scordatura supplement, page 17, from staves 6-7
Joy to the violinist that it is, the passage offers nothing special for the keyboard player. Yet, for him, as for the
listener, there is still the pleasure
It will be clear to the eye that the composer is imitating the sound of a brace of trumpets, performing a welcoming
flourish. To the mind's ear, also, the sound of the heightened bottom string, ringing out its open Cs (first three
measures), and of the unison Cs after the entry of the "second trumpet" at the end of measure 3 (cf. measure 4,
second half-bar) give a vivid impression of the trumpet idea. The players will readily adopt the brisk articulation
and regal tempo appropriate to the musical scene that is being depicted.
The effect of trumpeting is continued, very cleverly, in the second movement of the sonata, entitled, Aria
Tubicinum; this is truly a "trumpet aria," with the writing contrived to simulate not only the two solo trumpets but
the accompanying body of trumpets and drums as well (represented
The honored guest now having been hailed in such splendid fashion, the festivities commence, as represented by a
round of dance pieces: first, an Allemande, then a Courante, each with suggestions of a band of players, rather
than the one violinistas seen in this excerpt from the Courante:
Figure 3-10
Courante, mm. 1-5
And, to conclude the sonata, a lively Double, sequel to the Courante, withat its very enda last suggestion of
trumpet fanfare. Truly, a picture of Heaven in terms of worldly pomp and pleasure!
The reader will be reassured to know that the edition under discussion here supplies not only a violin part notated
as Biber had it, but an additional part (an Übertragung, or ''translation"), written in the actual, sounding pitches of
the music. The duo may warm up by using this version to learn the sound of the pieces, though it is perhaps best to
plunge right in and learn sound, tone color, and necessary reflexes all at once, sonata
Aside from this, all is normal: regular tuning, and in Biber's characteristically solid manner of composing. 19
There are surprises however. The most striking is contained in the final sonata (number 8). It bears the cautionary
instruction, A violino solo; otherwise, the player at first glance would look for a second violin:
Figure 3-11
Sonata 8, violin, mm. 1-5
Closer inspection reveals that these measures, like the entire sonata, can be played by one, single violinist. Even the
more athletic passages are so contrived that the ''two" players can keep out of each other's way.
Figure 3-12
Score, page 66, violin, mm. 4-5
There are also passages, as in the Sarabanda, where the lines move simultaneously, and the player must read the
score while he plays, making the two parts into one, composite, double-stop part.
Figure 3-13
Sarabanda, violin, mm. 1-4
b. Score page 71, violin, m. 1
If all this indicates a certain humorous bent on Biber's part, that impression is strengthened by such touches as the
close of the third sonata. There, the last thirteen measures of the piece are given over to a furious cadential flourish
over a droning oscillation in the bass; just when we think that the process threatens to go on into eternity, Biber
breaks off, in the very middle of a measure, leaving performers and hearers gasping. End of piece!
Figure 3-15
Page 35, mm. 9-10
In every sonata, variation plays a prominent role. In this respect there is a change from the sonatas of the Mystery
set, for there, three of the sixteen (numbers 2, 6, and 13) have no variations movement. In the 1681 opus, variations
are found throughout, sometimes twice within a single composition.
As a representative example of this set of pieces, let us focus on the first sonata in some detail. The work begins
and ends with elaborate, toccatalike episodes on an extended pedal point. The first twenty-two measures
Following this, there are brilliant runs up and down the fingerboard, and simulated two-part flourishes:
Figure 3-17
a. Page 9, violin, m. 11
b. Page 10, violin, m. 7
A brief Adagio, in simple chordal setting, gives relief before another extended episode of bravura sprinting,
wherein Biber hurtles through the limits of the first-to-fourth position area of the violin:
Figure 3-18
Page 11, violin, mm. 11-12
This passage, like the opening page, is written over long, sustained tones in the bass. A short, adagio cadential
phrase closes this phase of the sonata.
Now we move into a somewhat longer section, Presto, in which the violin carries on a sprightly duet with itself,
with recurring, clear-cut successive entries of the two voices. The continuo, too, is drawn specifically into the
multi-part writing, the bass imitating the upper lines in the second half of measure 3 and elsewhere:
The next ''movement" (I put the word in quotes because the work, as do all the sonatas of Biber, moves without
pause from one episode to the next, so that the sonata seems to be a freely unfolding, continuous composition) is
the center of gravity of this piece: a set of variations, so titled (Variatio), on an ostinato. This figure, a four-note
sequence representing the harmonic progression, I-IV-V-I (or tonic, subdominant, dominant, tonic), is repeated no
less than fifty-eight times. Each eight-measure sequence (comprising two statements of the ostinato figure) bears its
particular variation pattern in the violin part, except for the opening statement, and a rare "breather," where the
continuo is allowed to disport itself without the encumbrance of the violin. A partial roll call of the variation
patterns may give us the feeling of turning the pages of a wallpaper sample book, but will also convey the idea that
the players enjoy a violinist's field day in this movement:
Figure 3-20
a. Page 13, mm. 13-16
b. Page 13, violin, mm. 53-54
c. Page 15, violin, mm. 1-2
d. Page 15, violin, mm. 34-35
f. Page 17, violin, mm. 1-2
g. Page 17, violin, mm. 16-20
And the Finale, on a long pedal-point D, acts as an epilogue by carrying on some of the pattern techniques already
exploited in the Variations.
Few dynamic or tempo guide marks are provided by Biber. We should, however, take our cue in this regard from
the advice given by Adler in his Preface to the edition. Indeed, his comments might well be heeded by those in all
avenues of performance (from solo instrument to orchestra and chorus) who, in their slavishly literal response to
the paucity of instruction found in many an older composition, have reduced the music to a dull and soporific
experience, reflecting neither the humanity of the composer nor the sense of enshrined treasure that such
interpreters seem to be seeking. Adler advises freedom in changing tempo from one variation to another, or from
one episode to the next in toccatalike, improvisationally styled movements. He also counsels freedom in dynamics,
including the use of crescendo and diminuendo.
The composer expects sound gradation on the part of the performer. . . . What Biber provides in the way of
performance and ornamentation signs is extremely limited. And the way in which he indicates them lets us
know that he expects the free taste of the player to take over. 20
Throughout his commentary, Adler makes reference to the serious delight that Biber takes in the violinistic quality
of his art. That delight is built into these pieces. If the duo (and coworking cello) will try to approach these sonatas
in a way that sets the violin to best advantage in the moods explored, the playing of these pieces will be a lively
source of pleasure, and not an act of antiquarian resurrection. An excellent and sensitive recording of the Rosary
sonatas was issued in recent season and should be heard by the duo as part of their preparation for performing
Biber's music (cf. Footnote 18).
which is conventional enough in the language of the musical aviary. At a later point he also identifies, with the
word cuccu, a descending fifth as a birdcall. Thus we may be forgiven for detecting the bird's presence in many a
melodic detail in the violinistic barrage that ensues.
A more ingratiating piece on the cuckoo subject, incidentally, can be found in Schmelzer's Sonate Cucu in modern
edition (from the manuscript source) in DTÖ, volume 93. Another bird piece is contained in that composer's Suite
in D, no. 2 (reprinted in the same source), whose fourth movement is a gallina, or "rooster" piece, complete with
crowingthough only at the start, as though to announce the dance rhythm that dominates the rest of the movement.
This piece, as well as the Suite, no. 1, that precedes it in the DTÖ edition, shows Schmelzer's use of scordatura,
though with much less strenuousness than in the case of Schmelzer's pupil, Biber.
In any event, the tenth Walther scherzo seems, probably because of the loose-knit scheme of coherence supplied by
the bird-call motive, less tedious than its fellows. A more impressive Walther effort is available in a modern
edition of the Sonata mit Suite, no. 2, for violin and basso continuo, from the opus Hortulus Chelicus (1688). The
first movement is a GravePoco AllegroAdagioPrestoAdagioPrestoAdagio (the frame of the first movement of
Corelli's sonata, op. 5, no. 1, is already here). This is a good movement, suggesting the motley tastings of the old-
style sonata
In the suite part of the work, there is an Allemande, Saraband, and Gigue, each in two sections, and each with a
double-stopped reprise, marked Variatio. The finale has an extended, adagio, cadential close.
This suite, again, is more cohesive, more interesting than the helter-skelter Scherzi. The elector of Saxony was
sufficiently impressed with the prowess of his court violinist to present copies of the Scherzi as gifts. With him, as
with other contemporaries of Walther, we can recognize the skill that made Walther one of the leading violinists of
seventeenth-century Germany. If we can lose ourselves in the contemplation of these violinistic antics, then the
Scherziand especially the Cuccucan join the works that may with profit be studied and heard in the twentieth
century. It should be added that the fourth sonata of the Scherzi set is included in the Nagels Musik-Archiv series,
number 89. A careful and practical edition, with separate string parts, this publication gives the duo (and its cellist)
opportunity to try an interesting example from the Walther opus.
Georg Muffat
Georg Muffat (16531704) was of English, Scottish, and French descent. Born in Mégève in the old Savoy province
of France, he grew up in Alsace and considered himself German. He studied with Lully in Paris in the late 1660s
and with Corelli in Rome in the early 1680s. Muffat was one of the German composers instrumental in bringing
the stylistic influences of French and Italian music into the writing of his own country.
The Sonata in D for Violin and Basso Continuo, published by Schott in a performing edition, is cast in the mold of
the French overture: a stately Adagio opens the work and returns in abbreviated form at the end to frame the piece.
Between stand a fugal Allegro (the imitations carried out specifically between the violin and the bass line), a
middle Adagio (more ornate than the slow end-sections and not related to them), and a second Allegro that moves
through a triplet episode and on to a series of virtuosically brilliant scale runs in thirty-seconds before receding into
the closing Adagio. The several movements or sections flow into one another, constituting a rather short,
variegated, and highly colored work that sounds as well in the concert program as in the living room.
4
Italian Violinist/Composers of the Bologna School in the Later Seventeenth Century:
Cazzati, the Vitalis, degli Antonii
The history of instrumental music in Europe is closely intertwined with that of life in church, town, and court.
Among the cities with a long tradition of musical activity, few have an older tradition than that of Bologna. In the
later seventeenth century, and centering on the music making in the cathedrals of the city, an important school of
instrumental playing and composition developed. In this chapter we consider sonatas by some of the prominent
figures in this sphere of activity.
Maurizio Cazzati
One of the early leaders of the Bolognese group of composers in the seventeenth century was Maurizio Cazzati (ca.
16201677). He wrote voluminously and diversely. Of his many instrumental compositions, the duo can try the first
sonata of opus 55, published in Bologna in 1670 and available in modern reprint in both the Giegling anthology
and the Historical Anthology of Music. The continuo specifies organ and double-bass viol (violone), with an active
bass line that often reflects the proceedings of the violin part. The work is in four short movements, progressing
from a vigorous, slow, and dancelike opening, through a Grave interlude, and on into Presto and Prestissimo
closing chapters. There is enough cohesive-
5
Italian ViolinVirtuoso/Composers in the Early Eighteenth Century:
Corelli, Vivaldi, Geminiani, Others
In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, Rome and Venice continued long-established traditions of
support for cultural and artistic endeavors. Rome was then the seat of a papacy reinvigorated by the events of the
Counter-Reformation, the site of the palaces of residents and visiting ecclesiastic and lay nobility, and the scene of
magnificent liturgical and secular ceremonies and entertainments. Venice, although no longer the political or
commercial power it had been, was still a city of wealth, where taste and pleasure were well served. These were
two centers in Italy that fostered native talent and attracted it from abroad as well. And here we find two of the
composers most important in Italian instrumental music of the eighteenth century: Corelli and Vivaldi. Whether by
teaching or example, in the work of immediate and later disciples and imitators, in their influence on the writing of
great composers in other countriesTelemann, Bach, and Handel among themthe two Italians were prime forces in
the musical events that surrounded and succeeded them.
Arcangelo Corelli
Indeed, this most excellent master had the happiness of enjoying part of his fame during mortality; for
scarce a contemporary musical writer,
As explained earlier, the Mortier and Roger editions of Corelli's opus 5 provided, in addition to the written line of
the violin part, an ornamented version of that part in the slow movements of the sonatas, ''as played by" Corelli
himself. Though this improvised ornamentation of the line would by no means have remained constant from one
performance to the next, the fact that Corelli himself presumably did play the adagios in this particular fashion at
least once gives us a direct view of the composer's desires in the presentation of his work. Let us now see the first
two (slow) measures of the piece with Corelli's own emendations (shown in the upper staff):
Figure 5-2
Violin, mm. 1-2
The second movement, Allegro, continues in its own way the contrasts of the sonata's opening. Most of this
Allegro simulates trio-sonata texture, the violin incorporating within its one part the two melodic voices of the
The bass is also drawn into the conversation, responding to the violin's ''voices."
This dialogue is finally replaced by what can be called a crowd of voices, a babel of musical talk, represented by
an arpeggio passage that moves in accelerating harmonic motion. Here are several measures from this passage, as
they are notated, and as they might be played:
Figure 5-4
a. Mm. 71-74, original
b. Mm. 71-74, suggested version
Note that the pace of the continuo has quickened to a steady stream of eighth notes to counter the activity in the
upper register and to supply a strengthening pulse.
Now, there is a divergence of upper and lower layers: the violin moves into a vigorous display of sixteenth-note
writing, wherein two mutually responsive parts are still represented; the continuo, meanwhile, steadies to a solid
quarter-note march.
And to close, an Adagio arpeggio flourish, quite short, sealed with a scale-wise streamer and cadence, as seen in
these two last measures, with the original violin version in the lower staff, the editor's embellished version in the
upper staff.
Figure 5-6
Violin, mm. 95-96
There follows a particularly interesting movement, a perpetual motion in sixteenths: the one violin line sketches
out not only the conversation of two or more voices, but masses and textures of varying dimension and density. To
single out some of these effects:
Figure 5-7
a. Mm. 1-2, covering much of the playing range
b. Mm. 13-14, moving part against drone line
c. Mm. 19-20, spotlight on different registers
And, under and almost around all this, the constantly striding bass line, outlining in its own leapings the functions
of at least two simultaneously moving lines:
The gulf between notation and sound in the music of this period is felt most keenly in the fourth movement of this
sonata, Adagio. If one plays the written violin line, it seems so bare and economical that one is tempted to force, to
stretch exaggeratedly, to vibrate overheatedly in order to bring the movement to what becomes a rather
supercharged life. This is especially true of a passage such as that in measures 14 to 19; the player so wants to
reflect the building climax of the line. This leads to some straining when only the written line is played; the rich
and cumulative effect is much more easily achieved in the florid, decorated version of the line suggested by
Corelli:
Figure 5-9
Mm. 14-20
The final Allegro is a brilliant violin concerto movement in miniature; the violin is its own orchestra in the opening
and closing episodes (measures 1 to 17; measures 41 to 50) of the movement. The middle section is the province of
the ''soloist." The effect of many against one can be seen in the following excerpt:
Figure 5-10
Mm. 37-44
In contrast to the lighter nature of the later pieces, where the composer tends to use only single-line writing for the
violin, he feels called on, in the "serious" first half, to include movements wherein double-stopping and pseudo-
polyphonic writing predominates. We have already seen this at work in the second and last movements of the first
sonata. Even more demanding examples can be cited from other sonatas in the set. In the second movement,
Allegro, of sonata 2, there are passages in consecutive thirds and sixths.
Figure 5-12
a. Violin, mm. 28-29
b. Violin, mm. 47-48
More difficult still, because of speed and repetition of notes, is the following passage, midway through the first
Allegro of sonata 3:
The opening of this movement, too, with its entry of the ''second" part, requires skill not only in double-stopping,
but also in handling of the bow, for, in the playing of the two lines, first the lower voice must be favored (measures
3 and 4), then the upper (measures 4 and 5), then both equally (measures 5 and 6).
Figure 5-14
Mm. 1-7
The Allegro movements of Sonata 6 also provide some challenging double-stop passages, for example, in the first
Allegro, the measures where the left hand has to trace out a sustained and a moving voice simultaneously.
Figure 5-15
Violin, mm. 13-15
There is challenge again in the final Allegro of the same work, the opening passage, where a moving initial line
(the "second violin" in this case) meets the second entry, to run side-by-side with it; and where, in addition to the
ability to project both these lines, the violinist must also display the control needed to subordinate the violin "parts"
to the continuo presentation of the third voice entry and then to alternate quickly in prominence with the continuo
line in the succeeding measures:
Figure 5-16
Mm. 1-9
If the sonatas of the second part of opus 5 present fewer technical problems for the violinist, they do not lack in
musical challenge for the duo. The relative simplicity of the violin line encourages the composer to place the violin
and continuo in duo roles in many passages. This treatment is by no means absent in the earlier pieces of the set
(see, for example, the continuo part in the first Allegro of Sonata 4). But we now find happy instances of the
interplay between violin and bass in episodes such as this, from the Giga movement of sonata 7:
Figure 5-17
Mm. 1-12
In the final movement of this sonata, the Tempo di Gavotta, it seems that the center of attention is in the continuo
part, for its bustling eighth-
Once again, we must not be misled by the appearance of the printed page. The title of the edition meant what it
said: the adagios (and they alone) are shown with the ornamentation as played by Corelli. That is, the
ornamentation is given only for the slow movements in the sonatas of part one. The sonatas 7 through 11 are
presented without any added ornamentation in the slow movements. Here too, however, it is expected that the
performer will provide the desired elaborations. As it happens, proof of this is available in the edition of Corelli's
sonata number 9, as played by his eminent pupil, Geminiani. Here is the opening of the Preludio of that piece,
showing (again in score fashion) the original, unadorned lineas written by Corelliand the version as performed by
Geminiani. 44 The elaboration, it is true, is by Geminiani, not Corelli, but the pupil would certainly reflect the
habitual practice of his revered teacher, and indeed, of the general musical taste of their time.
Figure 5-20
Mm. 1-2
This movement, like most of those in the sonatas of this half of the opus, is in two sections, each section marked
for repetition. In such case, the custom was to present the music of each section essentially as notated by the
composer; the repetition of the section would then be played with improvised elaborations. Thus, the model and its
ornamented version could
b. Mm. 1-4
As Pincherle points out, Geminiani's elaboration of the fast, as well as slow, movements of this sonata suggests
that Corelli, too, intended that decoration be provided in general (and within the limits of taste) in the fast
movements of his sonatas. There could, then, be justification for applying this principle to the fast movements of
the sonatas in part one, as well. The inherent complexity of voicing and line in those movements, however, will
make discretion all the more necessary in adding further ornament. For an illustration of the moderate approach,
see the ornamented version of Sonata number 9 printed by Schering in his Alte Meister volume.
Pincherle, in an extended section of his study of Corelli, discusses the origins (in Portugal, the fourteenth century),
of the follia or folia theme,
there is nothing in the way of technical problem that cannot be found in full measure in the earlier sonatas. And
there will certainly be more surprise, suppleness, and musical enjoyment for the duo in the first eleven pieces. (This
is particularly true for the keyboard player, who must often take more pleasure in the hearing of the violin part than
in the particular function of his own participation in the sonata.) Those desiring an orderly exploration of Corellian
technique, however, as an introduction to the sonatas rather than as a culmination thereof, will profit from study of
the Follia variations.
Antonio Vivaldi
Walter Cobbett, writing in the 1920s, said of Vivaldi that ''he is among the early writers whose compositions,
especially his violin works, may be said to 'have a future.'" 47 The prophecy was a safe one, because the
importance of the Venetian master of the early eighteenth century had been recognized, at least by the scholarly
fraternity, for decades before the time of Cobbett's writing. A perusal of current record listings shows that there are
today almost 250 recordings of Vivaldi works on the market. It is all but impossible to get through a week of
concert/phonograph/radio scheduling without being exposed to one or more Vivaldi compositions. The Red Priest
(Vivaldi's red hair was a family trait) has come into his own with a vengeance.
Born in Venice ca. 1678, the only distinguished son of the St. Mark's violinist, Giovanni Battista Vivaldi, Antonio
Vivaldi entered holy orders in the 1690s and attained to the priesthood in 1703. By his own account, a severe chest
condition prevented him from saying mass after the first months of his ordination. That same year he became a
teacher at the Conservatory of the Hospital (or Asylum) of the Pietà, one of four such institutions, known
principally for their musical pedagogy and performing activities, in Venice. Vivaldi's duties were many and
demanding, because he served also over the years (until 1740) as orchestral director and composer at the
conservatory. However, he had capable assistants and a large group of enthusiastic and well-trained female student
performers. "He could experiment and study at his leisure the best way to apportion the orchestra; he could attack
various comprehensive or detailed problems without being at the mercy of the clock, of an obstinate performer, or
of the strict regulations of a labor union."48
As composer as well as violin virtuoso, Vivaldi was internationally acclaimed in his lifetime, then literally
forgotten.49 When he was called to mind, the memory was not necessarily flattering. Sir John Hawkins, in his A
General History of the Science and Practice of Music, in 1776, only thirty-five years after the death of Vivaldi, has
this to say, speaking about the concerti, having already dismissed the "solos and sonatas" as being "tame enough":
For these his singularities, no better reason can be given than this: Corelli, who lived a few years before
him, had introduced a style which all the composers of Italy affected to imitate: as Corelli formed it, it was
chaste, sober, and elegant, but with his imitators it degenerated into dullness; this Vivaldi seemed to be
aware of, and for the sake of variety, gave into a style which had little but novelty to recommend it.50
* This figure, given by Walter Kolneder in Antonio Vivaldi, His Life and Work, trans. by Bill Hopkins
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970), p. 37, is based by him on the thematic catalogue compiled
by Marc Pincherle.
And there are passages, too, where the bass exults in the solo role, letting the violin take the back seat for a time:
Figure 5-25
Mm.28-31
So active is the bass line here, rhythmically, that we may fail for a moment to recognize that it is really performing
a decorated harmonic role, the
The violin uses the first measure as a kickoff point to reach the plunging release of measure 2. But the bass
provides a motoric undercurrent that immediately ignites the force of bar 1. As we move through the first section of
the Corrente, the two participants ''cover" for each other. When one moves, the other gives slower, but quite sturdy
support and commentary.
The second section continues this game, but in longer rounds. Measures 20 to 26 have the bass pumping away in
eighths, the violin singing in more sustained fashion. Then roles reverse, with violin taking the athletic stance until
the last measure, and the bass giving solid harmonic underpinning in quarters. This sounds like simple pleasure;
and it is, in the sense of enjoying the sheer sense of mobility. But that is a thing to be treasured in music. In
moderate doses, energy can outweigh sophistication in a popularity count taken among even the most sensitive and
initiated of listeners. Besides, this kind of writing is not all that simple and predictable. A composer who will give
us a whole movement of eighths and quarters, spiced with only an occasional crackle of sixteenths, and then,
shortly before the end of the movement, will unleash this one, nonconformist measure
Figure 5-27
Violin, Corrente, mm. 39-44
is untrustworthy enough to be great fun. On the other hand, this one measure might be regarded as an instruction
by the composer to treat several other measures, earlier in the movement, in similar fashion. We
b. Suggested playing
The brief Adagio serves as a transition from Corrente to Giga, more than as a movement in its own right. Even so,
it is well and tightly planned, with rhythmic flow greatest in midstream, most stable at beginning and end. B flat is
the high point in the line, and is reached three times, with differences not only in the general melodic content, but
alsoeach timein the detail of the melodic moment.
Figure 5-29
Violin, Adagio, mm. 1-3, 5-6, 8
Of course, the gradation of rhythmic texture alluded to above exists on paper; in actual performance, the
embellishments added by Vivaldi and his contemporaries might well have obscured such distinctions. Allowing for
the exuberant ornamentation habits that Vivaldi is known to have displayed, we may still draw some basic
differences among the slow movements in these sonatas as a guide to the player's own decisions about
ornamentation in performance.
The Adagio in question, for example, is more ornate, in its notated form, than some other slow movements in this
opus. See, for instance, the Sarabanda: Largo of sonata 1; the Sarabanda: Andante of sonata 4; and
The Preludio of sonata 2 is curiously like a negative rendition of the first movement of Corelli's sonata number 1.
In the Corelli example, the movement is framed in the slow end-sections, with other such sections inserted
between the faster episodes in the course of the movement. In Vivaldi, the movement is Presto from beginning to
end, but punctuated by two one-measure adagio cadential figures (which should, of course, have a bit of rhapsodic
embellishment to give further relief from the metric running of the presto passages). There is another similarity to
the Corelli example: the first two presto sections are sustained by a pedal point in the basso continuo.
Returning to sonata 3, we note that, in both the Adagio and the concluding Giga, the bass is confined to basslike
activity, with none of that thematic involvement allotted to it in the first two movements. Here it is
This overlapping statement is repeated twice more in the course of the movement: in measures 15 to 19 of the first
section, with the keyboard taking first place in line and the violin carrying us into the dominant, B minor; and
again in measures 48 to 54 of the second section. Why so many measures this last time? Because of the composer's
tricky way of introducing the return of the opening of the movement. The keyboard proclaims the familiar idea in
the subdominant, A minor; the violin overlaps, beginning in measure 50, with the keyboard continuing as though it
is now serving as foil to the violin. But the violin statement is in E minor, the tonality of the movement; and the
keyboard recognizes the leading role of the violin in this instance by taking up its statement, in E minor (as at the
beginning of the movement) in measure 52:
Each of these three statements of melodic purpose is followed by a passage in which the musical material is
extended, adapted, repeated. Each of these passages is ten measures long (measures 5 to 14; 20 to 29; and 55 to
64). There is a ''middle" section (actually, the opening of the second section of the movement), which carries on
from measure 30 to 48; and a short coda, from measure 65 to the double bar.
As seen from the examples, there is a satisfying balance between the solidity of the quarter-note rhythm, moving to
the dotted snap of the cadence, and the patterns where short groups of sixteenths alternate with sprightly eighths, or
with broader units (as in Figure 5-31, measures 6 and 7).
The Capriccio: Allegro, second in this sonata, is a perpetual motion movement, but not for the violin alone. To the
interest of music in flight is here added that of contrast in sound. The violin never carries the sixteenth-note motion
more than five measures (and that, only once) without yielding the turn to the bass line, as in measure 17:
Figure 5-33
Capriccio, m. 17
b. Violin, Gavotta, mm. 1-8
Sonata in A minor, op. 2, no. 12. This, the last of the Vivaldi sonatas of opus 2 we shall single out for discussion, is
one of the longer of the set. It is also one of the most challenging for the violin, but less so for the keyboard,
because here the solo role is given to the stringed instrument almost throughout the sonata.
The Preludio: Largo is livelier than its character marking would indicate, because the melodic line has a jaunty
rhythm:
Figure 5-35
Preludio, mm. 1-db.2
Even so vivacious a line would pall over the length of a forty-four-measure movement (for Vivaldi calls, of course,
for repeats of both sections) if there were no elements of relief in the writing. However, the violin line plays not
only against an occasional thematic response from the bass line but also against the more usual supporting
harmonic ''walk" of the bass, and, every now and then, it breaks into a two-part activity all its own, as in measures
15 and 16:
The bass and violin, between them, cover much of the available pitch range, sometimes actually sounding in unison
with each other; with the parts added by the keyboard player in his treble ''realization," the result is a closely
interlocked web of musical lines.
It is important for the violinist to play the dotted figure throughout with care for the brevity and snap of the thirty-
second note, and with occasional articulation of the couplets, so that any suggestion of flabbiness or rounding off
of the rhythm can be avoided.
The Capriccio: Presto is a nonstop flight in the bass, which jogs along in eighth-note step (mostly in octave leaps)
with no interruption until the final cadence of its forty-seven measures. The violin draws breath at the end of
measures 3, 10, 19, and 28. After this, the breathing is shorter (only an eighth-rest gasp, instead of the earlier
quarter rest) in measures 35, 38, 40, and 44. As often happens in baroque music, the surface pattern of the music,
apparently repetitious to the point of boredom, is actually subtly varied and impelled by the composer.
Typical of a perpetual motion movement, the interest here lies in the perception of the continuous, "sustained"
voices that reveal themselves through the foliage of the pattering sixteenths, and the interplay not only between
those strands in the violin part, but also between them and the bass line. Add to this the sensation of two parts in
the bass (for the splitting of one line into two by the octave leaping in the bass does give such a pseudo-polyphonic
effect) and the textural possibilities of the movement are apparent.
The Grave weaves the bass and treble together throughout the movement, beginning with the enchaîné writing of
the opening measures:
Figure 5-37
Grave, mm. 1-7
The remaining Vivaldi sonatas for violin and basso continuo include four that are contained in his opus 5, entitled
''Six Sonatas, Four for Violin and Bass, and Two for Two Violins and Basso Continuo . . . ," published first in
Amsterdam by the renowned firm of Roger ca. 1716. Each of these sonatas begins with a Preludio and continues
with two or three dance-titled movements. While they are pretty enough, these pieces suffer from an unrelieved
sameness of rhythmic figure throughout the body of each movement. Vivaldi is too content with repetition, and
loses that flexibility and nuance that characterize the more interesting examples of his own and of contemporary
works. Of these sonatas, the fourth example is perhaps the most worthy of performance. The entire group of
sonatas, though, is suitable for study by the duo of intermediate proficiency.
In 171617, Georg Pisendel, the German violin virtuoso (he is discussed at greater length in chapter 8), lived for a
time in Venice. It was at this point that he studied with Vivaldi. Probably during this period, Vivadi penned a set of
four sonatas "made for maestro Pisendel." The fact that this attribution was apparently written in at the head of the
several sonatas at some point after the completion of the autograph suggests that they were neither commissioned
by Pisendel nor originally intended for him, but were so dedicated by Vivaldi later. 53 Also dedicated to Pisendel
Recognition of melodic direction and of momentary goals is imperative on the part of both players.
This movement seems more interesting than its opposite number in the first sonata. It is denser, more compact, and
more incisive. The same holds true for the Allegro: its fugal entries come quickly, the rhythmic pacing of the
individual lines is tighter, the entire look of the movement is psychologically more stirring, with generous use of
sixteenth-note turns, and two entire passages given over to motion in sixteenths. The flourish that ends the
movement is a nice touch, completely in keeping with the rather intense drive of the chapter:
The Adagio third movement could again, I feel, stand more ornamentation than the editor has chosen to indicate in
his version. Except for some tastefully added slurs, the only modification he has made is the insertion of a trill at
the cadence midway through and again at the end. The concluding Allegro, growing directly out of the Adagio, is a
sturdy, not terribly exciting, close to the sonata. The voicing of the strands in the violin part requires that slurs be
adopted, as illustrated in the opening measures (and following the clue given by Geminiani in the slurred
suspension in measures 25 and 26):
Figure 5-41
Allegro, violin, mm. 22-27
Is it in A minor (middle of measure 1)? No, as the second measure gradually convinces us, the key is E minor.
Despite the promise of surprises to come, the two movements of this sonata turn out to be rather plodding.
Of Schott's projected edition of the entire set of Geminiani's opus 1, only the first volume, comprising the first three
sonatas of the set, is pres-
The duo will also enjoy playing through the twelve isolated movements from Geminiani's Art of Playing the Violin.
These movements have been issued, with realized continuo, and with an informative note that comments, among
other things, on the varied nature of the sample movements, by Editio Musica, in an edition by Böhm and Orszagh.
In addition to fingering and bowing suggestions, the violin part has been equipped with a foldout panel listing
Geminiani's ornamental signs and their realizations, so that the player may have a ready reference guide while he is
learning the pieces. Further, the editors have ordered six of the movements (7, 8, and 12; 9, 10, and 11) into
composite three-movement ''sonatas," thus enlarging the extant body of Geminiani works for the violin and
keyboard.
In general, I feel that Geminiani writes well, but with a touch of the cerebral and stuffy about his work. He stands
midway between the conservative, "classic" style of Corelli and the more adventuresome writing of a Locatelli or
Veracini. All three have more sweep and charge than Geminiani chooses to display.
Tommaso Albinoni
Born in Venice in 1671, into a family of comfortable circumstance, Tommaso Albinoni, possibly a student of the
Venetian composer Giovanni Legrenzi, directed himself from an early age toward a musical career, spent for the
most part in his native city. Though he was a prolific composer of opera, Albinoni also produced a number of
instrumental works, including a set of violin sonatas, Trattenimenti Armonici per Camera Divisi in Dodici sonate,
op. 6, from the year 1711. Of the twelve works in that opus, seven have been issued in modern edition:
1, in C major, NMA, No. 9, ed. Upmeyer.
2, in G minor, Schott, No. 5480, ed. Polnauer.
4, in D minor, Hug, No. 1035, ed. Reinhart.
For the most part, dall'Abaco writes mobile lines in these pieces. The Largo of Sonata 4 is an exception, with its
slow-moving, open appearance. The texture here will of course fill in to some degree with the addition of the
improvised ornaments of performance.
Figure 5-46
Violin, Largo, mm. 1-5
The duo will also enjoy dall'Abaco's sonatas from opus 4. The ideas are lively in nature and in presentation, and the
sonatas are consistently appealing. Especially to be recommended are such movements as the Vivace e puntato and
the Allegro ma non presto of Sonata 4; and the second Allegro of Sonata 8. I am tempted to express a preference
for the sonatas of opus 4 in general. But almost any of the reprinted pieces would give a good account of itself in
present-day programming: unassuming, moving in temper from fresh gaiety to limpid tranquillity, never tedious or
excessively drawn-out. Throughout, we are given the impression of a well-fed, intelligent, and contented
practitioner of the sonata craft.
6
Sonatas of Telemann and Handel
And these measures, from the Adagio of sonatina 5, call for a keen ear, vital fingers, and emotional warmth from
both players. Note especially the wild-eyed leap from B to A sharp (and the stern impact of the A sharp) in
measure 3:
Figure 6-2
Adagio, violin, complete
Some of the writing in these pieces suggests violinistic busywork, with more smoke than flame; for example, this
passage from the Allegro of sonatina 1:
Figure 6-3
Allegro assai, mm. 3-4
Also from the Frankfurt period is a set of Six Sonatas for Violin Solo, Accompanied by Harpsichord, engraved and
published by Telemann in 1715. The format is that of the slow-fast-slow-fast, four-movement sequence
throughout, with three of the sonatas presenting the titles and textures of abstract musical structures; the other
three, the labels and musical gesture of dance-style movements. These pieces are not massive enough for the
general concert program, but will graciously adorn a musical setting akin to that for which they were originally
designed: the home musicale.
Sonata number 3, in B minor, from this set, presents in its first two
When, as in measure 1 and often throughout the movement, the dotted figure, is used, it should be altered to
sound thus, because the faster dotted pattern on an eighth pulse is often set against the figure in one of the
other voices. (Such tightening of a more broadly notated dotted rhythm is the rule in French music of the time, to
whose influence, as noted above, Telemann was exposed in the Sorau period.)
The Giga of sonata number 2 presents, in more youthful, more easy-going fashion, the kind of writing Bach was to
use a few years later in the Prelude of the Sixth Suite for Cello Alone (in the same key, D major). The triplet
bariolage on stopped and open unison, the rising melodic line pulling away from the bariolage, the use of the
bariolage figure at the harmonic landmarks of the movement (such as at the beginning of both principal sections of
the movement) are present here. In addition, Telemann utilizes the stopped-open alternation with more
concentration and more simple pleasure than even Haydn displays in the same kind of tactic in his finale of the
Frog quartet, which, again, is in D major, no doubt because that key encourages the seeking out of open-string
levels. Here is Telemann, enjoying himself:
The Giga of the sixth and last sonata of this set is a stunning closer for the opus. It is, I hope, not too egocentric of
a violinist to say this, for the movement is a moderate field day for the stringed instrument, with rising fanfares set
off against solitary, punctuating chords in the bass, with rolling octave clangors, and with two long and exuberant
solo passages against pedal-point bass tones. This kind of movement is one of those that makes Telemann a sheer
delight for the duo and demonstrates again that, within the all-encompassing basso-continuo principle of baroque
chamber music, something new can always be written.
Generally speaking, the music in these sonatas of the 1715 set is succinct and directed. In skilled hands, with
appropriate dynamic gradations, echo effects, and the like, with improvised ornamentation (especially in the slow
movements and in section repeats), and especially with a performer's outlook that does not equate brevity with
inconsequence, these pieces deserve hearing.
In 1733, in his second decade as the arbiter of musical taste in Hamburg, Telemann himself engraved and
published a set of compositions entitled, ''Musique de Table, divided into Three Parts, each containing One
Overture with suite [of dancelike movements], for seven instruments; One Quartet; One Concerto, for seven
[instruments], One Trio, One Solo [sonata], One Conclusion [a final movement, set for the instrumentation of the
Overture], the instrumentation changing throughout. 69 The publication was widely subscribed by amateurs and
professionals in courts and cities throughout Germany and in other countries, including the long-time friend and
correspondent of Telemann, "Mr. Hendel, Doctor of Music, London."
With the varying ensembles and instrumentation in the sequence of compositions, Telemann provides us with a
survey of contemporary instrumentation and sound textures. He also offers us a compendium of the kind of music
that would have been used on ceremonial or social occasions in the court or well-equipped home of that time. The
concept (by no
Or again, note the broadening funnel of sound in the violin part of measures 66 to 70 of the Vivace, with the
bariolage spreading from alternating As, to the alternating of drone and descending line, and finally to the thicker
texture of the descending double-stop thirds of measures 68 and 70, culminating in the triple-stop resolution in
measure 70.
Figure 6-7
Violin, mm. 65-70
And, finally, there is the quirk of having the constant jig of the closing Allegro suspend (at the end of each of the
two, repeated sections of the movement) on the stately cadences of the two Adagio measures (measures 21 and 22,
51 and 52):
Figure 6-8
Violin, mm. 18-22
One would not think that the original version needed much added array, because of its moving line and the trill
indications over two notes in the passage. Telemann's indicated adornments, however, transform the melody into a
quite active line, intensifying every detail and implication of the original. It should be noted, moreover, that the
elaborated movements in these sonatas have no repeat sections. Presumably, the listener would never hear the
melody in its pristine state, because the ornamentations are shown to begin with the first notes of the piece. In the
case of the second sonata, the composer begins the original melody sedately on the downbeat; the altered version
begins on the second eighth, whichquite apart from the succeeding ornamentationis already enough to put a
different cast on the trend of the tune:
As for the pieces themselves, they are long enough (four and five movements) to satisfy, without resort to tedious
padding. The sonatas are not heavyweight pieces; yet their appeal and charm is undeniable. Consider, from
Seiffert's one ''violin" choice, sonata number 5, these passages from the rousing finale:
Figure 6-11
a. Violin and bass, Allegro, mm. 1-8
b. Violin and bass, Allegro, mm. 19-26
Imagine the fun of an entire such movement, with the clangor of the repeated quarter notes (cf. measures 5 to 7), or
the cavorting of the leaping and chromatic line (as in the second passage, above). Let the keyboard player note, too,
how neatly his bass line participates in the festivities in these passages.
As just one more illustration of the imaginative writing in these pieces, see this opening to the penultimate
movement of the same sonata. Entitled,Ondeggiando ("undulating"), the music rocks and lulls us, a needed and
restful oasis between the energetic movements that surround it on either side:
Figure 6-12
Violin and bass, Ondeggiando, mm. 1-5
Thus, it clashes not only against the bass, but against its fellows within its own line. This way of doing things once
fixed upon, the composer adheres to it with grim purpose through the movement. The melodic interval of a ninth
occurs in the violin part in measures 5 (F sharpG sharp), 6 (AB), 12 (AB), and 13 (EF sharp). And so pungent is the
flavor of these intervals and their presentation that more innocent situations take on the same kind of emphasis in
our ear. EC sharp (measure 6), F sharpD (measure 7), EB (measure 9), EG sharp (measure 14), the downward leap
of F sharpD (measure 20), or the upward progression, immediately following, of DC (measure 20), GB (measure
21), AC sharp (measure 22), all acquire a special glint by association.
For the performer, the problem is two-edged: either he plays the movement with bland impartiality, plodding
through all notes, sweet and otherwise, unaware of their varying potency, or else, recognizing the acerb nature of
the sustained ''foreign" tones, he lays into them with relentless pressure, so that the emphasis becomes leaden and
unappetizing.
Rather, the sustained irritant notes must be played with easy stroke, with warm but not sizzling vibrato, so that the
note resonates, glows, lending its peculiar intensity to the otherwise normal progressions of the music in a graceful
manner. The shock value of the sounds in this Affettuoso, then, will have that mixture of warmth and hostility that,
we are told, so often colors the course of affection, and that certainly seems to be the blend sought by Handel in
these lines.
In playing this movement, the performer will be aided by its clear-cut organization. To reassure himself on this
point, he need only refer to the third movement, Largo, of the first sonata in this opus, for flute. 75 The flute
movement is clearly an earlier version of the violin Affettuoso; it is somewhat shorter, andthough it starts like its
successorit meanders badly, both in harmony and in melodic handling, so that, with the best playing imaginable, it
must still give a confused and unsatisfying effect.
However, to return to the violin sonata: Here are two measures from
b. Mm. 7-8, as played
The Allegro second movement starts with the composed acceleration so often found in late baroque melody:
and so forth. Notice the rather informal way the violin line has of breaking off, then resuming course (see measures
5 to 12), or its offhand way of making an entry (measure 9, last beat). This kind of activity takes place when the
bass has the thematic center of attention (see measures 5 ff.).
Figure 6-15
Mm. 5-7
There are some breakneck passages for the two instruments in the movement, sometimes combined with broken-
field running. In measures 35 to 37, the violin starts its sixteenth run as a melodic instrument. In measure 36, the
bass takes up the subject of the movement. When the bass launches into its eighth-note motion, midway through
bar 36, the violin, without breaking its sixteenth-note stride, jumps immediately into an accompanying role, leaping
in register and also changing at the same time from a scalewise to a chordal pattern. The continuo has a similar
change as it moves from the first half of measure 24 to the second:
Figure 6-17
a. M. 36
b. M. 24
It is essential that the player, in this phrase, bring out the arch represented by the four strong beats, first to last. The
two dotted figures (measures 1 and 2) must not be too obtrusive, because they represent a static thread in the
melody. Note that the dotted figure, however, should be slightly sharpened, prolonging, or almost double dotting,
the longer note, shortening the second note to match. The second such figure should be somewhat stronger than the
first, and the third should be stronger still, and yet subordinate to the C sharp at the beginning of the measure. This
note will, in turn, move toward the D at the start of measure 4, which is the goal of this initial phrase, the energy
then draining quickly away in the progression downward to the final B of the line.
I must point out that, far from the double-dotting approach, Stanley Sadie, editor of the Henle edition, suggests the
possibility of approximating a triplet rhythm in performing the dotted figures
The player will want to experiment with both treatments of the rhythm, observing for himself the effect achieved.
In either case, discretion must prevail.
Fortunately, the movement is well engineered by Handel; to ruin the music, the performer will have to work at it.
Along with the frequent repetition of dotted figure, there is subtle play of variety. The second phrase starts with
another threefold repetition of the rhythm of bar 1; but instead of closing off in its fourth measure, this phrase goes
onward
b. M. 23, beat 3:
c. M. 29, beat 1:
Also, phrase 1 is four measures long; phrase 2, as already mentioned, is twelve measures; and phrase 3, twenty-
three. And this counts only the violin part (which is predominant in this movement). Actually, there are very brief
interludes for the continuo alone, extending the phrases still further.
The pace of the movement gets added impulse and relief from the ornamentation the performer is expected to
provide. In addition to mordents and trills to enliven the long notes of the rhythmic patterns, there is also the
essential trill on the penultimate note of important cadences (especially at the end of the movement). The performer
can take a cue from the increased ornamentation built into the given melodic line midway through the movement
(see measures 21 to 28). The embellishment of the first part of the movement, however, must remain modest
enough so that the progress in intensity in the unfolding movement is not pushed too hard, too soon.
Note, too, that the ''true" cadential ending of the movement occurs in measures 36 and 37, with the remaining three
and one-half measures serving as epilogue.
Figure 6-20
Mm. 35-40
b. Short running figure, mm. 5-8
c. Long running figure, mm. 13-14
The score indicates three cuts in this movement, apparently by Handel himself: measures 19 to 24, 41 to 51, and 61
to 68. In the first and last of these passages, the keyboard takes up the running figure. It would seem that Handel
wanted, on second thought, to have the acceleration lead to the end of the major structural sections exclusively in
the violin part, without giving a turn to the basso continuo. The effect of the three cuts, taken together, is to
streamline the sonata and make it move with the greatest possible directness in its closing moments.
Handel later (1751) used this same movement in his last oratorio,Jephtha, as a sinfonia, midway through Scene I
of Act III, with identical melodic line and bass line, the only change being the addition of a middle voice, for the
viola. 77 The viola part is in effect a realization of the figured bass of the sonata movement, showing the kind of
texture and thematic participation that Handel expected of the inner voice. Moreover, the sinfonia omits those same
portions that had been crossed out in the autograph of the sonata movement.
Of course, the change from duo to orchestral setting carries with it an effect of massive sonority that goes far
beyond what the printed page might indicate. So also, but in much greater degree, does the change that takes place
in the material of the first Allegro of this sonata, when it is
Sonata number 14, in A. This is a joy throughout. Sunlight and radiance fills the first, second, and fourth
movements; the third movement, Largo, is the only one in minor and is suffused with a mild pathos, offering only
a moderate shadow episode before the easy sparkle of the conclusion. The opening Adagio has been provided by
the composer with
7
The Sonatas of J. S. Bach
If he had a friendperhaps a publisher?who would have encouraged him to take a day off say once a week we
might have been spared some hundreds of pages in which there are rows upon rows of joyless bars, always with
that little rascal of a subject and its countersubject. 82
We shall seek in vain for one fault in taste in all that vast amount of work in which we constantly find things
that might have been written yesterday, from the capricious arabesque to that outpouring of religious feeling for
which we have so far found no better expression.83
The author of both comments is one and the same: Debussy. More surprisingly, the subject of both comments is
also the same: J. S. Bach. If the first comment is shocking to Bachomanes (and who among us is not such?), it
must be understood that the words were written by a deathly ill Debussy, in the last year of his life, and at a time
when he had been preoccupied with the task of editing the violin and the gamba sonatas of Bach for the publisher,
Durand. The other, ecstatic view dates from Debussy's years as music critic, at the very start of the century and at a
time when he was in his prime.
We make this apology not out of a spirit of condescension; quite the contrary: one who has performed Bach can
well understand the frustration that can result from falling into the ocean of notes left to us by the master. To
plunge in heedlessly is to take the printed page at its face value: an all-over, wallpaperlike pattern of seemingly
uniform rhythmic flow. This
b. Gavotte, reconstituted for violin and keyboard, mm.
1-2:93
The Adagio movement of the first two versions of the sixth sonata begins as follows:*
Figure 7-2
Adagio, mm. 1-2
In trying the several versions of the sonata and in pondering the question of their chronology, the duo will at the
same time, with the editors, reflect on the considerations of balance that made Bach experiment with the number,
the musical texture, and the instrumentation of the movements as he changed from one version to the next. The
players can put their views to the test by trying the several versions as presented by the Henle and Bärenreiter
editions.
Spitta, at any rate, years ago cast his preference for the earlier five-movement version. It is this setting that he
describes at length, and espe-
* See the Henle edition, J. S. Bach, Sechs Sonaten, pp. 110-111.
The titles of the several sources used in editing the Neue Bach-Ausgabe version of the six sonatas read (the letters
are those used by the NBA editors):95
A. Six Trios [!] for Harpsichord and Violin . . .
B. Six Sonatas for Harpsichord and Violin obbligato . . .
C. Six Sonatas for Concertato Harpsichord and Violin.
D. Six Sonatas for Concertato Harpsichord and Concertato Violin . . .
E. Six Sonatas for Concertato Harpsichord and Solo Violin, with Bass for the Viola da Gamba, accompanying,
if desired . . .
F. [Trios] for Obbligato Harpsichord and Violin . . .
G. Sonatas for Concertato Harpsichord, Solo Violin, Bass for Viola da Gamba, accompanying, if desired . . .
* Henle edition, p. 89; see original version of the movement, NBA VI/1, pp. 195-196.
Let us now turn to one sonata among these six, to show what kind of thinking at least one player finds necessary in
dealing with these works. Other performers elect other ways; but all must agree that something more than vigorous
playthrough is needed with these works. Where the artifice of the composer is so subtle, the perception of the
performer must be equally well exercised.
There are subdivisions within these two large sections. Each such subunit opens with an eighth-sixteenth sequence,
beginning on an offbeat. Using this rhythm as our landmark, we find that phrases begin in measures 1, 6, 11, 15, 20
and 25 (to the end, 34). The first four phrases are balanced by the two concluding phrases; and these, though there
is an implicit breathing point after the first eighth of measure 25, actually are welded together to constitute the
long, climactic running out of the movement. The player should also note an additional turning point after the first
quarter of measure 31; here the harmony has settled, but the music goes on in codetta (complete with the thirty-
second-note flare) to end the movement.
Bach is extraordinarily uniform in his general rhythmic procedure. Each phrase stores energy, so to speak, by
pushing through the eighth-sixteenth pattern. The direction of the pattern can be either up or down. From the
terminal point of this pattern, the line takes off. It follows a rather consistent procedure in each measure of its
flight: a long note (either half or quarter), with a suspension of at least a thirty-second-note duration, or a
combination of quiet glide and further storage of energy, and then a release of that energy, most often through a
streamer of thirty-seconds.
The center of melodic attention in this movement is in the violin part; but the keyboard is no mere accompaniment.
The motive force it supplies is indispensable to the musical web; and the rhythmic distribution of the keyboard line
is a subtle counterpoint to the flight of the violin part. In the first phrase, for example, the peak of the motion lies
in measure 3. Here the violin reaches the sustained high point (C sharp) of its first trajectory; this is also the longest
note in the phrase. And it is precisely here that the keyboard plays through the measure, in contrast to the half-
measure units it has observed in the first two bars. Compare measures 1 and 3:
b. M. 3
In measure 4, the keyboard reverts to half-measure progress again, to mark the descent of the violin line; and in
measure 5, plays quite through the bar, bridging the pause of the violin (after its cadence) and carrying us into the
second phrase. To diagram the process of the entire phrase:
The left hand of the keyboard has the simplest task: to toll the half measures throughout. It first becomes slightly
more involved in measure 14. In measure 18, where the violin has its first long thirty-second-note couplet passage,
the bass line is more active still, providing an eighth-note counter-point to the violin, while the right hand
signalizes the moment by replacing its familiar pacing with a sustained chord.
Figure 7-6
Mm. 18-19
I must digress here, for a moment, to turn the spotlight on the second half of measure 17. Many a violinist has
wrestled passionately with this bit of melody, trying to live up to the instructions of the composer. It may give
pause to see, arrayed one above the other, several ways in which editions and manuscripts have notated this
passage; the experience will shake or confirm the convictions of the performer, depending on his temperament.
Figure 7-8
a. Bach-Gesellschaft:*
b. Henle edition: **
c. Source C: ***
d. Source D: ****
Another area of concentration is the passage from measure 21 to measure 24, where the frequency of thirty-
second-note streamers, and their con-
* Bach-Gesellschaft, vol. 9, p. 99.
** Henle edition, violin, m. 17.
***Kritischer Bericht, p. 167.
****Kritischer Bericht, p. 167.
Throughout, both in the violin and the keyboard parts, the emphasis must be on legato touch (in the case of the
piano, with a minimum of muddying pedal), smoothness of flow, and nobility of effect. Yet there are some points
where clear-cut articulation must be blended with the larger line. Refer again to Figure 7-7, and note the rather
spiky off-center couplets in measure 17 and the slurred couplets in measure 18. The successive pairs of notes
should be marked off from each other by a slight stopping of the bow between strokes, slight stress on the first note
of the couplet, slight added stress again on the first note of each quarter beatall most discreetlyand a move toward
greater smoothness as the bar progresses, so that a sense of cumulative motion is given.
Above all, do not play each note with unyielding energy. This approach is fatal, making the lines stiff, overblown,
pedantic; the anatomy of the piece becomes fossilized. Keep your eye constantly on the musical scaffolding of the
movement, so that the ornamental drapery may become what it is: an integral fleshing out of the design of the
work.
If the danger in the first movement is to play everything with equal intensity, the pitfall in the second movement,
Allegro, is to take the piece at such a dead run that the music is glossed over, flattened, with nicety of detail lost in
the shuffle. The first vaccine against such an attack is a play through of the first couple of lines of the bass:
Figure 7-10
Bass, mm. 1-11
The advantage of an easy tempo is seen immediately. There is time to take a short breath after the third beat of
measure 1 and again in measure 3, and to set off the more stable from the more moving part of the line.
The keyboard is alone for the first eight measures; only then does the violin enter with its response to the ongoing
proceedings. The movement is a duet between violin and the keyboard treble, with the active support of the bass
line. And, because that bass is drawn from time to time into the motion of the upper parts, as in measures 47 to 50,
Figure 7-12
Mm. 47-50
one really has to speak of a trio. Bach reinforces the idea of trio by deliberately avoiding any use of the chordal
possibilities of the keyboard. Throughout the movement, right and left hand play only single-line writing. If
suggestion of chordal or contrapuntal functions is required within the single part, Bach bends that one line so that it
can weave together the elements of two voices (cf. treble, measures 61 to 62). The violin, too, gets none of the
double-stopping so dear to the North German violin school (and so thoroughly explored in Bach's own sonatas for
violin alone). The emphasis throughout is on the cooperation of three equal lines of melody.
If the keyboard treble gets a ''hot lick," as in measures 63 ff., with the violin standing by on a sustained note line,
then the score is evened a bit later when the violin gets its turn, the keyboard now taking over the role of onlooker:
A general hint for phrasing in this movement is that a quarter note at the end of a melodic fragment should be
shortened slightly and followed by a very brief comma, to set off the inset of the succeeding note. This is
especially important, for rhythmic clarity, where the following note is of the same pitch as the quarter note. These
observations apply, of course, to the thematic rhythmic patterns,
as seen in the passage quoted in Figure 7-11. They also apply in later extensions of these patterns, as in measures
39 to 40 of the keyboard treble:
Figure 7-14
Treble, mm. 39-40
A breath of suitable length may also be used to set off one figure in a sequence from the next. These phrasing
suggestions must be applied with some discretion. As an illustration, I cite here an excerpt from the violin line,
marked as I would want to play it:
Figure 7-15
Violin, mm. 42-58
The reader may wonder why there should be breath points in measures 49 to 51, but none in 52 to 54. My
reasoning is that the breaks in the earlier measures trace back to the corresponding break that seems man-
The third movement, Adagio ma non tanto, is a duet throughout: violin and keyboard treble, with the bass line
supplying a harmonic floor of support. That support generally consists of steady descents, scalewise, through an
octave, propelled forward by an upward octave leap at the
There is a further element of accompaniment, chordally stated, that is carried either in the treble of the keyboard or
in the violin, whichever is not occupied with soloistic duties at the moment. Measures 6 and 14 display the ''trio" at
work on their several roles:
Figure 7-17
Mm. 6, 14
The four opening measures of the movement (for keyboard only) present the accompaniment alone, as introduction
to the first melodic entry. And there are several extended passages where the accompaniment function is left to the
bass line only, both upper parts being then active as duet.
Figure 7-18
Mm. 27-28
Two principal elements make up the melodic material of this movement. One is a scalewise arch made up of
sixteenth-triplet figures; the other is a convoluted line built of a series of sixteenth couplets. These two elements
are so much and so distinctly used in the movement that, in those brief moments when one pattern overlaps the
other, they should be kept distinct, without the assimilation of couplet rhythm to triplet (or vice versa) that is
otherwise characteristic of the music of this period:
Both the triplet and the couplet units are ''packaged" by slurs, though not consistently so throughout. Slurred units
should be articulate, one from the next, but the separation should not be overemphasized. The treatment should be
compliant to the musical context. Several measures from the violin part (similar spots will be found in the
keyboard), with our performance indications, show one way to shape the sequence of figures:
Figure 7-20
Violin, mm. 1-13
As we have shown, the dynamic gradation will supplement rubato in delineating the melody. One thing we cannot
indicate is moderation; neither the swells nor the time stresses should be carried to heroic excesswe are speaking
only of appropriate nuance and inflection.
One facet of the Adagio is not clear from the notation: the fact that the movement does not end. There is a double
bar; but, harmonically, the true ending of the movement occurs at the downbeat of measure 63. The last three
measures continue the melodic triplet motion and erase the sense of finality, carrying us from the tonic (C sharp
minor) to the dominant (G sharp). There we are left poised; and this delicate balance must be
Precise ensemble is required throughout, and especially in passages of maximum activity, such as measure 15.
A middle section, extending from measures 35 through 119, is divided into two subsections. The first of these,
ending in measure 77, is a duet episode; here the bass line, using a rhythmic figure already familiar from the first
part of the movement, supports the dialogue of the two upper lines. That conversation deals mostly in a broad
triplet line, which can be viewed as an alter ego of the rapid-fire sixteenth line of the movement's opening; and
indeed, the episode is shot through with interjections of the sixteenth-note patter, as if to verify the musical
parentage of the new material.
Figure 7-22
Mm. 42-44
The next subsection, from measure 78 onward, returns to the material and trio texture of the end sections, but
without the dominating alle-
Even when the line is folded into so active a profile that each note seems to call for attention, some will demand
more emphasis than others. Here is a typical sequence, again from the violin part.
Figure 7-24
Violin, mm. 12-14
Similar selective stress must be observed in playing the triplet measures, of course. Note our suggestions for the
violin part from measures 39 to 51.
Figure 7-25
Violin, mm. 39-51
The rhythm of the bass line, incidentally, should be made compatible with the triplet rhythm of the violin part in
those measures where the two run simultaneously. For example, measure 46, though printed as in Figure 7-26a,
should sound as in Figure 7-26b.
Figure 7-26
Mm. 46-47
a.
b.
Here the mandatory eighteenth-century practice sounds well, combining with the mid-measure rest in this passage
to produce a nice, forward-moving lilt. The same treatment, of course, applies in similar relationship between bass
and keyboard treble.
b. Mm. 1-2, as played
As played, the rhythms of the music take on the lilt and snap they should have. A later excerpt, shown here as
played, realizes the bite and glitter of the successive trills, with the upper tone of each trill properly emphasized.
Figure 7-28
Mm. 24-26
In the second movement of sonata 2, note especially the tremendously energetic quality of the passage beginning in
measure 58: alternate fortes and pianos, indicated by Bach himself, lend high relief to a texture made up of
vigorous and constant sixteenths in the left hand, sustained trills resolving into short groups of eighths in the right,
and bar-by-bar arpeggio ascents in the violin. All this unfolds finally into a yet more vigorous skirmish, the left
hand insisting on a pedal-point E, the right carrying out thematic spinnings out, and the violin improvising rolling
arpeggio figures in accord with the chordal instructions set down by Bach. In measures 81 ff., of course, the violin
should still be performing arpeggio maneuvers in alternate bars (where a simple, sustained chord is written), the
more
If duple wins, and one changes the treble to sound , then that line has an uncomfortably peg-
legged gait, to be maintained throughout the movement. If, on the other hand, triplet wins, then the violin part will
sound too affable and easygoing, a little lacking in decisiveness. To this ear, the friction of dotted rhythm against
triplet, and of triplet against the bass line's two-eighth rhythm lends distinctness and separation to the several parts.
Anti-authentic, no doubt; but can one be sure that Bach himself did not play the movement just this way?
The evidence may indicate just such a possibility. Sources C and F, both of the eighteenth century, give the treble
of the keyboard part in 9/8. Source D gives the 9/8 signature to both keyboard lines. The violin line, on the other
hand, is never written in anything other than 3/4. Further, in sources C and D, and despite the 9/8 signature of the
bass part in the latter manuscript, the bass line is always written in the dotted, rather than triplet, fashion.100 In the
case of source D, would it not have been graphically easier to write rather than ? In any event, the
way seems clear to defy the usual rule of interpretation in the case of this movement; let triplet and duple figure
confront each other!
Much of what was said about the second movement applies to the fourth movement of sonata 4 as well. A
particular detail to watch for in this finale, however, is the variety of ways Bach handles the group of four
sixteenth-notes:
The slurrings and attendant articulations must be faithfully observed; otherwise, the neatly calculated rhythmic
textures of the movement are
8
Some Lesser Sonatas of the Bach Era
Musicians have spent yearsmusical lifetimeson the Bach sonatas. They are absorbing and endlessly challenging
works, not closely approached, let alone equaled, by other sonatas of that era. Nevertheless, to steep oneself in
Bach's sonatas to the exclusion of the surrounding musical terrain is to lose perspective; and what is worse,
enjoyment. Here, in mixed bouquet, are some composersof varied provenancewho lived and worked while Bach
was still flourishing. None of them have anything like his grasp of musical logic or his radical inventiveness. They
are easier to play (certainly in the musical sense), less consequential, but in some cases quite interesting in their
own right.
Gottfried Kirchoff
Gottfried Kirchoff (16851746) was contemporary with J. S. Bach. Like Handel (also born the same year), he
studied with Zachau in Halle; he took up the post of organist at the Liebfrauenkirche there after Zachau's death in
1712. Here any comparison with Handel (and Bach) ends, if we may judge from the set of twelve violin sonatas
included in Kirchoff's catalogue of compositions. These pieces are classed by the composer as sonatas (the first six
pieces of the set) and sonatinas (the remaining six), though for no apparent distinction. Most of the pieces are in
five movements, slow-fast-slow-fast-fast.
The sonatas were known in Kirchoff's time only in manuscript copies, though there was enough circulation of the
music to make it possible for Leopold Mozart to include sonata 10along with instrumental pieces by Telemann, C.
P. E. Bach, Hasse, and Balthasar Schmidt 105in the instructive collection of works he presented to young
Wolfgang on his name day in 1762. The editor of the modern issue of the Kirchoff sonatas speaks in praise of
them, as representing ''probably the acme of his talent as a composer," and cites Mozart's use of the example as a
sign of esteem.106
However, as Alfred Einstein points out, Mozart was trying to impress his son with "models of a style of melodic
solidity." Solidity is the word that comes to mind for the Kirchoff pieces: they are craftsmanlike, carefully
constructedand a little dull. Along with "serious" titles, and dance titles, there are such character inscriptions as
affettuoso, spirituoso, and amoroso. Too often, however, the composer overplays a sequential rhythm, wanders in
search of line and motion, marks time (even though in quickmarch tempo), overextends a line, and so on. There are
some effective movements: for example, the Allegro of sonata 2, a well-paced perpetual motion with nicely
calculated breathing points; the peppy Vivace of the fourth sonata; the Gavotte of the same sonata, one of the best
movements in the entire set; and the concise and spirited Vivace of the sixth sonata. The sonatas are well suited to
the violin, of moderate difficulty, and usefulif not terribly stimulatingfare for the instruction of the duo. For
performance, I would seek elsewhere.
Christoph Graupner
More interesting to me than Kirchoff is another close contemporary of his, Christoph Graupner (16831757), for
many years director of music at the court of Darmstadt and one of the preferred candidates for the cantorial post at
the Leipzig Thomaskirche before J. S. Bach actually succeeded to the job. In two sonatas, offered in first edition by
Hortus musicus in 1955, Graupner follows exactly the same tack that Bach chose in his six sonatas with obbligato
keyboard: the figuring of the bass is abandoned, the treble line of the keyboard is specifically written. Again, in
effect, we have a duo sonata (with the two instruments as equals) or a trio sonata with the violin and keyboard
treble regarded as the duetting solo lines. Graupner's musical fabric, however, is much thinner than Bach's. He
writes a much less convoluted line, for one thing, and adheres almost throughout to single-line writing (as against
chordal) for each of the three strands of the music. Coupled with this are clear, rather simple and driving rhythms.
The result is music of charm, of nervous energy, entertaining and pleasant, and offering neither the challenge nor
the difficulty of Bach's work. One cannot live by Bach alone, however, and these pieces (as the editor himself
points out), are ''an enrichment of our domestic players' estate."
The Moderato, again, is full of little twists and surprises that keep its constant stream of energetic rhythms from
growing dull. The first measure is foursquare, but pushing toward the third beat; the second measure turns on a
burst of triplets to carry it forward. The third measure accentuates its drive with trills on first and third beats; and
so on. The melodic line is compact, brilliantly written for the instrument, but of only moderate difficulty, using
double-stops only once and concentrating for its effects on alternation of linear writing and arpeggiated and
bariolage textures. The continuo is sturdy, and cast in a supporting role except for the passage from measures 47 to
51, where the dialogue with the violin part is more active.
The Scherzando, a flashing and high-tension movement bordering on the tarantella temper, is quite duo-oriented in
the close interweaving of violin and bass line. The sonata as a whole gives the impression of being tightly knit,
bristling with imagination. It belongs in the living repertoire and will arouse regret that Pisendel did not leave a
larger body of sonata literature to posterity.
One is constantly struck by the strength and imagination of the composer, as in the abrupt texture alternations of
the first Allegro of sonata 4; the excited voicing of the violin part in the Andante of sonata 6, the ecstatic leaping
and bariolage writing of the fast movements in the same sonata; or the brilliant virtuosity of the Allegro of sonata
2.
It is the freewheeling harmonic maneuvers of Graun that give the most pleasure in these pieces, though. The
Adagio of sonata 3 offers the following passage:
Figure 8-4
Adagio, mm. 9-13
In the third movement, Affettuoso, Graun, beginning in E major, tries to throw us off the track. E is touched on
obliquely in measures 13 to 16, again in measures 29 to 32, and finally at the end of the movement. What with the
dotted, gliding rhythms and the rather slow 3/8 meter, the total effect is enigmatic, quietly mysterious. See also the
last four measures of the opening Adagio of sonata 4, or, at last, the strange passage from the Siziliano (sic) of
sonata 5, measures 10 ff.
As a sample of the technical requirements, here are just two excerpts from the second and fourth movements, both
Allegro, of sonata 5, in G minor:
b. Violin, second Allegro, mm. 91-96
The duo who will play through these sonatas will find work enough to keep them busy; and at the same time, music
that brings the eighteenth century very much alive in our own day. Highly recommended.
Michael Festing
Michael Festing, the London violinist of German descent (ca. 16801752), was among those who, with Handel and
others, established the Fund for the Support of Decayed Musicians and their Familiessoon to be known as the
Royal Society for Musicians. Of the more than twenty sonatas he composed, I have seen the modern edition of the
Sonata in D, op. 8, no. 5.
Willem De Fesch
Willem De Fesch was born in Alkmaar, north of Haarlem and near the North Sea coast, in the Netherlands, in
1687. He was trained in Antwerp, and was Belgian enough to have been included in the roster of composers in the
monograph, Voorname Belgische Toonkunstenaars uit de 18de, 19de, en 20ste eeuw. 107 After serving as organist
and choirmaster in Antwerp, he went to London, where he was active as composer and orchestral violinist. Six of
his sonatas for violin and basso continuo, from a set of twelve (variously for violin, cello, and flute) published in
London about 1725, are available in modern edition. These are good pieces, of moderate difficulty. The
organization of each movement is concise, balanced, easy moving; the melodic ideas and phrases are appealing,
well shaped. De Fesch tends to brevity and does not bother with extended codettas or cadential patterns. The effect
in his music, then, is sometimes one of abruptness and slight disappointment. Nevertheless, these sonatas are fun to
play, good training for the duo, and modest, though not inappropriate candidates for the concert program.
The editor, Waldemar Woehl, again offers Preface and performance note refreshing in its mixture of directness,
scholarship, and practicality, its reflection of his desire to have the pieces performed correctly, effectively, but
performed.
Jacobus Nozeman
Jacobus Nozeman, 16931745, was born in Hamburg, during the stay there of the Dutch acting troupe of his parents.
He served at The Hague, Leyden, and after 1705 at Amsterdam. In that city he worked successively as theater
violinist and, from 1720, as organist at the Remonstrant Church. Nozeman wrote two sets of violin sonatas: opus 1,
six sonatas, all in minor keys; opus 2, also six, all in major. A modern edition of three sonatas from opus 1, in C, E,
and F minor, shows them to be solid works, not beyond intermediate difficulty, with a lively violin line and often
an interesting bass. They are worth study, and might even take a place in a suitably balanced concert program.
Johann Stamitz
The Bohemian-born Johann Stamitz (Jan Václav Stamic17171757), violin virtuoso, orchestra leader, composer,
member of the court music at Mannheim from 1741, and founder and a prime figure of the so-called Mannheim
school of orchestral playing and composition, may be studies in a recent reissue of an early twentieth-century
edition of his Sonata in G, op. 6, no. 1. One of a set of six sonatas, the work begins with an Adagio that is more a
vignette than a movement, unfolding constantly but briefly and suggesting toward its end a return to first
statements; it culminates instead in a cadenza, written out at rather elaborate length by the editor (the reader will
want to substitute a better one of his own). This raises expectations for the second movement, Allegro. To a
degree, these are fulfilled; the Allegro is lively and moving. As is sometimes the case in the Mannheim type of
composition, however, the motion and energy takes the place of any truly arresting musical ideas. The final
movement, Minuetto, is graceful, easygoing, smacking more of the social life of the town rather than the court. It is
here, if anywhere, that Bohemian melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic flavor enters the work, the first two movements
reflecting more of the Italianate style of instrumental composition of the earlier eighteenth century.
The trio section of this movement is most congenial, what with its constant flow of up-and-down triplets against a
more sedate harmonic background. As a finale, however (and minuet, or tempo di minuetto, finales were not
infrequent in the music of Stamitz and his era), the movement is engaging rather than electric.
On the whole, indeed, the sonata is pleasant, of moderate difficulty, and well suited to the intermediate ensemble.
Jan Racek, in an introduction to the edition, says that ''Stamitz's instrumental . . . compositions are characterised by
a merry creative atmosphere, optimistic cheerfulness and a warm lyrical melodic line . . ." This is certainly true of
the present work, without enough admixture of the energy and propulsion that marks other works of this composer.
Even so, the sonata may sustain the interest of the modern duo. And it does have some of those dynamic gradations
that form one of the characteristic traits of the Mannheim style (see, for example, the Allegro, measures 7 to 9).
Vaclav Vodicka
Not much is known about our next figure, the Bohemian-born Vaclav (Wenzeslaus) Vodicka. He died in Munich
in 1774, upward of fifty years of age, having served as a courtorchestra member (and for many years as
concertmaster) since the 1730s or '40s. He was obviously a composer of ability; the set of Six Solos for a Violin
and Bass, op. 1, published first in Paris (1739) and in a London edition in 1745, is one of the assets of the duo
repertoire from the eighteenth century. These are not examples of musical profundity; but they are fresh, energetic,
clean-cut works, with scarcely a tiresome movement or passage anywhere. No performer need be ashamed to offer
one of these compositions, minor masterpieces by one of music's little-known figures.
Surveying the six sonatas in order, one finds many things to enjoy. In the first sonata, in B flat, the middle
movement, Allegro ma non troppo, has Corellian clarity and vigor; its theme is reminiscent, actually, of the melody
of the famous Gavotta from Corelli's sonata op. 5, no. 10. Vodicka expects crisp, supple bow-handling of his
performer; there are tight-knit crossing patterns, few but snappy ornaments and trills, up-bow staccato in
moderation. The movement is economical in outline, just long enough for its ideas.
Sonata 2, in C, has three short movements, beautifully proportioned, unpretentious. The Menuetto carries a set of
variations of moderate difficulty. This sonata is feasible for the intermediate player and student.
Franz Benda
The two most famous members of the musical Benda family of Bohemia in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
were Franz (Frantisek) and Georg (Jiri). Georg (17221795) was one of the important, though lesser, composers of
opera in the eighteenth century. Wolfgang Mozart, speaking about Benda's two most famous works, Medea and
Ariadne auf Naxos,
9
Italian Virtuoso/Composers in the Mid-Eighteenth Century:
Veracini, Tartini, Locatelli
Before taking up the first principal of this chapter, Francesco Maria Veracini, a brief word for his uncle and
teacher, the Florentine musician, Antonio Veracini (ca. 16501696) is in order. The latter composed his sonatas for
violin and continuo, opera 2 and 3, in the mid-1690s. The later set is made up of ten sonate da camera, of which I
have seen the second (in C major). The work is cast in four movements, slow-fast-slow-fast; the third movement is
itself a complex of slow and fast sections. Greatest interest attaches to the second movement, Vivace, where the
cello part is made active in its polyphonic responses to the violin line. The movement is good, but a little tedious
by the time it spins itself out. This sonata is agreeable, especially so for the novice or intermediate duo. For real
musical stimulus, though, the work of degli Antonii, or to be sure, that of the younger contemporary, Corelli, is
much to be preferred.
The Capriccio finale of this sonata is a preview of the sonatas that Veracini was to write a generation later; for in
opus 2, a number of the sonatas are marked by the inclusion of at least one such movement. In the present case, the
length of the movement (277 measures) is relieved by the alternation of stately and running-work passages, by the
frequent liveliness and thematic reflections of the continuo part, and by refreshing use of the various register colors
of the violin, as in this example:
Figure 9-2
Violin, mm. 226-229
Long bariolage passages, as well as rapid-fire sixteenth-note passage-work in general in this movement will test
the player's mettle. Graceful bowing is one matter in a short phrase; in a long movement, flexibility must be
combined with endurance.
The Academic sonatas of 1744 are so titled not, as the modern reader would suppose, to indicate a conservative
tendency in the work, but, on the contrary, to show that they are the fruit of the composer's full professional
acumen, and worthy of the most initiated players and audiences. The opus holds additional interest because the
composer has provided, as part of his Preface, a table of notation signs. By these signs, sparingly applied, Veracini
governs matters of sonority, texture, dynamics, and even the choice of up- and down-bow in the playing of these
pieces. As we shall
Veracini:
But where Handel, as we have seen (page 100), takes pleasure in landingnot only in his opening phrase, but often
in the course of the first movementon foreign tones, Veracini does not torment us with harmonic clashes. Nor does
he want the player to muddy his waters for him; he asks him to stick to the notes, without arbitrary
embellishments: ''Adagio, and [play it] as it stands."
He has other excitements on hand for us. The Adagio is a toccata, so labeled, and has all the fire and high spirits
that befit such a "touch-piece" (literally, a piece that touches or feels out the keyboard, that reveals the capacities
of the keyed instrument, andby extensionof any instrument for which such a composition is written). In a sense, he
is demonstrating a twofold virtuosity here: he carries off the feat of translating a keyboardidiom piece to the violin,
with all the ponderous chordal passages, running-work, polyphonic episodes, tremolando passages, arpeggiated
fretwork, and contrasting textures typical of such a movement. Yet, it all seems to lie perfectly comfortably on the
Veracini fingerboard, a tribute to his own command of his instrument.
We have compared the opening to Handel; but the movement as a whole seems to parallel the first movement of
Corelli's sonata, op. 5, no. 1. Corelli displays some of the toccata temperament, though without the title; but he
does not take the plunge with quite the bravura of Veracini. Indeed, where the older master performs his elegant
arabesques against the background of an accompanying pedal point, the younger man brushes aside all competition
for his acrobatics; in the Veracini movement, fully thirty-two and one-half measures out of a total of fifty-six are
without bass of any kind. The movement is almost entirely for violin alone. This movement, then, is not for the
bashful bowman. The Presto outbursts must be crisp, brilliant:
The playful Adagio vignettes must be all quiet sparkle, the lyric portions of the movement, liquid grace, and the
players, always on the alert for the kind of intensity evoked by passages such as that in measure 33, below:
Figure 9-5
Violin, mm. 28-34
For all its seeming whimsicality, the opening movement has a clear-cut format: opening fanfare, measures 1 to 17;
first complexPresto-Adagio-Adagiomeasures 18 to 37; second complexPresto-Adagio-Adagiomeasures 38 to 56.
Looking ahead into the sonata, we find that the branches of the opening movement bear fruit in the work to come:
1. Toccata
2. Capriccio Primo
3. Allegro
4. Epilogo della Toccata
5. Capriccio Secondo
The Epilogo combines and elaborates on the several ideas of the opening Toccata: the slow opening, now rendered
largo, e nobile, the quiet and mischievous Adagio theme, and the Presto theme outline, which is now combined
with the rhythm of the quiet Adagio. From measure 25 on, the Presto idea takes over more nearly in its original
form, but now in lively repartee between violin and bass, rather than in solitary presentation by the violin.
The Capriccio Primo, marked Allegro ma non presto, isfor all its protesting to the contraryrather a reflection of the
Presto of the opening, steadied in tempo perhaps, but enlivened in revenge by snapped rhythms
appears, in whole or in part, as a marker buoy in the flood of music, charting our course, sometimes tantalizing us
with a premature sense of return to beginnings (cf. measures 63 and 64), then rushing us past the return almost
before we are aware (measures 86 ff.). The Capriccio is a violinist's holiday, with some flexing of muscle, and with
enough display of wit to intrigue the musical sensibilities of both the bow and the basso.
The Allegro (number 3 in our table) is absolutely no fun for the basso unless the violinist can deserve to play the
movement. Then, however, the continuo will have the pleasure of knowing that his sturdy, quarter-note pacing is
supporting a stunning display of agility. The violin line is mordant with occasional snapped ryhthms and with a
steady flow of triplets that is set with flashing articulations (indicated by the wedge-marks ):
Figure 9-7
Violin, mm. 4-7
In measure 7, above, the articulations are achieved by almost (but not quite) stopping the bow in its course, and by
delivering a slight sting to the marked note of the triplet as the bow resumes its speed. Again, the composer's sense
of structure is revealed: the snapped rhythm figure, appearing twice, and briefly, in the first part of the movement
(measures 5 and 12), surfaces toward the end of the Allegro in more aggressive fashion.
Figure 9-8
Violin, mm. 44-49
The closing Capriccio balances the preceding events neatly. Again, the violin opens alone, reserving the first
twenty-seven measures to itself in the presentation of two successively entering voices. The continuo provides a
real answer (measures 28 ff.). There is a fairly even interchange between violin and basso continuo through the first
half of the movement. But at the più Allegro (measure 135) the violin really takes off, soaring above the thematic
statements in the bass with figurations such as the following:
Figure 9-9
a. Violin, mm. 151-152
b. Violin, mm. 160-161
c. Violin, mm. 169-170
d. Violin, mm. 182-183
This kind of sonata offers the duo a nice combination of values: the violinist can preen himself without having to
be a Paganinithough he must certainly be a Veracini; the keyboard partner can humor the vanity of his colleague
without feeling quite deprived of a specified and important participation in the musical proceedings; both can feel
assured that they are playing a worthwhile piece of music, not simply a vehicle for violinistic display; and, they can
have the fun of playing a work that is serious without being sobersided.
Sonata in B flat, op. 2, no. 2. Cast in five movements, the sonata opens with a Polonaise; its eight-measure first
section is not without interest, but it is a ''quiet" forte, and rather low flying and circuitous in its round. As the
movement progresses, we realize that this unit is its structural home, with wilder fancies interspersed between its
reappearances (at measures 73, 101, 149cast an octave up). The Polonaise section is a kind of tutti, setting off the
display of the virtuoso player in the intervening sections.
The cadence of this passage becomes a jocular mannerism the next time round, for there the exit promises to be set
in G minor, only to blare forth suddenly, again, in the dominant seventh of the fundamental, B flat.
Figure 9-11
Violin, mm. 97-101
In the Largo e staccato second movement, the brisk, detached bowing applies to the end sections of the movement
(measures 1 to 7 and 26 to 33here, mostly for the bass, because the violin sustains broad tonesand measures 16 and
17). For the rest, the violin sings a cantabile, though courtly line.
Capriccio Terzo con Due Soggetti is the "third capriccio," because there were two in the first sonata. Veracini
keeps count, for there are a number of such movements in the entire opus, and he does not want his listeners to
forget it. The two subjects of the present movement are, of course, the broad fanfare opening and its recurrences.
The two closing movements, an Aria Schiavona ("Slavic air") and Giga, are simple essays, but require grace and
lightness.
Sonata in C, op. 2, no. 3. Here we shall single out the last two movements for mention. The Capriccio Quarto con
Tre Soggetti (Veracini still playing the numbers game) is longas befits its use of three subjectsand energetic, with
fairly even distribution of activity between the violin and the basso continuo. There are places where the simplicity
of the violin and bass line, as well as the musical context, obviously calls for the improvisation of thematically
active solos in the treble part of the keyboard. The editor has properly supplied these (cf. measures 140 to 150).
The finale, an Aria rustica, may have started on the farm, what with the bouncy squareness of its cut, but it moves
quickly to the concert room. Consider that the violin has to do turns like this:
b. As Played
It is well that the composer himself has shown the way, for otherwise the present-day performer would find such
an approach overdramatic (if, indeed, it occurred to him at all). The intensity of effect sought by Veracini is
reflected in later events in the movement, as in the angular leaps, harsh intervals, and chromaticism of these
measures:
Figure 9-14
Mm. 32-37
The remaining movements of this sonata: a Capriccio, an Allegro assai, and Giga, seem a bit overdrawn, as though
Veracini is straining to wring the last drop of intensity and of musical possibility out of his material. All very well,
but not up to the peak established in the first movement.
Sonata in D minor, op. 2, no. 12. The composer asks that the opening movement, a Passagallo, or passacaglia, be
played come sta, ''as it stands," and without ornamentation invented by the performer; further, that the bass line for
the first thirty-two measures by played as given, without super-imposition of any chordal filling (actually, no
figures are given in these measures). The result is that the sonata begins with an extended duet between violin and
the cello of the basso continuo (at least, if we follow the editor's "recommendation," footnote on page 4 of the
score, that the cello alone perform the bass line in these passages), simple and clean in its effect, "but," as the
composer instructs, to be played "with grace." The duet texture is resumed twice more in the course of the
movement (measures 61 to 68, 73 to 76, 81 to 84). The alternation between thin and thicker textures, coupled with
the changing embroideries of the violin's successive variations, makes for an interesting and subtly colored
movement.
Up through measure 40, this melodic treatment of the ostinato (in upper and lower voices) holds true. In measure
41, an Andante breaks in; and now the bass line, for three statements, reverts to a harmonic (i.e., stripped down)
version of the recurrent figure. From here to the end of the movement, the obstinacy, whether expressed in sparse
outline or in varied guise, belongs to the bass. The violin is left free to cavort in a modest but interesting range of
figurations.
The second movement is again (as often encountered in these sonatas) a Capriccio; here it is cromatico, harking
back to the Passagallo theme; and, as if to emphasize the half-step progression of the opening subject, the
composer uses the sign for a dynamic swell on each of the opening quarters, so that the played effect is as follows:
Figure 9-15
Violin, mm. 1-8, as played
Giuseppe Tartini
Giuseppe Tartini was born in Pirano, a coastal city on the Gulf of Trieste, in 1692. In 1709, Tartini came to Padua
to enter the university for the study of law. The account of the composer's early years given by Andreas Moser is so
neatly turned that we take the liberty of quoting it, in translation, at length.114 Moser relates that Tartini's first
semester at Padua was spent mostly in the fencing ring.
Feared as the best swordsman, he toyed for a time with the idea of slashing his way through the world as a
fencing-master. Fate would have it otherwise, however: originally intended by his elders for the priestly
calling, Giuseppe first attended the schools of the churches of his native city of Capo d'Istria [Pirano lies on
the Istrian peninsula], where he also received instruction in music. Who his special teacher in violin-
playing was, we do not know, but must assume that Tartini already brought with him to Padua a
considerable skill. For first, only he who has begun early can bring truly great achievements to our
instrument; second, we are told that Tartini as [university] student gave lessons not only in fencing but,
from the very beginning, was supplementing the paternal allowance by working as a violin-teacher. It was
as such that he won the heart of one of his students,
Leopold Mozart, in his treatise on violin playing, says of this "accompanied trill" that "no little industry is
demanded" in the playing thereof. He quotes the entire passage and gives detailed fingerings designed "not to
interrupt the trill in the upper note." 116 One such nicety is the shift from second to first finger and back, in mid-
trill, in measures 3 and 4, above. To carry this interchange off without bobbling the trill calls for a hand that is at
once relaxed and carefully schooled. What is not as readily shown in the notation is the handling of the bow. For,
with the repeated tones in the counter-voice (as in measure 2), it is only by gently and briefly re-
I cannot believe that Mozart meant literally to have the repeated eighths (measure 2) taken on separate strokes,
because this would be bound to produce a more choppy effect than is implied by the continuity of the trill. It needs
scarcely be added that the passage must be carried off with a display of ease. Contortions will show that the devil
has indeed not received his due in the practice room. As Joseph Szigeti warns, ''There is no shortcut; the trill has to
be 'earned' by patient training, by using the different rhythmic variants applied in all trill practice, and the difficulty
of the superimposed stabbed moving notes (this is a bowing prowess) has to be conquered separately before
attempting the passage as a whole." 117
While the trill passages may be the most spectacular in the movement, there are other niceties to be met, in the
various ways of simulating the effect of poly-voiced writing. Here is one example:
Figure 9-18
Violin, Allegro assai, p. 6, staff 5
Also to be mastered in this movement are the alternation of smooth-flowing Grave sections and the martial-toned
Allegro episodes. Some of the lyricism
This little example also shows another point of difficulty: notes played all on one string, followed by a set of notes
on adjacent strings. The crossing between the pair of strings must be as much like the effortless playing of the
single-string tones as possible. The player has to use the bow as though playing double-stops, articulating the two
strings by the slightest possible tilting of the hand from the wrist. The elbow of the bow-arm must be raised or
lowered easily, economically, and with foresight to smooth the way of the lower arm and hand as they carry the
bow to the appropriate strings, especially in passages where the string crossing is of the more athletic variety:
The keyboard player will have to exert at least one caution in dealing with the Hermann edition of this and other
Tartini sonatas: the editor has a penchant for doubling the bass at the octave in many a forte passage. This kind of
strengthening is not often necessary if the piano is used and can result only in a bloated and grandiose sound. The
intensity of the writing will transmit itself without such padding.
The Sonata in G minor, published by Peters in company with the Devil's Trill sonata, is identified simply as
number 2 in the score; this is a ''house" number of Peters, similar to the Peters numbering of the Haydn quartets. In
the index of the edition, the sonata is labeled Number 10; it is the tenth of opus "1" of Tartini. That opus number
was assigned severally to a set of six sonatas for violin and continuo, published by Witvogel in Amsterdam in
1732, and to a set of twelve sonatas and a pastorale for the same ensemble, published by Le Cène in Amsterdam in
1734. The sonata in question is from the latter set. It is also known by the title Didone abbandonata ("Dido
abandoned"; Tartini was partial to the use of poetic and scenic inspirations or parallels for his compositions).
Tartini wrote the piece as a three-movement work, and it is so published in the Polo edition of Ricordi. The Auer
and Hermann editions have, inserted as a penultimate movement in this sonata, the opening Largo from the fifth
sonata of this set. According to Moser, it was L. A. Zellner, member of the Vienna Conservatory faculty, who
carried out this surgical graft in 1862, fitting the borrowed movement with double-step voicings and with a new
cadence, and transposing it to G minor to serve as curtain raiser to Tartini's finale. 118 The tradition is continued
by Auer and Hermann verbatim.
With or without its added movement, this sonata well deserves its popularity. It does not seem to have a
superfluous note in any of its meas-
b. Moderato, mm. 1-4
c. Presto assai, mm. 1-8
The second (especially) and third movements show a similar compactness; the ornament becomes an inherent part
of the line, or rather, the line is made up of a solid stream of ornamentation. The violinist picks his way through the
foliage at top speed, sending up showers of melodic leaves and twigs, given essential support by the clear, slower-
moving basso continuo.
Figure 9-24
Violin, Allegro, letter 3, mm. 1-3
Sonata 5 displays in its second and third movements a density similar to that of the preceding sonata. The first
movement of this piece, a Moderato, is full of sixteenths, a fast and almost flashily brilliant piece. Particu-
b. Letter 2, mm. 7-12
c. Letter 6, mm. 12-15
Sonata 6 is in some ways the most difficult of the set, especially in the second movement, loaded with ornate detail
and requiring a great deal of high-position playing, close-grained trill figures, and the most delicate kind of
bowing, including up-bow staccato figures of varying andin one instanceconsiderable length.
The Polo edition of Tartini sonatas, published by Ricordi under its catalog number, 177, contains four of the opus 1
set (originally published in Amsterdam in 1734 by Le Cène). Of the twelve sonatas and pastorale of that opus, Polo
offers sonatas numbers 1, 3, 4, and 5, in A, C, G major, and E minor, respectively. (The G major is also included
in the sonatas of Peters 1099a.) Each of these sonatas has, as the second of its three slow-fast-fast movements, a
fugue, so labeled. It is curious that Peters does not so title the movement.
Any one of these sonatas is worthy of study and performance. My own preference, owing to the sonorous brilliance
achieved therein by the composer, is the Sonata in A, op. 1, no. 1. Tartini exploits the free resonance of the A major
key on the violin in splendid fashion. In the Presto finale, especially, the open A and E are touched frequently and
incisively, as part of the thematic workings of the movement. The opening Grave is a short, lyric invocation for the
sonata. The Fugue (Allegro moderato) is
4. High-register playing, in sustained, melodic vein (see also sonata 6, Minuetto, variation 5):
Figure 9-29
Sonata 1, violin, Cantabile, mm. 93-96
6. Playing in a difficult key (in the present instance, B major), with the addition of double-stops and the attendant
danger of hard, coarse tone:
Figure 9-31
Sonata 3, violin, Andante, mm. 1-2
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7. Extended passages of arpeggiation (in the example shown here, fully four pages of score of the texturesurely a
track recordmade more difficult by the need of grading and varying the sweep thereof in dynamics, harmonic
emphasis, and so on):
Figure 9-32
Sonata 4, violin, Allegro, mm. 19-24
8. Double-stop trills:
Figure 9-33
Sonata 6, violin, Largo, mm. 1-4
Does all this smoke mask a true flame? Yes, for these Locatelli sonatas have an amplitude, a gracefulness and
sweetness coupled with intensity, an air of sincerity that quite justifies the technical demands made upon the player.
They are bravura pieces, with artistic purpose.
Sonata in C minor, op. 6, No. 5. A closer look at sonata 5 will bear this out. Consider the start of the opening
Andante:
Figure 9-34
Sonata 5, Andante, mm. 1-4
Note how quickly the line moves to a point of intensity (beat three), with the ''foreign" neighboring tone (D flat,
over the subdominant, F, con-
Note also the gradation of intensity, the sustaining power needed to carry the melodic line that Locatelli spins in
measures 21 to 24:
Figure 9-36
Violin, Andante, mm. 21-24
The second movement, Allegro, calls for great nicety of attack, and for rhythmic precision on the part of both
players. See the mordant pattern of the violin opening, the motoric impulse of the keyboard entry:
Figure 9-37
Sonata 5, Allegro, mm. 1-3
The incisive rhythmic sense we have already noted is raised to highest power in the Ariawith variationsthat
concludes the sonata. (Each of the sonatas ends with a variation movement.) The theme has a jaunty air that calls
for a surgeon's deftness in the handling of the bow (with no less delicacy on the part of the continuo player as he
matches his step to that of his partner):
Figure 9-39
Sonata 5, Aria, mm. 1-2
The bass line remains constant throughout the movement. Above it, the violin spins three variations; because the
tune itself is already well starched and ruffled in its rhythmic turnings, there is not unlimited scope for the further
inventiveness of the composer. And yet we shall come upon such exuberant bits of topography as this, surrounded
by verdant double-stops in the final measures of the movement:
Figure 9-40
Sonata 5, violin, Aria, mm. 71-72
and highlights the special activity in the violin part by asking the continuo player to play only the given bass line,
without chordal padding.
As the musicologist; Claudio Sartori, points out in his Appendix to the Locatelli volume, 120 the ornaments in the
slow (Andante) movements of these sonatas are written into the melodic line by the composer himself, removing
the option from the improvisatory judgment of the performer. Locatelli places ornamental detail in a precise
fashion, contributing to the preconceived extension of the melody, as in this passage from the closing lines of the
movement under discussion:
The second movement, Allegro, opens brilliantly, with a brief flight of staccato, followed by tight flourishes and
expansive string crossings, and culminates in impressively long staccato flights (see the small portion of one such,
Figure 9-27). Transparent in texture, very clean in structural format, this Allegro is a bravura piece of the first
order.
The third movement closes the work with an appealing set of variations. The theme, Cantabile, is gently lyric, its
innocent pacing heightened in color by a sinuous passage that leads tantalizingly into the final cadence:
Figure 9-43
Cantabile, mm. 21-28
The third variation is entirely in double-stops; but most interesting is the fourth of the five sections of the
movement, an almost unaltered version of the original theme, simply transposed up an octave, taking the violinist
as far as the seventh-position stratosphere:
Figure 9-44
Cantabile, mm. 85-88
Staccato, coupled with arpeggiation, returns in the final variation to bring the movement to a brilliant close.
We have been talking about the easiest sonata in the six at hand in
b. Mm. 23-24
Sonata 6, in D, is the largest and most challenging in all the ICMI edition. It flings down the gauntlet of a sustained
double trill in thirds, then moves into an Andante sequel that alternates between double-stop and highly ornate,
single-line writing. The same combination of textures holds for the bravura Allegro second movement, with the
added sauce of staccato passage to lend flavor. To offer just one plum, how about this conga-line rhythm?
Figure 9-46
Allegro, mm. 1-2
Aside from all other fascinations of this movement, let the player be impressed by the fact that, ifas he shouldhe
repeats both sections of
It is well to mentionwith cautionthat this sonata is available in an edition ''elaborated" by Cesare Barison and
published by Carisch in 1964. It is puzzling that, in an Italian publication of a work by an important Italian
composer, some unexplained license should be taken with the work. For one, the opus identification is not given.
Second, the order of the movements is changed: in the ICMI edition, the Minuetto comes last; in the Carisch
version, it is printed as the middle movement. In the first movement, some of the violin chords are more fully
voiced than in the full edition, and some ornamental details are notated differently (with possible effect on the
placement and length of grace notes). Finally, and most difficult to understand, the Minuetto, a variations
movement (and as such entitled to stand in the final slot of the sonata, corresponding to the arrangement of the
other sonatas in the set), has only four variations in the Carisch publication; in the older edition, it has seven. As if
in atonement,
Niccolo Porpora
Niccolo Porpora, 16861766, was a Neapolitan-born composer of opera, oratorio, and other choral, vocal, and
church music in profuse measure, and of a lesser quantity of instrumental music. One among a number of lesser
rivals to Handel in London opera, he was a teacher who, in his late years, gave musical instruction to the young
Haydn (who served Porpora for some months as accompanist-valet in the middle 1750s). He was also the composer
of twelve violin sonatas, published in 1754. Of these, I have seen two in modern edition: one, in G minor, was
edited by Alfred Moffat, for Simrock, in 1932. It is spoiled by its fast movements; the Fuga (second movement)
has a foursquare subject; the whole movement feels the same way, and is tedious. The finale, Allegro, is more
concise, but nonetheless dull in rhythm and idea.
The Sonata in A, offered by Schering in his collection, Alte Meister, has a Praeludium, alternately slow and fast
and ending with a longer Adagio section, that is a good curtain raiser; let the pianist beware though, in playing the
continuous bass tremolos indicated by Schering; softly does it, or there will be a horrendous clatter. The second
movement, Allegro, is just as determinedly fugal as the finale of Moffat's edition, but there is, despite many
double-stops, a lightness and lift that make it entirely palatable in this sonata. The finale, Allegro, is a rattling good
one, jigging away in brisk fashion.
10
Some Violinist/Composers in Paris in the Eighteenth Century:
Leclair, Mondonville, Others
Violin and keyboard, in France, figure in bizarre fashion in the vagaries of musicians' guild affairs in the
seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The acrimonious jockeying for professional advantage, during the reign
of Louis XIV, between such factions as the Grande Bande of twenty-four violins of the court, the free-lance string-
and wind-players, the harpsichordists and organists of the court and of Paris, the dancing-masters of the Académie
de Danse, the operatic monopoly of the Royal Academy of Music (dominated by the Italian-born crony of the king,
the composer Jean-Baptiste Lully), and the officers of the centuries-old Corporation of Minstrels makes an
interesting study in the workings of taxation, graft, and privilege. Harmonious relations between string and
keyboard in France did prevail, however, certainly in the ensemble of violin and continuo, whose repertoire there
began in the early decades of the eighteenth century.
Michele Mascitti
Neapolitan-born, a student of Corelli, and one among the significant number of Italian musical imports into France
in the early eighteenth century, Michele Mascitti (16641760) is represented here by one of his products for the duo
(all were first published in Paris), the six works forming the Sonate da camera a Violino solo col Violone o
Cembalo, op. 2. The editor, Walter Kolneder, says of Mascitti's pieces that they ''were apparently intended less for
his own use than for the chamber music
François Couperin
An early example of native French writing for the violin and continuo comes to hand in the recent edition of the
Concerts royaux (numbers 1 through 4) of François Couperin (16681733), the renowned composer and
harpsichordist to King Louis XIV. The pieces date from about 1714 and were published in 1722. My (and the
publisher's) attribution of the pieces to violin and continuo is rather free. As Couperin himself implies in his
introduction to the works, the music is first designed for the harpsichord, but can be played according to the forces
at hand, with "violin, oboe, viol or bassoon" taking appropriate part in the festivities, the keyboard transferring to
continuo function as needed. The editor has cast several appropriate movements into violin-with-continuo mold,
others in the trio-sonata format, in accord with the composer's suggestions.
Clearly these are hybrid works from the point of view of the duo, but they offer accessible and interesting contact
with the work of a great French master. Couperin, it should be pointed out, was greatly interested in the Italian
style so popular in the France of his day and had long been writing pieces on the model of the Italian trio sonata.
The crowning evidence of his interest is the large trio-sonata cycle, the Apotheosis of Corelli, following upon a
similar cycle he had written in honor of Lully, both written several years after the publication of the Concerts
royaux.
François Duval
One of the first important native figures in French violin music is François Duval (ca. 16731728). He was a
member of the "24 Violins of the King" (Louis XIV), was one of the first French violinists to perform the Corelli
Jean-Baptiste Senallié
Jean-Baptiste Senallié (16871730), violinist to the French court under the aged Louis XIV and eventually in the
court of Louis XV, is represented in modern reissue by one of his many violin sonatas, that in D minor, Book 4,
No. 4, originally published in 1721. The four movements of the work, all in the home key except for the third, in
major, follows the sonata da camera pattern, the two middle movements bearing Corrente and Saraband titles, the
overall sequence, slow-fast-slow-fast. There is a certain amount of melodic interrelationship between the four
chapters. The tone of the work is a combination of the brisk and (I must say it) the courtly, and offers moderate to
difficult technical assignments to the violinist. A pleasant work.
The ''shakes" or trills, marked +, lend intensity; the slower graces offer a glint of foreign-tone tartness (see the
sixth eighth of measure 1) or a rhythmic fillip and harmonic enrichment to the line (as in measure 2, first eighth,
where the grace provides two triad tones in the place of one, and the flavor of the passing tone, C sharp). The fine-
line, etched quality of the melodic thread is broadened into a bluffer texture by the arpeggiated figures of measures
7 to 10:
Figure 10-2
Violin, mm. 7-10
The basso continuo, throughout, is cast in an eighth-note swing, apparent to the ear, but unobtrusive and
nonthematic. The ''return" in the second section of the movement (measures 18 ff.) is cast in minor, and, after a
truncated, reminiscent overview of first-section happenings, releases us to the major again for the close. The tempo
of this movement seems to settle comfortably at slower is pedantic; faster makes the ornaments muddy.
Leclair himself asks the player to be careful to find the "true tempo" of each movement, and to hold to it
consistently throughout. 126
For the Allegro, the tempo should be about to evoke the hunting-scene atmosphere that the writing
suggests. With only occasional bare spots, the violin is written throughout in double-stop setting, in effect very like
a horn duet.
Written in three sections, all repeated, the movement alternates a refrain with two contrasting episodes, the second
longer than the first. The impulse in playing this movement with the modern bow is to use a mild spiccato stroke in
the lower part of the bow. Leclair's own indication throughout much of the movement is as follows:
Figure 10-3
Violin, mm. 25-27
The editor interprets this to mean "slightly separated notes under one bow"127 and goes on to point out that this
would also suit the interpretation of the lines in the continuo part, where string and harpsichord player would be
guided toward a similar moderate separation. The difficulty for the violinist lies in achieving the same clarity of
articulation, without dryness or hardness of sound, that is attainable with the older, more resiliently clinging bow.
The problem is greatest in the passages that combine this bowing sign with a call for forte dynamics, for here the
effect can be either messy or anemic, depending on the failings of the particular performer. Let the player
experiment, in terms of his own technique, to decide whether he can achieve the desired effect with the linked bow
strokes in the upper part of the bow, or whether he is better advised to be faithful to the sound intent rather than to
the noted instruction. In this event, he can give good account of the music in a lower-bow spiccato.
The breathing points (and the dynamics too, if the keyboard is the piano) hold true, of course, for the continuo as
well. Above all, there must be no forcing of the tone by the violinist.
The Tempo Menuetto ma non troppo is a theme with two variations. The high point of the theme, and of the
Menuetto and its altered forms, is the expansive passage where the bow leaps two strings to weave bass and
melody together:
Figure 10-5
a. Violin, mm. 25-26
b. Mm. 55-58
c. Mm. 90-92
The players will note Leclair's sense of showmanship. When, in the florid version of the tune, the violin is
barreling through the sixteenth-note roller coaster, the continuo is confined to a very sparse, punctuating
commentary, to leave the way clear for the soloist.
Let us proceed now to sonata 12, where Leclair gives himself broadest
b. As sounded
Sonata in G, op. 5, no. 12. This is the longest sonata in Leclair's opus 5; initially, there is some pretense at
polyphony in the violin part:
Figure 10-7
Mm. 1-2
As you note, however, once the violin and continuo have bandied the opening upward-leap interval, the violin
immediately settles down to the parallel, simultaneous sixths (and thirds) familiar from the other Leclair
movements we have seen. At two points in this Adagio, however, the ''second" violin breaks into some decorative
frivolities on its own:
Figure 10-8
Violin, mm. 18-19
Leclair knew what he was doing; the passage looks difficult (and it is certainly not easy to play), but is quite
feasible.
There are also moments of unabashedly linear flourishes in the violin, to which the continuo responds with more
sedate bursts of notes:
The second movement, Allegro ma non troppo, is clearly a simulation of a violin concerto, orchestra and all. A
brief tutti fills the first four measures, with the violinist called on to represent the successive entries (in lines of
composed acceleration) of two violin ''sections." From measures 5 through 8, the violin takes on a solo role, moving
now in more brilliant sixteenths, and in bold arcs of sound, as befits a bravura "soloist." The movement is a series
of such alternations in role, with the solo segments putting the violinist through a fair roster of musical-technical
maneuvers. The most spectacular feat is that of measures 70 to 75, where the violin performs a series of sustained
tones and tremolos, simultaneously:
Figure 10-10
Violin, mm. 70-75
Pincherle singles out this kind of writing as one of Leclair's distinctive violinistic-virtuosic devices.
The Largo third movement looks as though it is wide open for ornamentation, moving as it does in tones as long as
eight quarters, sustained. But the player should note that Leclair himself warns that his notated line is not to be
tampered with. 128 In the Preface of his fourth book of sonatas, he states that the loading of the melodic line with
arbitrary embellishments serves only to diminish its beauty. The fact that Leclair had to issue his warning shows
that his stand is unusual, and that free ornamentation was indeed the common practice in performance in his time.
So far as a slow movement, with long-held notes, is concerned, Leclair is known to have cultivated the technique
of the sustained bow stroke.129 With appropriate
In the course of some thirty sections (there are actually thirty-one, if one counts repetitions, literal or otherwise)
there is almost as much variety for the bass as for the violin. The effect is of a three-way contest: the violinist
trying to outdo himself in feats of dexterity, and more than once
In effect, the violin has the bass line, with the typical harmonic leaps characteristic of such a part; in measures 3
and 4, the violin is actually the lowest voice in the musical fabric, except for its high F. In measures 1 and 2, of
course, it could be argued that the violin sounds more important, melodically, than the keyboard; this kind of
equivocal center of attention is observed frequently in the movement and lends it part of its appeal.
The suspicion raised by the appearance of the printed page is borne out in the sound of the work as performed:
Mondonville is too much the virtuoso of his instrument to let it be submerged in the duo balance. Despite the title
of the opus, these sonatas (an excellent recording of the entire opus gives further evidence) are a pairing of two
equal protagonists. What Mondonville has done, essentially, is to set down in specific notation the role that a
competent player of the continuo would have arrogated
The final Giga is curious: keyboard calls the dance to order with three chords at the beginning of each of the two
sections of the movement. The dance itself is represented by a great deal of motion (scalewise and triadic wavelets,
in triplet rhythm, most often for both hands). There is much harmony, but no melody to speak of. The rest of the
band is yet to arrive; but it never really does so. The violin is no help in this respect; it spends much of its time
scraping away (delicately, however) like some country fiddler unburdened with imagination. A sample of these
hectic maneuvers:
Figure 10-14
Giga, mm. 5-6
There are areas of slightly more inspired writing in the movement. Our dismay is misplaced, however; the noise
and motion is the stuff of this
Or this measure, from the Allegro, where the harmonics played at the end of the bar produce an ascending,
harmonically active line rather than the scalewise-seeming notation (and note how the keyboard is silent on the
offbeats, to let the harmonic punning be heard unobscured):
Figure 10-16
Allegro, mm. 6-7
Mondonville is interested not only in harmonics, but in general sonorous possibilities. In this same movement, he
tries to have his two instruments sound with orchestral fullness (if we add the two indicated parts of the violin line
to the assumed web of parts in the realized basso continuo):
He proceeds in similar vein in the Aria, having the violin play double-stopsand suggesting yet a fuller texture
because of the leaps in the melodic linethroughout the movement, except for brief passages of single-line writing
where the harmonics are given some of their exposure. One such measure will demonstrate the kind of technique
that made Mondonville one of the leading French players of his day; hand shifts and bow change must be precisely
coordinated, and the bow pressure nicely controlled to evoke the harmonics clearly in such rapid writing:
Figure 10-18
Aria, violin, mm. 61-65
The final Giga is a joy for all, with bass, treble, and violin all winding through a wide-arcing round. Again, the
violin is given some special chores: agile string crossing, articulate double-stop sequences, and so on. The neatest
trick is this measure, where double-stop harmonics, short runs in parallel thirds, and mercifully brief double trills
are bundled together:
Figure 10-19
Violin, Giga, m. 11
But the exuberance of the movement is best seen in the following violin excerpt; a century later, Wieniawski will
be doing much the same in his Scherzo Tarantelle:
Three Others
For an example of more difficult (technically) writing in the French violin literature of the mid-eighteenth century,
see the Sonata in F minor by Tremais, the twelfth sonata of opus 1 (according to Moser), from the year 1736,
reprinted by Schering in his Alte Meister. Little is known about Tremais, not even his first name. The sonata,
however, represents him impressively, its three movements (slow-fast-fast) displaying fairly difficult double-stop
writing, interestingly contrived fugal textures in the second movementinvolving several simulated parts in the
violin as well as the bass line of the keyboardand a combination of rondo and variation writing in the finale.
From the French organist and composer Michel Corrette (17091795) there is a sonata, in modern edition, subtitled
Les Jeux Olympiques, for no apparent reason, and drawn from the composer's Sonates pour le Clavecin, avec un
Accompagnement de Violon, op. 25. For once, the current publisher's insistence on listing the violin first, even
though with ''obligates Cembalo," is not entirely ill taken, because the violin is given almost equal treatment with
the keyboard. The work is in three movements, Allegro, Aria, Giga, and is a bright, if not very substantial, piece
suited to the studio and domestic music making.
Any violinist who has cracked a knuckle on Pierre Gaviniès' études, the very difficult Vingt-Quatre Matinées, or
"Twenty-four Morning Constitutionals," will be impressed to know that Simon Le Duc the Elder was one of
Gaviniès outstanding pupils. Born in Paris before 1748, Le Duc died in 1777. In his scarcely thirty years, Le Duc
achieved a career worthy of his membership in one of the important musical families of France, variously active
for three centuries in music makng, instrument manufacture, and music publishing. In 1759 Le Duc began his
participation in the Concert Spirituel; by the ripe old age of twenty-five, he was associate director, with Gaviniès
and François-Joseph Gossec, of these concerts. He
11
Schobert and Contemporaries:
The Sonata for Keyboard with Violin Accompaniment in the Second Half of the Eighteenth Century
We have already seen, in the discussion of the sonatas of J. S. Bach, that he gives up the traditional basso continuo
principlewith the keyboard player improvising the parts above the given bass linein favor of a completely specified
keyboard part. The composer, not the performer, does the ''realizing." In the hands of a composer such as Bach, the
resultant part writing gives the keyboard a role at least equal to that of the violin in the duo. Matters went further
along this avenue in the later decades of the eighteenth century.
. . . a new, genuine clavier style developed in both solo and ensemble music (including the accompanied
clavier sonata), taking shape under Schobert, J. C. Bach, Rutini, and their contemporaries and culminating
in the works of Boccherini, Clementi, the great Viennese masters, and Hummel. 133
William S. Newman, elsewhere in the same very interesting article on the accompanied keyboard sonata, as well as
in his volume on the classic sonata in general, shows one reason for the popularity of this kind of sonata: it sold
well to amateur violinists who wanted to enjoy the feeling of participation in music without having to command
much in the way of
Johann Schobert
Those who recall the movie, some years ago, by Sacha Guitry entitled,Story of a Cheat, will remember that the
hero, as a child, was punished for some transgression by not being allowed to join the family in a supper of
mushrooms. Ironically, he was thus spared the fate that befell every other member of the householdto die of
mushroom poisoning. Confirmed in a suspicion that the wages of sin were after all not always predictably paid, the
child went on to a lifetime of cheating.
The movie scenario seemed a wry, Gallic confection, scarcely to be encountered in real life. An actual event of this
kind, however, befell a musician in eighteenth-century France. And it is all the more strange because the victim in
this case, a man of undeniably strong willpower, himself courted death with heedless persistence.
An account of the baleful event was given by the contemporary observer of Parisian culture, the German Baron
Melchior von Grimm:
The day of Saint-Louis was marked this year [1767] by a truly unfortunate occurrence. Mr. Schobert,
known to lovers of music as one of the best harpsichordists of Paris, had arranged a pleasure outing with
his wife, one of his children (four or five years old), and several friends, including a doctor. A party of
seven, they went walking in the woods of Saint Germain-en-Laye. Schobert loved mushrooms with a
passion; he gathered some in the forest at one point in their hike. Toward evening, the group came to
Marly, entered a tavern and asked
Luigi Boccherini
Better still, apply yourselves to the sonatas of Luigi Boccherini. He was born in Lucca, Italy, in February, 1743,
and died in Madrid in 1805. Trained at first by his father, cellist in the orchestra of the cathedral of Lucca, and then
by Domenico Vannucci, musical director of the orchestra, he was active in 1757 at Rome as composer and cellist,
and at Vienna. He returned to Lucca in 1761, joining the theater orchestra there as cellist in 1764. After being
represented in his native city as a composer by two oratorios and an opera, he set out on tour, reaching Paris in
1768. One facet of his triumphal reception there was his introduction to the circle of the harpsichordist, Madame
Brillon de Jouy. That year, he composed his opus 5, Six Sonatas for Fortepiano with Accompaniment of a Violin,
dedicating them to this virtuoso performer. 149
The opus is the only set of pieces Boccherini wrote for keyboard-violin duo. The six sonatas for violin and basso
continuo (listed, both in MGG and in Polo, ICMI, on the basis of Picquot's Catalogue raisonné of 1851), which
were printed by various French publishers in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries are arrangements,
very likely without the composer's authorization, of sonatas he wrote for cello and basso continuo.150
These sonatas (opus 5) were first published in February, 1769, in Paris. The publisher, Venier, apparently on his
own authority, added a sentence designed to attract an added market for the offering: ''Several of these pieces can
be played on the harp [i.e., one would suppose, with the harp as substitute for the keyboard; the violin would still
be required]."151 The contemporary popularity of the pieces is seen in the fact that they were published again, in
some cases on several separate occasions, from 1774 through about 1830, in Riga, London, Paris, Mannheim,
Vienna, and Amsterdam.
A hasty glance at these pieces might make the violinist feel that he should give them a wide berth. And, after what
I have said about similar works by J. C. Bach, I ought to feel disposed to such a decision. But, as
b. Violin, mm. 25-28
At the other extreme, there are movements that carry quite forceful strains, such as this example from the finale,
Presto assai, of the fifth sonata, in G minor:
Figure 11-3
Mm. 107-111
As the editor points out, Boccherini makes use not only of dynamic signs, but also of more extensive performance
indications such as dolce, sempre piano, sempre sottovoce, con anima. We might also take note of such detailed
dynamic instruction as in the following passage, from the first movement of sonata 6 (the asterisks, inserted by the
editor, indicate that the marks shown are in the original edition):
Figure 11-5
Violin, mm. 31-33
These sonatas are apparently available only in the edition shown at the end of this volume. Duo enthusiasts will be
well rewarded if they acquire the edition. The editor, the late Enrico Polo, is neither partisan nor extravagant in his
praise when he comments:
Through its delicate sweetness, this music must be treasured not only by violinists but also by those of the
keyboard [what price top billing?], since this lyric art is a delight not only for performers but for listeners.
152
Other Composers
Far less important works of the later eighteenth century that show the combination of old (continuo) and new
(keyboard as equal or predominant partner) in the sonata repertoire are the six sonatas, opus 3, of Felice Giardini,
Turinese violinist/composer (17161796), from about 1775. These pieces are published in an edition by Enrico Polo
in the ICMI series.
12
Some Violin and Continuo Sonatas of the Later Eighteenth Century
The transfer of allegiance from the violin-and- to the keyboard-and- type of sonata was not carried out at once, or
by all composers in the later eighteenth century. Some writers, whether because of a personal attachment to the
violin or because of distrust of the new approach to the sonata, preferred to keep on in the old way. Here are some
examples of this preference in the closing decades of the 1700s.
13
Mozart:
The Childhood Sonatas and the First Mature Sonatas (through K. 306)
It is a luxury born of necessity to devote space in this volume to not a select few, but rather the broad span, of
mature sonatas for keyboard and violin written by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. These works contain the spirit and
craftsmanship of one of the greatest minds in the history of Western music (and perhaps in the history of Western
art, of whatever avenue). They are technically difficult, but not so difficult that they are beyond the reach of the
persevering amateur. At the same time, they offer endless challenge to both the amateur and the hardened
professional: to capture in performance the niceties of the Mozartian musical vocabulary; and, beyond that, to
explore the range of Mozart's musical temperament, with the gratifying certainty that one can never reach the limits
of that range.
Mozart was a virtuoso performer, certainly at the keyboard, andby his father's expert testimonyon the violin almost
as well. He knew both instruments intimately (as, for that matter, he knew every sounding device in his writing,
including above all the human voice). He does not write to make life easy for the performer, but his demands are
always in terms of the instrument's innate character and abilities. The notes lie well under the hand and under the
bow.
Both players will find themselves thoroughly employed in the large
Of course, the harpsichord, if that is the keyboard used, will have an appropriate twang and clangor in its own
right. If the violin is omitted, however, the keyboard would have to take over some of the violin part to fill out the
musical line. This would work, at that; the flute could not substitute for the violin, however, because the double-
stops and the plucked sound seem essential to the imagery of the title.
Hans-Peter Schmitz's suggestion, based on ''late Baroque practise, which is still valid for Mozart's early work," 169
that the violin/flute enhance its role by switching parts here and there with the keyboard treble is interesting. It
means that a duo of moderate proficiency can make more even-handed the activity in these not too difficult
sonatas. On the whole, these sonatas are pleasant enough, but not terribly exciting either in thought or in technical
requirement. A noticeable trait is the tendency to end the movement abruptly, almost in midstream.
As the title of opus 4 (K. 26 through 31) indicates"with the accompaniment of"the added violin is not ad lib. Nor is
it to be replaced by a flute, though there is nothing to prevent such substitution; there is, for example, less double-
stop writing in this set than in the violin part of the opus 3 sonatas. There is just enough involvement of the violin
in the fabric and repartee of the lines to make the instrument indispensable to the pieces. At the same time, there is
still no doubt that the keyboard is the prominent partner. Still, with these sonatas we are a small step closer to the
kind of sonata that Mozart was later to write. They do have a hint more of excitement and drive than the earlier
opus, as befits the fact that the composer has now advanced to the ripe old age of nine. But we want to hear
immediately the imagination and insight of the twenty-two-year-old.
The six sonatas, K. 301 through 306, published as opus 1 [!] by Sieber, in Paris, in November, 1778, were entitled
Six Sonatas for Harpsichord or Fortepiano with Accompaniment of a Violin, and are dedicated to the electoress of
the Palatinate, Maria Elisabeth.171 It was the electoral court that Mozart had visited at Mannheim earlier that year
to try his luck (in vain) at gaining a place in the active musical establishment there. In January, 1779, Mozart, on
his way home to Salzburg, was able to carry out his desire of presenting a set of the sonatas to the electoress in
person, "which might perhaps bring me a present."172
The seventh sonata, K. 296, was dedicated to Mozart's fifteen-year-old keyboard pupil, Therese-Pierron Serrarius,
daughter of the elector's court councillor at Mannheim.173 This work was later grouped with the five sonatas, K.
376 through 380 (see chapter 14), and all of them were published as opus 2 by Artaria in Vienna in November,
1781. For that set, the title again reads, Six Sonatas for Harpsichord or Pianoforte with the Accompaniment of a
Violin.174
The stress must now be placed on the word with. The violin is no
Sonata in G, K. 301
When we turn to the very opening of the first of these sonatas, K. 301, in G, we see how things are. Who leads off
with the melody? The violin. Then, measure 13, the piano takes over, while the violin picks up the rolling eighth-
note figure that had previously occupied the right hand of the piano. Immediately, perfect cooperation between the
partners.
b. Mm. 12-16
Just to even the score, be it noted, the order is reversed at the opening of the recapitulation section (measures 121
ff.), with the piano taking first lead there.
Another factor stands out at once: the characteristic, Mozartian dramatic contrast that is built into the opening
statement. The violin line, measures 1 to 12, is unbroken in its flow; but it carries two opposite characters within
itself. The first measures must be played smoothly, lyrically, steering the emphasis to the last beat of measure 3,
and on to its cadential overflow in the next two bars. A corresponding, but lesser, emphasis must be centered on
the fragment from the second beat of measure 6 through the downbeat of measure 8. Then the counterforce,
brusque and strong, moving in repeated rushes, progressively higher, that carries us up to the end of the line
(measures 9 to 12).
Figure 13-4
Violin, mm. 1-12
Each fragment must move toward its resolving downbeat, with little crescendi (graded into one larger, overall
crescendo), with slight accentuation of the downbeats, and with a very slight acceleration in each figure. It is
important that the piano not hang back in the performance of the sixteenth-note runs in measures 10 and 11.
Allegro con spirito is the marking for the movement, and spirited it must be, preferably at a tempo of . Both
players will find themselves consistently used as a pair in maintaining the spirit. For example, the passage where
the piano's wide-ranging clanging of bells (the left hand, leaping from bass to treble over the constant glitter of the
right-hand part) is coupled with the penetrating clarion of the violin's E-string line (measures 169 and 170):
Figure 13-6
Mm. 169-170
Mozart ends the movement abruptly, but completely in keeping with the nature of the whole. As seen below, he
notes the dynamics needed to give these last measures their due of intensity. But the last two chords, even though
at the peak, should not be torn off in utterly strict tempo. Instead, there should be the slightest stretching of both
beats, and just as subtle a softening of the second quarter in order to suggest a resonant reflection of the impact on
the downbeat.
Figure 13-8
Mm. 190-194
For this writer, the high point of the second (and last) movement of this sonata is the passage from measures 75 to
114. The sudden shift from the prevailing major to minor; the soft, rather dry rustling of the piano's sixteenth-note
filigree; the cautious, narrow-compassed turnings of the violin part, spiced with recurrent trillsall this makes for a
wonderful episode of half-serious, half-mock shadow in an otherwise bright and innocent movement. And the
effectiveness of this spot is reflected in the similar dryness (and figuration) of the ending of the sonata. Mozart, the
wise old man of twenty-two!
Mozart, enamored of the brilliant rhythmics, uses it prominently in the development section, where he has the
piano's descent answered by the ascending leaps of the violin, on the same figure (measures 89 to 92 ff).
Figure 13-10
Mm. 90-92
He urges the pace along constantly by dint of incisive trills (cf. measures 19 ff.), on-the-beat turns (measures 49
ff.), barrages of sixteenth notes in the piano (measures 41 ff.), sudden fortes and pianos, and specified crescendi.
The swing of the 3/4 meter must be essentially one to the bar, at a tempo of if you can stand the pace. Of
vital importance: when Mozart calls for piano, follow the instruction just as intensely as when reaching for the
forte; let the line relax when it should (as in measures 3 to 6, and all corresponding phrases), let the line breathe and
broaden (as when moving from measure 39 into 40; at the end of measure 7 and measure 55; especially, at the end
of measure 106, just at the brink of the recapitulation; and so on). The pace must be constant, but not so heedless
that it overrides the breaks, catches, and pauses that reflect the musical happenings. Otherwise, the energy will be
weakened by its own brashness. The responses between violin and piano from measures 141 to 149 should be just
that, a dialogue without words, but perhaps the more forceful in its implications than a texted interchange could be.
Sonata in C, K. 303
K. 303 is a study in scene alternation. In the first movement, two adagio sections are set off against two molto
allegro sections, in slow-fast-slow-fast sequence. The allegro episodes are vignettes of piano-concerto writing,
with the violin serving as a one-man orchestral section. In giving the accompanying figures vitality, in supporting
and following the pianist's delivery of the brilliant keyboard passage-work, the violinist must act as his own
conductor as well as orchestra. In the adagio sections, on the other hand, the two players alternate in the delivery of
a long, aria-like, melodic line. Neither is subordinate, and there should be complete assurance and even opulence in
the ''singing" of the line. The second adagio, be it noted, is an ornamented, second-time-around view of the
opening material, as can be seen from a comparison of several measures of the respective violin parts (measures 5
ff.; measures 93 ff.):
Figure 13-11
a. Mm. 5-9
b. Mm. 93-97
The freedom of treatment, both in dynamic shading and in the pushing and stretching of the phrase, must respond
to the greater elaborateness of the second version.
The violin may feel a little foolish, in the second movement, Tempo di Menuetto, when playing drumlike
successions of monotone pulses, either in line, or in slow or fast octave:
Figure 13-12
Mm. 68-70
But the built-in, composed acceleration of this accompaniment is essential to the music and must be so considered
by the player. On the whole, there is fair distribution of musical spoils between the two partners. Together, they
unfold a movement that is wonderful in its three-dimensional handling of musical space and perspective. The
alternation of delicate, ultrasensitive melody (e.g., measures 25 to 32) and martial, bandlike flourishes (e.g.,
measures 17 to 24) gives one a feeling of being in a room whose doors open successively on contrasting scenes
and sounds. The loudness differences, indicated by Mozart himself, add a sense of depth to the music, making the
delicate strains seem far off; the militant music near and aggressive.
How deliberate this play of opposites is on Mozart's part, and consequently how deliberate must be our emphasis
of this effect in the performance, can be realized if we think of some Mozart opera scenes, notably the ballroom
episode in Don Giovanni. There the play of opposites even involves simultaneous playing of full orchestra and
stage band, simultaneous opposing rhythms, simultaneous and completely opposed lines of stage action. A similar
effect must be projected in the instrumental music when it occurs, as it does in the present sonata movement.
Nor must one fall into the trap of splitting this long phrase at the obvious points (indicated by the dotted lines),
measures 2, 4, and 6. Rather go through these rest places, observing them, but moving on always to the propulsive
force of the succeeding pair of eighths. The eighth notes themselves should have no suggestion of headlong thrust,
but rather a measured tread, firm, unhurried, implacable. The piano (both hands) and violin are in octave-unison
setting throughout the phrase; the need for synchronized motion, matched phrasing, impeccable intonation on the
part of the violinist, and mutual alertness from both parties, need scarcely be stressed. So also the treatment of the
succeeding four measures, wherestill in unisonboth instruments counter the opening restraint with the forward
lunge of the barely interrupted eighth-note passage.
Another illustration of the pervasiveness of the starting idea: note that the two halves of the opening complex,
reversed in sequence at measures 108 ff., are used to new purpose. Now the eighth-note passage is heard first, and
serves to bring us to the start of the recapitulation. Then (measures 112 ff.) the lyric half takes over to begin this
final section of the movement. The violin must now present the theme alone, in more accentuated profile than
before, with the piano applying the drumming eighths in a monochordal-tattoo commentary derived from a
treatment used in the development section:
Figure 13-15
a. Mm. 114-116, recapitulation
b. Mm. 92-98, development
The melody over this is beautifully engineered, falling first away from the B in measure 2, then swinging from low
C to high C in measure 5, descending easily but swiftly from there to the end of the phrase. Both levels must be
gently stressed in the playing, the Cas the high pointmore than the B:
Figure 13-17
Mm. 1-8
The eighth-note filigree under the violin statement of the melody (measures 17 to the double bar) must also be
gently handled, with emphasis reserved for the chromatic runs in measures 19 and 27, and for other goal points as
indicated in the following excerpt:
In the playing of the second section of the Menuetto proper (measures 33 ff.), the temperature of the music must be
allowed to heat up as the gradual infiltration of triplet figures quickens the pulse of the piece (measures 53 to 61,
piano, cf. right-hand line), followed by the even more intense succession of trills (measures 62 to 64, both
instruments). The music overflows and pours into the sustained trill in the piano part (measure 69). Now it must be
the pianist's neat trick to come out of this trill and play the arpeggiated run, complete with built-in accelerando,
that Mozart has provided, and arrive nonchalantly at the original tempo for the return of the theme (measure 70).
The run must seem to well up continuously, as though improvised, but proceeding with computerlike control to
link up with the opening notes of the theme. It is then the easy task of the violinist to join in as though he knew all
along that everything would turn out just this way.
The middle section (measures 94 to 127) is one of Mozart's most inspired moments in this most inspired of
movements. The vision and clarity and economy of this passage were never exceeded by him, though he was still
relatively young and untempered at the time of its writing. And the congruence of these measures with passages
from some of the contemporary letters of Mozartwhere lines such as, '' . . . [I] will give you a smack behind, will
kiss your hands, my dear, shoot off a gun in the rear . . .", 181 are comparatively modestthis is something amazing
to contemplate. Perhaps the sensitivity to write the one requires the willingness to write and think the earthiness of
the other.
Certainly one can say little to guide the performance of these measures. The player must feel. Let the tone be quiet;
the shading, from piano to pianissimo. The task, if anything, will be more difficult for the pianist than for the
violinist, calling for the most sensitive touch on the most responsive of piano actions. But never will the rewards of
music making be more strongly felt than in this brief and timeless moment.
It has already been said that the Menuetto sections are peaceful. But
Sonata in A, K. 305
Mozart could no doubt afford to take the E minor sonata in stride, for he had, to set over against it as counterfoil, a
work that is all exuberance, scintillation, vitality. So different is K. 305, in A, from its fellow that we must think of
the composer as of two people, polar opposites in character, locked together in one human frame. At least we must
if we now contemplate the first movement of this sonata, marked Allegro molto.
Leopold Mozart, in his Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing, offers a table of musical
terminology. There he lists the following, among others:
Presto, means quick . . .
Molto Allegro is slightly less [than Presto].
Allegro . . . indicates a cheerful, though not too hurried a tempo . . .183
In the movement at hand, our emphasis should be on the molto side. There is a wild, flamenco dancelike spirit to
this movement that can only be realized when the music moves along at a good clip (viz., ). It should
barely be possible to count the measure in two; actually there should be a strong feeling of one to the bar. Such a
tempo will, of course, separate the men from the boys when the duo arrives at the crucial passages (e.g., measures
36 to 42 for the piano, measures 44 to 49 for the violin):
b. Mm. 44-45
The violinist, what with string crossings, will be especially tried. And he might be much impressed, at this point,
by the advice offered by Leopold Mozart:
He [the pupil] . . . if he undertakes more difficult pieces . . . must not begin them faster than he can rely on
being able to play correctly the rapid passages which occur in the piece. 184
Much depends on our interpretation of the word correctly. If we insist on playing the above-cited passages
comfortably and sedately, then our performance of a passage such as that at measures 16 to 23 will sound
unbearably lumpy and pedantic, and very much in two to the bar:
Figure 13-20
Mm. 14-18
The answer is plain: let the hail of sixteenth notes be as clear as technique can possibly make them (for the
violinist, first position, very snug crossing through use of wrist action, very short strokes in the middle of the bow,
and placement of arm so as to put the bow equally within reach of both strings in question); but, let the sixteenths
go.
With passages such as those in Figure 13-21 now free to move at their required speed, it is important to treat the
appoggiatura in a manner appropriate to the melodic spirit. Here it must be unaccented, off the beat,
Play these passages flowingly, smoothly, floating on the waves. For, right after each of these respitesand this is
Mozart's way of setting diametric opposites next to each othercomes the spray of sixteenths we warned about
earlier. And a final note of caution: during these sixteenth-note rapids, let the player of eighths give ear to his
companion. Listen for the swing of the sixteenth-note bar and take care not to drive your partner beyond the limit
of endurance, lest both the music and his arm be fractured simultaneously.
Speaking of opposites brings us to the second movement of this sonata. For the Tema con Variazioni is as far a
contrast to the first movement as can be imagined. The theme itself is all melting lyricism and grace (except for the
slight outburst in measure 3). The variants seem to fasten on specific aspects drawn from the theme; aspects of
mood as much as of specific melodic reference. Variation one, for piano alone, emphasizes the flowing quality
through continuous garlands of treble runs, adding runs also in the left hand for richness in the second section, and
setting the right hand in relief against the bass runs toward the end of the variant. Variation two at first has the
violin elaborating on the theme opening through the addition of ornamental turns. These turns should be played as
follows:
The initial trill of the piano treble at the start of the theme, incidentally, should be played similarly:
Figure 13-23.
A little languishing is in order at the progression from measures 40 to 41 in the second variant. This stretching can
be compensated by the motion in the succeeding bars of this section.
Figure 13-24
Mm. 37-41
The violin can also enjoy some good stretching at the peak of the line in the second section (measures 47 to 49),
launching upward from the continuous procession of sixteenths in the piano, and ''rejoining" the partner in measure
50:
Figure 13-25
Violin, mm. 45-54
In the third variation, continuous linking of the triplet garland as it is handed back and forth between piano and
violin is essential. The concluding eighth of each strand must not be strongly attacked; and it must be sustained
and tapered just long enough for the ensuing triplet notes to
In the second section of the variant, the piano again has to make Mozart's notated version of an improvised
arabesque sound improvised (measures 87 ff.). Counting should be the least apparent procedure in these measures.
Variation five is dark and spooky, but only in fun. The music should proceed kittenishly, on tiptoe, for the first four
measures, with a shiver of notes at the fp in measures 2 and 4, then should grow quietly lavish in the remainder of
the section; in the second half of the variant, try for orchestral contrast of color; think of massed brasses trumpeting
the fortes, strings and woodwinds responding in the piano and intervening spots. The last two measures should go
trippingly, evaporating away at the end.
The scenes of the drama have now been played out. Variation six is the dance that closes the evening's happenings.
A tempo of with an easy one-to-the bar swing, should create the right, easygoing atmosphere. The touch
and dynamic level should be light, though the pianist can (and should) let himself go a bit with the surge of the line
and the resonance of the parallel tenths between hands in measures 125 to 130, and the rich setting of measures 131
to 135. An air of jubilation, courtly but not over-starched, should prevail from here to the end of the movement.
Sonata in D, K. 306
The last of Mozart's youthful sonatas (K. 31) had two movements, in contrast to all its predecessors, where three
movements had been the rule.
The coda of the movement (measures 159 ff.) can profit from a momentary broadening, to highlight the regal
splendor of the passage. Then
One performance note: the leap of a tenth (measures 11, 62) in the violin part should be treated as though the high
C wells up out of the preceding A. The bow should come smoothly on to the C, without bump or accent; the
vibrato alone will give sufficient glow. The ornamented scale-descent in measure 63 should be played in an even
succession of thirty-seconds. Mozart's bowing should be carefully observed. The successive pairs of thirty-seconds
should be played one couplet per stroke, to lend articulate clarity and piquance to the run:
Figure 13-30
a. M. 11
b. M. 63
The violin follows suit in its turn, immediately after. At the end of this movement, in both piano and violin, each
appoggiatura in measures 83 and 84 should be unaccented, offbeat, late and fast, and closely attached to the
following note.
The last movement, Allegretto, of this sonata has already been touched on in our introductory chapter. It merits
fuller discussion hear, not only in its own right, but as a kind of synthesis of the entire 1778 opus 1 set. It has the
oppositions and alternations of sonata K. 303, first movement; the explosive rhythms of the flamenco movement of
K. 305 (cf. measures 42 ff. of the K. 306 movement), as well as the whirlwind sixteenth-note flurries of that same
work (cf. K. 306, measures 42 ff., piano part; measures 88 ff., both parts). And it has a great degree of equality
between the two partners, which is increasingly the hallmark of Mozart's keyboard-violin duo.
The studied oppositions in this Allegretto are mapped out in the alternation of Allegretto (2/4) and Allegro (6/8)
sections. The second Allegretto is a replica of the first, whereas the second Allegro serves as development and
recapitulation, culminating in the grand mock-cadenza-aria-recitativo, the Allegro assai. Here the piano leads off
with a madcap swirl of sixteenths, followed by triplets and calmer measures, easily and freely paced. Then two
great triplet dives to the lower reaches of the keyboard, with the violin simultaneously arcing upward. A stentorian
fermata from both instruments marks the end of the second dive. From this, the piano swirls upward in a run of
broken thirds. Two languorous sighs from the keyboard, followed by a flourish, abettedaria-obbligato styleby the
14
Mozart:
Sonatas K. 296, 376 to 380;
Variations, K. 359 and 360
On April 8, 1781, shortly before the irrevocable break with his employer, Archbishop Hieronymus Colloredo, and
the famous episode of the farewell kick in the rear bestowed upon Mozart by the archbishop's steward, Count Arco,
the composer wrote to his father from Vienna. Mingled with complaints about his situation with the archbishop,
and the painting of a rosy picture of his (Wolfgang's) potential future in Vienna, he tells of a concert that had taken
place that day at the Tonkünstler-Societät. Several new works of his had been performed, including ''a sonata with
violin accompaniment for myself [that is, with Mozart at the piano], which I composed last night between eleven
and twelve [!] (but in order to be able to finish it, I only wrote out the accompaniment for Brunetti [Antonio
Brunetti, concertmaster of the archbishop's orchestra] and retained my own part in my head) . . ." 185 The sonata to
which Mozart refers was probably that in G, K. 379.186 The audacity of the composer's way of writing and
performing will be shown again by a similar and even more daring event in connection with the later sonata, K.
454.
For the moment, the reference highlights Mozart's continuing interest in ensemble for piano and violin. He
persisted in this interest for his usual reasons: first, he thought such products would sell (he wrote about the sonatas
to be engraved by Artaria of Vienna: "As soon as they are sold and I get some money I shall send it to you"),187
both to publishers, patrons,
Let us take up these works in the order of their customary K. numbering (with the exception of K. 296, which will
be considered after K. 376, as originally published).
Variations in G, K. 359:
La Bergère Célimène
On June 20, 1781, Mozart closed a letter to his father with the explanation that ''I have some variations to finish for
my pupil."189 The pupil in question (his only one that first summer in Vienna), was the countess de Rumbeke; the
variations could have been either K. 359 or 360, both of them for piano and violin.190 Neither the composer nor
his first Vienna publisher, Artaria, were in a hurry to bring out these variations, preferring instead the full-fledged
sonatas that Mozart was turning out in these same months. Artaria did indeed publish the variations, but not until
1786.
Even today, these variations are not readily to be found in concert fare. They merit performance, both in the home
and on the public platform. For the players, they are certainlyas a reviewer in Speyer, Austria, wrote in 1788to be
"valued as good exercises . . . [wherein] difficulties are piled on difficulties, and quick, winged passages for the
right hand alternate with similar ones for the left."191 A reading of the variations will make the player wonder,
however, at the same reviewer's complaint that "one nevertheless misses in them, as in most of the recent musical
pieces of this kind, the ingenious inversions and imitations, and the variety of treatment in a sustained manner of
writing, whereby alone such compositions achieve a true value."
b. The Mozart theme
It will not escape the reader's attention that Mozart has put a rather arch fermata in the music at that point where
the question posed by the text, as well as by the harmonic suspense of the melody, would naturally suggest such a
pause.
While these variations may not storm the very heights of Mozartian inspiration, they are by no means devoid of
imagination either. If we look only at the way in which he pulls out of the fermata mentioned above, comparing its
first appearancein the second section of the themewith
b. M. 33
c. Mm. 57-58
d. Mm. 70-71
e. Mm. 84-85
f. Mm. 96-97
g. Mm. 110ff
h. Mm. 151-152
To move from the gruffness of variation seven, through the taut playfulness of variation eight, and on into the
limpid tranquillity of variation nine, all within the frame of unified thematic reference observed by the composer,
preserving consistency and emphasizing contrast at the same time, this will test any pair of performers. At the very
end, there is the problem of bringing the work to a satisfying conclusionwith an actual effect of conclusiveness, on
the rather offhand grounds provided by the composer.
Figure 14-3
Mm. 167-170
With the following episode, Mozart seekswith keen psychological insightthe angry reaction of the jilted lover. The
piano whips up a storm of ascending eighth-note waves in the bass, capped by thirty-second-note breakers in the
treble, with the violin stolidly stating its case in the teeth of the gale:
Figure 14-5
Mm. 109-110
Sonata in F, K. 376
Mozart's activities and experiences in Vienna occasioned much correspondence between father and son in the
months that followed his decision to remain there. When, on April 29, 1782, Leopold writes a brief note to
Breitkopf and Co., and Son's, the Leipzig music publishers, a cryptic pair of sentences therein cover much feeling
on the part of the father. "My son is in Vienna and is remaining there. Herr Artaria has published some of his
clavier sonatas." 193
Leopold had been thunderstruck at Wolfgang's announcement that he had left the archibishop's service and
intended to make his own way in Vienna. He was even more shocked at Wolfgang's plan to marry Constanze
Weber (a match that Wolfgang's ingenuous letters show to have been as much the fruit of machinations by
Constanze's mother and a wily guardian as it was of love, pure and simple). Leopold had resigned himself to the
former, and wouldlater that same yearhave to accept the accomplished fact of his son's marriage. Meanwhile, he
continues to blow the horn (but quietly) for Wolfgang in the above letter.
The letter refers to the set of sonatas printed by Artaria, Vienna art dealers and (since 1776) music publishers. The
works in question, published as opus 2 in November, 1781, were entitled, "Six Sonatas for the Harpsichord, or
Pianoforte with the accompaniment of a Violin."194 That Leopold should have omitted any mention of the violin
in his note to Breitkopf shows his conservative view of the keyboard-violin sonata. It certainly does not reflect the
musical facts of the sonatas themselves, as we shall see.
The published set was composed of K. 296, one of the Mannheim pieces, the sonata K. 378, which was probably
written in Salzburg after Mozart's return from the Paris trip in 1779, and four works composed in
b. Mm. 38-40
c. Mm. 48-49
The Andante is quite simple in general structure, with first and last sections identical; related, yet contrasting
middle section; and brief coda to end. The fabric of the music is given life, however, by its asymmetry.
Comfortable four- and eight-measure groupings are followed by seven- then three-measure phrases, providing
(under the easy and steady flow of the Andante 3/4 melody) a subtle forward propulsion. The melodic arches
themselves lean forward, toward high, off-center peaks.
In performance, nothing must get in the way of the easy, yet irresistible propulsion of the music. The smoothness
of take-over, for example, often required between violin and piano can be seen in the two excerpts following:
b. Mm. 23-26
On the way to the first example, the piano arrives at the C, in measure 8; the succeeding sixteenths must taper
smoothly away from that note, so that the violin D, first beat of measure 9, will seem to take up the line from the
piano C. Conversely, in the second example, the violin must relax the sixteenths at the end of measure 24, after the
stress on that bar's downbeat and the slight peak on the G in the second beat. The piano here takes over, smoothly
but imperiously, with the arpeggiated downbeat in measure 25.
When addition, rather than substitution of part is needed, smooth joining must again be the rule, especially when
the merger of the two instruments is signaled by having them move hand in hand into the return of the theme (cf.
measure 54).
Figure 14-8
Mm. 51-54
In the third movement, Rondeau, the theme requires decisions about ornament treatment. To support the rustic
vigor of the tune, I feel that the
The chords in measures 36 to 38 and 40 to 42 must be smooth but bold, for the thread of the preceding melodic
line must be broken. Within the new melodic chain (measures 35 to 44), the alternately peremptory and delicate
links need contrast in the vigor of the detached notes, in the general strength of stroke, and in dynamics.
But the greatest problem in the distinct treatment of contrasting happenings in this movement occurs in measures
85 to 92. Here sedate and prim tunefulness (measures 85 to 86, 89 to 90) is actually interrupted by tripping, pushing
measures (87 to 88, 91 to 92), and vice-versa. The change of scene must be immediate and clear, as though two
contrasting slides are being flashed in instant alternation upon a screen.
Figure 14-10
Mm. 85-90
Another interesting spot is the passage in measures 114 to 118. Here the answers between piano and violin step on
each other's heel, harmonically. The first eighth of each entrance clashes (either at the interval of a seventh, or a
ninth, or both) against either the bass line or the other instrument's melodic line. The clash must be stressed, so that
the pileup of frictions and resolutions in this compressed sequence can be fully tasted.
The tiptoed suspense in measures 143 to 146 is quiet, but tingling with (mock) excitement. The stroke and touch
should produce an intense, resonant exhalation of sound, not a dry, short peck. To get the feeling of this line, try
saying, quietly, ''Boo!" Then imitate that effect in the playing of each note.
Figure 14-12
Mm. 141-147
The end of the movement should come quietly as Mozart indicates. Pull the tempo back very slightly and gradually
in the last three measures, let the piano's upward swirl in the last measure evaporate easily, without accent on the
last note. The final tone should trail, without a sudden, dry clipping of the sound.
Sonata in C, K. 296
The Allegro vivace first movement, bold and brilliant, starts off like a regular march. The brigade, however, end up
all over the drill field. Intriguing imbalances are built into the long complex of melodic units that makes up the
opening measures. First there are two measures answering two. In measure 9, half answers half. In measure 10, an
offbeat half-measure answers another such. In measures 15 to 18, we move from a two-measure unit to a one-
measure, and on to a last measure that moves beat by beat,one, two, three. Thus the musical field of view is
constantly being shifted from broad to less broad, from expansive to tight and driving. The play-
Then in the measures that follow, we find that Mozart has no slurs on the sixteenth notes.
Figure 14-14
Mm. 42-45
In the third section, the violin must describe one grand arch. The turn here must be easy, not snapped. And the
sixteenths of measure 25 should be stressed in order to bring out their opposition to the triplet of measure 23.
Figure 14-16
Mm. 23-30
The half-note G, in measure 27, must be the peak of the successive half-notes, but not hard sounding. It should be
relaxed a bit after impact, for it will in effect endure until the appoggiatura G of measure 28, which is followed, in
turn, by the actual crest of the line, the three eights, A-G-F, of the same measure. Note that Mozart deliberately
calls for piano on these peak notes, to emphasize the climax by contrast and understatement. The marking should
be observed.
The more reason, because the true, overall climax is yet to come. After the double bar, there is a new buildup, to a
higher level still, leading to the B flat of measure 34. This note must flourish, glow, subside (without weakening),
and taper, all in the one fermata half-note. Performers may opt for a definite break and breath after the fermata, or
may choose to taper the long note into a very soft return of the theme.
Figure 14-17
Mm. 31-35
The Rondo: Allegro is Mozart at his most ebullient. The tempo must move along at Nothing must stand in
the way; let the trills in measures 5 and 6 be reduced to a turn rather than inhibit the tempo. The appoggiature (as
in measure 4) should be accented, on the beat, snappy, to contribute to the festive air. One would have to vote
definitely against making the grace note a full eighth in each beat, for that would result in a flabby rhythmic effect
in this context. It is well to note that Mozart writes specifically a sixteenth-note, on-the-beat appoggiatura in
measure 12, but an eighth-note sign in measure 14. The latter should indeed be an eighth, because the resulting
ease of effect suits the running off of the entire phrase (and section) at that point.
Figure 14-18
Mm. 8-16
Do not miss the fun and games for both instruments as they play a kittenish follow-the-leader routine (measures
100 ff.):
There should be crescendi in measures 153 to 156, and again in 157 to 159; and from there to the end of the
movement, a blazing, martial fanfare for all.
Sonata in F, K. 377
This is one of the most impressive of the Mozart sonatas, and certainly so in the set of six here under
consideration. One fact immediately stands out upon inspection of the score as set down by Mozart: there is not a
single dynamic mark in the first or second movements (except for a few important indications toward the end of
the latter). The dynamic marks for the finale are derived only from the first edition. Again, Mozart did not botheror
had not the timeto set down any dynamics in the autograph of the work.
Without the composer's guidance, we are left to ponder a choice between a stealthy and quiet opening, or a
forceful, bluff treatment. Personal experience and preference makes the writer vote for the second way. In any
event, it makes for a more impressive opening for the work. The initial melody leaps to a high A, and takes off on a
downward path from there, leaping still higher, laterto B flatbefore settling to its close. To gather the energy of the
leap to the A, and to fling us onto the note, the two-note appoggiatura in measure 1 should be played unaccented
and before the beat. (The A should be warmly accented.) So also, of course, with the three-note ornament in
measure 3, and the single appoggiatura in measures 5 and 6.
Figure 14-21
Mm. 1-7
Then the game changes (measures 30 ff.) to the passing back and forth of the triplet run itself, ending at last with
the entire team running the triplets in octave unison. This group play on the triplets should be no louder than what
has preceded, and should not by any means give a raucous effect. The two instruments and three lines must blend
smoothly.
Immediately afterward comes a new formation; be on the alert. The piano plays triplets, proceeding downstairs beat
by beat, to the punctuation of an eighth note from the violin on each pulse of the measure. The two then join for a
measure of triplets and thereupon change sides, the violin now flaunting the triplets while the piano calls the beat.
Everything must proceed neatly, and in effortless synchronization.
Figure 14-23
Mm. 38-40
The development runs the gamut. All possible animation is called for in the delivery of the vigorous opening
measures. Then the transition must be made to the sinuous and slinky maneuverings of the two instruments in the
passage from measure 76 to measure 90. As an example, in measures 84 to 86, the force must be contained, vibrant
with restraint rather than boisterous release:
Figure 14-24
Mm. 84-86
With such musical skulduggery revealed in the body of the movement, we need not be surprised to find it also in
the manner of bringing the chapter to a close. With no dynamic indications by the composer to guide us, we must
decide whether to exit quietly or boldly. The path of slyness leads us to slip past the double bar in a continuous
diminishing of sound through the last several bars, marking the final two quarters with only the faintest hint of
broadening.
Figure 14-26
Mm. 121-125
In June, 1783, Mozart composed his Quartet in D minor, K. 421. According to his wife, the work was composed
during the labor period attending the birth of the Mozart's firstborn. 197 This may well be true. We cannot help
admiring, however, the composer's presence of mind. For, despite (or because of?) the tremulous feelings that must
have occupied him at the time, he had the good sense to draw musical inspiration from his own earlier efforts. It is
our guess that the final movement of the quartet is modeled on the slow movement of the K. 377 sonata, which
preceded the quartet by two years.198
b. K. 377, Violin, Andante, mm. 113-120
A comparison of the two movements will reveal similarities in choice of mood and figuration in the component
variations of each. One obvious difference is that, in the quartet movement, the siciliana melody (actually the theme
of the movement) is the source from which the movement flows and to which it returns. In the sonata, the siciliana
is the focal point toward which the movement makes its way, and is revealed only at the end of the movement.
And, despite all similarities, the two movements are distinct from one another, individually rich in Mozart's
outpouring of invention.
In the sonata movement, we are at once struck by the wonderfully consistent and melodic use made of the
ornamental turn in the Thema. Almost every measure is verdant with the tendril of melody:
Figure 14-28
Mm. 1-4
The piano deals with the theme first, then the violin. When, beginning in measure 18, the two instruments continue
the theme in alternate response, measure by measure, there is still only one ornamental turn per bar, but the
The dialogue seen here is in the second half of the theme. Each of the variants to come divides into two sections,
each with repeat. And the variant always reflects the procedure of the theme: the second section is denser and more
luxurious than the first. The result is a marvelous feeling of consistency governing the constantly changing series of
patterns in the movement. The range of imagination can be seen if we tabulate the successive metamorphoses of
the central idea:
Variation 1, a snapped-up version of the turn;
Figure 14-30
Mm. 33-36
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Note that in the second section of this variation, the violin turns in measures 73 and 75 will lend an appropriate
touch of turbulence if played as follows (note lines of direction shown):
Figure 14-33
Mm. 73-74
In variation four, the forte should be electric with energy; the gauntlet, flung back and forth. Mozart makes no
dynamic indication, but anything less than forte, and anything other than a stentorian delivery is unimaginable.
Figure 14-34
Mm. 81-83
Variation five is quiet and demure. The second section, particularly, must be silken in tone, touch, and bowing.
Figure 14-35
Mm. 97-98
The siciliana melody of variation six has already been quoted above. Here let us single out measures 124 to 128,
from the second section of the variation. This is the emotional climax of the movement; here is the shriek that sinks
into surrender, resignation. The E flat of measure 126 must contain all the energy and rebelliousness of an entire
movement within itself.
Figure 14-36
Mm. 124-128
But these subside again (measure 77) into a cool and shaded region of B flat. The melody hovers here, in the wake
of the turbulence just ended.
Figure 14-38
Mm. 77-82
The shock of a sudden pair of harmonic shifts (measures 101 ff.) drops us into the dominant of F (i.e., C), and then
into the tonic, F, itself, and the final return of the menuetto theme.
In measures 155 ff. there is a last welling up of energy. This is the kind of passage that makes every pianist glad he
is a pianist: waves of lush
Finally, both instruments join in a series of sylvan horn calls. The closing measures bring a last, crystalline, hushed
leave-taking.
(Note the shaping of the turn in measures 13 and 14; this must be so in order to let the flow of the line proceed
without twitching.) The offbeat accompaniment of the violin in the opening measures of the movement must be
folded in without disturbing the melodic wave of the piano part.
The movement abounds with ideas. A simple listing, drawn almost entirely from the violin part for compactness,
though every idea shown is used by the piano in its own turn, shows the players' feast:
b. Mm. 38-40
c. Mm. 51-52
d. Mm. 41-42
e. Mm. 70-72
f. Mm. 83-86
g. Mm. 99-102
h. Mm. 190-192
Some of these ideas are more important than others; the lesser melodies may be incidental to surrounding musical
context, or derived from related material in the movement. But the individuality of each element is not to be
denied, and the presence of all these ingredients in the one movement contributes to an incredible richness and
lavishness of effect.
There is much opportunity for close collaboration between the two performers. Let us single out only onean
especially graciousexample of this cooperation: the consummate joining of the violin and piano in the gliding
descent that lands in the recapitulation of the movement.
The instruction, calando, is given by Mozart himself in the autograph; it has been pointed out that Mozart uses the
word to mean ''becoming softer," and not, as at a later date, also "becoming slower." 199 The present example does
indeed end in a piano (the last previous dynamic mark being a forte); a diminishing of sound is certainly in order.
But, after the active development episode, a slight broadening of tempo, to ease us into the restful strain of the
return, is equally desirable.
One added pointer: the moving sixteenths in the piano and violin lines of measures 180 to 183 should be played
detached, as indicated by Mozart, rather than slurred; the incisiveness is needed. For the same reason, the grace
notes should be strongly accented:
Figure 14-43
M. 180
The second movement, Andantino sostenuto e cantabile, does not tell the full story in its masthead. There are
actually two movements in one: the opening episode, in two sections, each repeated; a contrasting, darker episode
(measures 17 to 30); the opening strain anew (measures 31 to 38); the more sober element, again (measures 39 to
44); and then a final return of the opening, with a codetta to wind up the movement. The opposite character of the
alternate segments cannot be made sufficiently clear without some difference in speed. We suggest that the "bright"
sections be played at the shadowy passages, at
The Rondo finale is best played at about Both players will be put on their mettle to dispatch the streamers
of sixteenths in neat, sparkling fashion at this speed; and there must be no slavish stressing of beat or bar. The line
must move in one-measure or in multi-bar units, as the phrases dictate. In the theme proper, the placement of a
turn at the beginning of measures 2, 3, and 4 gives a measure by measure pace to the melody, countered by the all-
in-one flow of the next four measures. Actually the first measure serves as a grand upbeat to the melody:
The turns must be fast and accented, so that each measure gets a tart, strong send-off. The violinist may begin the
sixteenths in measure 5 of his theme with a slurred, up-bow couplet, or detached, with a fresh down-bow
strokewhichever is most comfortable for him.
The swift patter of the Allegro section (beginning in measure 151) should be played in a controlled but ''breathless"
hush, thinking of the line as being made up of two-measure units. There must be a sense of combined arrival and
departure at the end of each such unit. In the forte passages, special force and brilliance should be given to the
flourishes of measures 167 to 170, and so forth.
For the brilliant duo trajectory of measures 184 to 186, we suggest that the violinist use the following bowing and
fingering:
Figure 14-45
Mm. 184-186
The two string crossings occur at the beginning of the run, leaving the rest of the journey clearly exposed on the E-
string alone.
The broadening of tempo for the final cadence should be suggested in the "hunting-horn" calls of the violin,
starting in measure 222, then broaden more obviously in the last four measures of the piece. Whoever reaches this
last cadence will know that he has been through a rather short, but quite demanding, composition. Not only does it
require great control of hand, but also a constant command of the most subtle shading and nuance. The less skilled
player will find K. 378 a marvelous technical and musical training ground. And even the most accomplished player
will learn, with each performance, that this work challenges his every resource.
Sonata in G, K. 379
This sonata, alone among the full-fledged such works in Mozart's later output, has only two movements. This may
be accounted for by the possi-
The Adagio is piano oriented, with the violin taking the role of commentator and obbligato voice. The relationship
is essentially the same in the Allegro, which replaces the rhapsodizing of the introduction with the brilliance and
dynamism of a virtuoso concerto movement. Both piano and violin contribute to the vital statements of the intense
principal subject of the Allegro. This theme, indeed, has the same kind of cumulative, rather nagging intensity that
characterizes the theme (also G minor) of the First Piano Quartet of Mozart.
Figure 14-47
Violin, mm. 62-67
At a tempo of the forward thrust of the theme is made readily apparent. The turns of the theme are
accented, on the beat. The attacks on the eighths must be crisp; the quarters (with turn) must begin intensely, trail
resonantly but briefly.
The rhythmic drive of the theme is so unrelenting that the ending of the theme (fermata, bar 73) becomes a
performance problem. Mozart calls for a rallentando and a crescendo to a forte. But to tear off the last note, loudly,
seems too peremptory. With apologies to Mozart's shade, our vote is for a tapering of the two notes in the violin
part in measure 73, with the piano chord damped in time with the end of the violin sound.
The questioning inflection that results makes a suspenseful interruption and sets the ear up for the positive
statement of the measures that follow. Similar treatment would then have to be accorded the piano presentation of
the same pause, measure 129 (that introduces the recapitulation). On the other hand, violin and piano should end
the corresponding inflections in measures 141, 143, and 145 forcefully, in view of the later and longer
accumulation of tension in the movement.
Figure 14-48
Mm. 138-145
Also, and for similar reasons, the very end of the movement should be carried off with Beethovenian vigor.
In the face of the titanic nature of the first movement, it is curious that Mozart chose to set off against it only the
Thema: Andantino cantabile. The choice cannot have been merely the result of his busy schedule, for a number of
his sonatas do end with variations movements. He undoubtedly felt that the limpid tranquillity of this particular
movement would be the proper sequel and antidote. Besides, the second movement's G major, reflecting the same
mode of the opening Adagio, frames the tempestuous minor of the Allegro very effectively. And, where the
Allegro theme leans forward at a perilous angle, the theme of the variations walks steadily and easily in rhythm.
The violin should arrange to start measure 50 (and measure 148, which corresponds) up-bow; the rapid string
crossings are more natural this wayand even then are possible only if the stroke is performed largely with the wrist,
with minimal involvement of the arm. Some thought must be given to the passage from measures 67 to 79, so that
the flow of crisp triplets (violin) against the more lyric quarter-note melody of the piano can proceed neatly but
without pedantic display of carefulness. The toughest job lies in the meshing of parts in measures 84 to 93. Special
diligence will be needed for measures 91 and 92, for the negotiation of these is comparable to the feat of two
bobsleds entering a single chute at top speed, simultaneously, and emerging coalesced but unharmed:
Figure 14-50
Mm. 90-93
Let us suggest fingerings that we have found useful for the tricky violin figures in measures 88 to 91:
Figure 14-51
Mm. 88-91
The pace must be steady, yet forward driving; too steady, and the beat-by-beat rhythmic figure will be made
stodgy and unrelenting; too forward, and the fabric of the movement will begin to stretch and tear. Appraise
carefully the effect you create in this pivotal passage in the movement.
The nature of this second set of Mozart's mature sonatas for keyboard and violin may best be summed up in the
words of a contemporary review, oft cited because of its perceptiveness and aptness. Carried in Cramer's Magazin
der Musik, Hamburg, April 4, 1783, the write-up says:
These sonatas are unique in their kind. Rich in new ideas and traces of their author's great musical genius.
Very brilliant, and suited to the instrument. At the same time the violin accompaniment is so ingeniously
combined with the clavier part that both instruments are
15
Mozart:
The Last Sonatas, K. 402, 454, 481, 526, and 547
In this chapter, we take up the ''large" sonatas of Mozart, those that were composed in the furiously productive
years after the publication of the "Opus 2" sonatas in Vienna in 1781. The later sonatas were written individually,
either for specific occasion or because of sheer impulse, and not as part of a larger set of works. They are the three
sonatas, K. 454, K. 481, and K. 526 (1784, 1785, and 1787, respectively). Before this, we consider the curious,
short, (un) finished sonata, K. 402, from the year 1782. And at the last, there is the sonata K. 547, from 1788,
Mozart's final work for the duo.
One of the feats of performance required of both players is found in measures 5 to 9. Piano first, then violin, play
accompanying chordal pulses that must sound similar in both instruments, and should, ideally, resemble horn tone.
In the last measures of the introduction (9 to 13), there is some delicious dialogue between the two, each
instrument topping the other in elegance and grace. The ensemble here must be instinctive: each instrumental
statement must truly be in response to the preceding utterance of the partner. The interplay is the more important
because it is reflected in corresponding dialogues placed at the end of the exposition, development, and
recapitulation of the Allegro proper. Short examples of each will demonstrate the relationship:
Figure 15-1
a. Mm. 11-13
b. Mm. 60-65
c. Mm. 79-82
Aside from their structural importance as landmarks in the movement, these passages must have been great fun for
Mozart and Strinasacchi. (Come to think of it, Mozart would probably have hooted at the idea of discussing the
structure at all, and Regina no doubt wanted only to get through the concert with a whole skin.) If the banter is not
easy and fun in today's performancepractice! The timing of the response (for example, a fraction of a second's
delay before the final fragment, second half of measure 65) and its inflection (for example, a questioning tone
achieved through a slight diminution of level and shrinking of bow stroke toward the middle of measure 63) are as
essential as literal accuracy in the execution.
Another highlight in the Allegro is the sforzando on the D flat, middle of measure 25, in the piano part. This should
not be an overly refined accent, but rather an emphatic falling onto the foreign body that has suddenly been
discovered in the musical line. The waves made by this sudden shock of sound seem to break up the line, shunting
it back and forth between violin and piano (look at the sixteenths in measures 27 to 29). Another nicety is the way
the violin hops onto the piano's express-train sixteenth-note line in measures 46 and 47. And in measures 51 to 57,
the piano's shift from rolling eighths to boiling sixteenths: the cloud of notes must support, not obscure, the singing
violin line floating above.
The short development is dramatic by understatement and delicacy: note the chain of sighs, between the two
instruments, or between the two trebles against the bass, in measures 81 to 89. As if to counter the delicacy and the
brevity of the development, there is a second, more robust development, immediately following the first theme in
the recapitulation (cf. measures 98 to 110). Though Mozart himself calls for piano dynamics in this passage, the
interpretation must be one of strength and drive within that quiet level.
Toward the end of the movement, another spot calls for intensity in quiet: measures 149 to 152, where
simultaneous chords are suddenly split, as if by aural aberration, into oom-pah oom-pah setting.
A general and overriding problem in the Allegro is to make it sound like an extension and fulfillment of the Largo
introduction, and not a contradiction thereof. As in the famous Dissonant Quartet, K. 465 (composed nine months
after this sonata), it is too simple to turn one's back on the introduction and launch into a totally different and
frivolous fast movement. Fast, yes; flippant, no. Dynamic, yes; raucous, no. The Allegro must sound like the other
side of the same musical character, not like some defiantly different intruder.
The Andante is such another side of Mozart: Mozart at his best. It offers us a picture of a guileless, completely
sincere, and consequently vulnerable spirit. To play this movement effectively, there can be no sham, no virtuoso
pretense, no hardness in sound or phrasing. Technical difficulties are not lacking in this movement, but they are
secondary to those of emotion and personality. ''Mozart was very liberal in giving praise to those who deserved it;
but felt a thorough contempt for insolent mediocrity," wrote the singer Michael Kelly, who was a friend of
Mozart's in Vienna. 206 Mozart was rough on his contemporaries unless he respected their ability and artistry. He
can be equally rough on his interpreters today, even from beyond the grave, for his music betrays the flashy and
superficial approach immediately. In performance, we always put ourselves on the line, and never more so than in
this kind of music.
As an example of the technical problems, we may quote at least one of those sessions of close-formation flying of
the two players: measures 15 to 21. First, an ascent in sixteenth couplets, followed by a gliding descent in dotted-
figure rhythm. Then a higher ascent in triplet-sextolet pattern, and on to a cadential pattern in easily trailing
sixteenths. The episode cries out to be counted, but should sound like a spur-of-the-moment inspiration when
played.
Immediately afterward, the violin becomes prima donna (measures 21 ff.), singing a hushed cantilena line of
ineffable beauty. This in turn is followed, as though in sudden shift of scene, by a sturdier passage, in duet
responses, that carries us through to the end of the first section of the movement. Now (measure 49) begins the
most difficult portion of the
If one has played this most expressive of movements, it is especially affecting to read Mozart's self-appraisal,
written in jocular vein in a birthday felicitation to his father in 1777:
I cannot write in verse, for I am no poet. I cannot arrange the parts of speech with such art as to produce
effects of light and shade, for I am no painter. Even by signs and gestures, I cannot express my thoughts
and feelings, for I am no dancer. But I can do so by means of sounds, for I am a musician. 207
For it is precisely the sense of verse, of light and shade, of gesture, of thought and feeling that one hears, in
addition to the sounds, in a movement such as this Andante.
The concluding Allegretto begins where the previous movement left off: with B flat in the violin part. There, it is a
note of repose. Here, it serves as a launching pad for the upward octave leap that sets the movement under way.
Again the composer is prodigal with his melodic ideas; the refrain tune is expansive, propulsive. It brings with
itself (measures 16 ff.) a secondary tune that adds to the gaiety. This melody must be played with melting ease, in
contrast to the urgent tone of the principal melody. Note, however, that there is an echo of that urgency in the
second half of this second subject (cf. measures 18 and 19); the reflection of that temper must be made clear by the
player.
The various contrasting tunes that crop up in the movement are distinct from one another, yet related enough to
give continuity to the musical fabric. Compare these excerpts:
Figure 15-5
a. Mm. 28-31
b. Mm. 110-111
Or again, compare the varieties of stealth in these two avenues of return to the opening theme:
Figure 15-6
a. Mm. 86-90
b. Mm. 138-144
< previous page page_292 next page >
< previous page page_293 next page >
Page 293
The big trap in this movement lies at its very end. By the time one has arrived at measure 251, a good head of
steam will have been built up. What is more natural than for the violinist to swing gaily into the triplets of these
measures? And what more reasonable than for the pianist to move compliantly along with the quarter-note
commentary?
Figure 15-7
Mm. 250-253
Retribution falls in the frenzy of sixteenths that invades the piano part from measure 259 on. Now it is the violin's
turn to settle back into a slower accompaniment. But a beautiful friendship will have come to an abrupt end.
Exotic enough for most ears, whether attached to the eighteenth- or twentieth-century head! The second theme is
derived from the sustained violin accompaniment in a portion of the first-theme passage (cf. measures 43 ff. with
measures 9 ff.). Never will slow scale practice bear as rich fruit for the violinist as it does in this second theme:
Figure 15-8
Mm. 43-46
When played with slow, hushed bow-stroke, in the dolce manner prescribed by the first edition, the effect of these
and the following measures for player and listener is one that magically transcends the utter simplicity of the line.
For one player, at least, this moment is the closest approach to the supernal that is attainable in music. The
movement as a whole convinces us that words that Tchaikovsky once confided to his diary are not so overdrawn as
they might first seem:
Mozart was a being so angelic, so childlike, so pure; his music is so full of unapproachable, divine beauty,
that if anyone could be named
It is just as difficult to play this with the necessary directness and tremulous clarity as it is to play the successively
more involved versions of the idea as they appear later on (cf. measures 35 ff.; 77 ff.). Among other things, the
violin is hard put to it to perform the accompanying eighth-note double-stops warmly, floatingly, without any
woodenness of bow stroke.
The playing of passages such as measures 17 ff. calls for warmth and some passion, but in proportion to the cool
and shadowy overall tone of the movement. Pianist and violinist will have to listen critically to each other, appraise
tone color and pacing, and dynamic gradations, all with the utmost sensitivity in order to sustain the mood
projected by Mozart.
Consistent with his own description of his other late sonatas, Mozart himself listed K. 481 in his personal catalog
of compositions as ''A keyboard sonata, with the accompaniment of a violin."211 This indeed seems to be an apt
description of the end movements of the composition, where the lion's share of the activity definitely belongs to the
piano. In the Adagio, howeverand Mozart himself must have realized thisthe equality of piano and violin is
complete, the merging of the two in ensemble carried to a stage never exceeded either by Mozart or his peers. A
curious manifestation of this equality, incidentally, is seen in the fact that Mozart changes key signature
independently for the two instruments (and even for right and left hand of the piano) to suit the notation
requirements
Sonata in A, K. 526
This sonata is described in the Köchel-Einstein catalog as ''this most significant of the keyboard-violin sonatas of
Mozart." In view of the riches we have found in the other sonatas, such singling out seems excessive; but the A
major is a most impressive work. One fact stands outthe sonata is constantly on the move, in slow movement as
well as fast. The second movement, Andante, is very much a "going" movement, because the steady saunter of its
opening figure
Figure 15-11
Mm. 1-2
is hardly ever interrupted except to make way for even more moving sequences of sixteenths or flashes of thirty-
seconds. As for the end movements, the pace and temper of the opening Molto allegro
Figure 15-12
Mm. 1-4
is a challenge that is more than matched by the devilish demands of the constantly racing finale, Presto:
The complete integration of violin and piano is evident throughout this piece, even though Mozart still insists in
his work catalog that this is ''A Keyboard Sonata with accompaniment of a violin." 212 The equality of voice is to
be seen of course in such large detail as the evenhanded distribution of material between the two instruments. For
example, in the first movement, the piano presents the first theme with the violin moving below in parallel thirds
(measures 1 to 4), and immediately after that the violin takes over the top role, with the piano now moving at the
accompanying interval of a tenth below (measures 9 to 12). Also, we find the two instruments moving in tighter
repartee, as for example:
Figure 15-14
Mm. 132-135
But we can move to the smallest detail and still observe the microscopic application of the principle of equality.
Note, for instance, the almost fussy interweaving of the three parts (bass, treble, and violin) in the following spot,
to produce an effect that is at once smooth yet constantly vital in rhythm:
Figure 15-15
Mm. 151-156
Even in such innocent passages as measures 34 ff., both instruments must be alert in the course of lilting dialogue,
maintaining rock-steady pace without inhibiting the swing of the tiny jets of melody:
Figure 15-17
Mm. 32-37
At two points in the movement, the ensemble will have to play in Schubertian manner; for here, there is an
uncanny preview of the sounds created by Schubert in the final movement of his sonatina number 1, in D major, of
the year 1816:
Figure 15-18
a. Mozart, mm. 65-69
b. Schubert, mm. 8-12
The Andante must move at a tempo of to give the swing of an easy saunter. The very easiness may at first
seem innocuous; but languourous stretches (such as measures 4 and 7), and especially the chromatic turbulences
that well up from time to time, as in measures 5 to 8, belie the surface calm, revealing, as Einstein puts it, ''the
bitter sweetness of existence":
Figure 15-20
Mm. 5-8
Several points should be singled out in the rehearsing of this movementfirst, the contrasting theme, in minor, of
measures 24 to 33, must be cast in the prevailing, unruffled smoothness of the entire movement. If Mozart's slurs
and articulations (measures 25 and 30) are used as shownand they do work wellthey must not be allowed to throw
a hitch into the progress of the line toward its high point:
Figure 15-21
Mm. 24-25
The fact incidentally, that the high point of this passage falls on the downbeat in the violin statement, but on the
third beat of the measure in the
Similar smoothness must be sought in the interchange of the last three measures of the movement.
The Presto finale of this sonata undoubtedly helps account for the popularity the work has with players in the home
and on the concert platform. It is right up the alley of the twentieth-century performer, for there is little in our jazz
that is jazzier than this. Right at the start, the bass line and the violin part, together, make up a rhythm section,
combo style (see above, Figure 15-13). Over this, the piano treble spins a line that would be brilliant enough for a
trumpet improvisation. Against all this, the second theme stands out like a lyric oasis, but the problem is to make it
sound lyric while being borne along on the tide of the tempo. A slight broadening of tempo might be in order, but
nothing that involves surrender of the brilliance of the piece. The overall tempo, incidentally, should be
Again in measures 133 ff., the sighs must sound that way, still at full speed. Here a broadening is to some extent
composed into the line by Mozart himself.
One of the hilarious high points in this Presto is the great chromatic, upward sweep of the piano line (measures 164
to 167) that leads to a return of the opening theme. To survive this free fall through musical space and move
nonchalantly into the opening notes of the theme is one of the joys of chamber music making.
For the violinist, a couple of particularly difficult spots deserve men-
The fingerings and bowings of the measures that precede the above, a tortuous passage for the violinist, are fine as
shown in the Henle edition; we find it helpful to mark the down- and up-bows rather frequently during the passage,
to help eye and arm coordinate effort, at least in rehearsal. But trickiest of all is to fit the ornamental turns of
measure 195 into the pace of the line. We suggest the following rhythm. (Note, incidentally, the similarity to the
turns in the slow movement, measure 25 and measure 73.)
Figure 15-24
Mm. 195-196
A last danger point: the main theme, when the violin finally gets it (twice, in measures 175 and 375 and following),
will tend to run away with the player because of the intricacies of bow stroke and string crossing. A focused stroke,
some snug wrist action, and judicious emphasis of certain stress points in the passage (see below), will have a
salutary effect.
Figure 15-25
Mm. 175-178
In this movement, both players will benefit from some woodshedding with a metronome.
Sonata in F, K. 547
For his last work for keyboard and violin, Mozart's catalog carries the entry, ''A small keyboard sonata for
beginners, with a violin." 213 The
Postlude
The duo players who have made their way through the repertoire discussed in the preceding chaptersto say nothing
of additional music of similar age brought to light by their own researchwill already have found as much as they
can handle in the way of musical assignment. One does not easily, if ever, plumb the depths of the Bach or Mozart
sonatas; and the music of a Veracini or Tartini or Leclair is not without its individual challenge. Nevertheless, just
as these giants of an earlier time do not alone tell the musical story of their era (either in the duo sonata or in other
media), so also the music of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries is not enough to fill the experience of the duo
ensemble, whether in the home circle, the conservatory studio, or the concert auditorium. Ahead lies the music for
duo of Beethoven to Bartók and beyond, building in new ways on the achievements of the earlier centuries and
especially on the plateau established by the sonatas of Mozart. The duo repertoire of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries discussed in the second volume of this survey holds beauty, difficulty, and fascination to merit
comparison with the compositions we have already encountered in these pages.
Notes
References to music sources are given in abridged form. For complete bibliographical listings, see Editions Used.
ABBREVIATIONS:
Cobbett's Survey = Cobbett's Cyclopedic Survey of Chamber Music
DdT = Denkmäler deutscher Tonkunst
DTÖ = Denkmäler der Tonkunst in Österreich
EdM = Das Erbe deutscher Musik
Grove's Dictionary = Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians
HAM = Historical Anthology of Music
ICMI = I Classici Musicali Italiani
MGG = Die Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart
1. Henry G. Mishkin, ''Solo Violin Sonata of the Bologna School," The Musical Quarterly, XXIX (1943): 93.
2. Friedrich Cerha, ed., Fontana, Sechs Sonaten, Foreword.
3. Friedrich Cerha, ed., Schmelzer, Sonatae Unarum Fidium, pp. iv and v.
4. Guido Adler, ed., Biber, Acht Violinsonaten, DTÖ V/2, vol. 11, Introduction. Erwin Luntz, ed., Biber, Sechzehn
Violinsonaten, DTÖ XII/2, vol. 25, Introduction. Andreas Liess, "Heinrich Ignaz Franz Biber (von Bibern)," MGG,
I, 18281831. Adler gives the second name as Johann; this is already corrected by Luntz.
5. Liess, "Biber," p. 1828.
6. DTÖ offers, in addition to the two volumes of violin sonatas cited above, liturgical and stage compositions by
Biber, and an edition of Biber's Harmonia Artificiosa-Ariosa, a collection of trio sonatas for violins and (in one
sonata) viola d'amore. Of these seven sonatas, incidentally, only the sixth is in normal tuning. The others are all
scordatura, or, as Biber puts it in in his subtitle for the set, Diversimode accordata.
7. Adler, Violinsonaten, p. v.
8. See Luntz, Violinsonaten, Introduction, and facsimile of dedicatory page provided in that volume.
44. The entire sonata, in Geminiani's version, is reprinted in Sir John Hawkin's A General History of the Science
and Practice of Music [1776] (New York: Dover, 1963), II, 904-907. A reading of the Geminiani interpretation
will prove enlightening to players approaching the performance of Corelli's work (and of Geminiani's as well). The
entire Geminiani example is re-
Acknowledgments
Music examples in this volume are reproduced by the following permissions, gratefully acknowledged.
(Publishers' catalog numbers are shown in brackets. For full bibliographic listings, see Editions Used.)
Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Sonate h-Moll für Violine und konzertierendes Cembalo (Ruf) [5387]. © 1965 by
Schott & Co. Reprint permission granted by Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp., exclusive agents for the copyright
owner.
Johann Sebastian Bach, Sechs Sonaten für Violine und Klavier (Cembalo) (Eppstein) [223]. © 1971 by G. Henle
Verlag. Reprint permission granted by the publisher.
Ludwig van Beethoven, Sonaten für Klavier und Violine (Lampe, Schäffer) [7, 8]. © 1955 by G. Henle Verlag.
Reprint permission granted by the publisher.
Heinrich Franz Biber, Acht Violinsonaten (Adler). Denkmäler der Tonkunst in Österreich, Jahrgang V/2, Band 11.
Reprint permission granted by the publisher of the DTÖ series, Akademischer Druck- und Verlagsanstalt, Graz.
. Sechzehn Violinsonaten (Luntz). Denkmäler der Tonkunst in Österreich, Jahrgang XII/2, Band 25 (1898; reprinted
1959). Reprint permission granted by the publisher of the DTÖ series, Akademischer Druck- und Verlagsanstalt,
Graz.
Luigi Boccherini, Sonate per Cembalo con Violino obbligato, Op. 5 (Polo) [ICMI 4]. © 1941 by I Classici
Musicali Italiani. Reprint permission granted by Fondazione Bravi, Milan, and by Casa Editrice Leo S. Olschki,
Florence, sole agents.
Arcangelo Corelli, Zwölf Sonaten für Violine und Basso continuo, Op. 5 (Paumgartner, Kehr) [4380, 4381]. ©
1953 by Schott & Co. Reprint permission granted by Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp., exclusive agents for the
copyright owner.
Evaristo Felice dall'Abaco, Sechs Sonaten aus Opus 1 für Violine und Basso continuo (Kolneder) [4618]. © 1956
by Schott & Co. Reprint permission granted by Belwin-Mills Publishing Corp., exclusive agents for the copyright
owner.
Index
Composers whose duo sonatas are considered in this volume are shown below in bold-face type. All references to
duo sonatas are presented at the end of the listing for the given composer. The sonatas are listed numerically
according to opus or other customary catalog numbering; in numerical order within a set of works; otherwise, in
alphabetical order according to key; and, within key, major before minor.
Names of patrons, employers, dedicatees, or amateur pupils of composers are not listed in the index, with a few
special exceptions. The same holds true for publishers, other than a few who are linked to the early history of the
sonatas involved.
It need scarcely be added that many of those who are listed as ''editor" are renowned for other pursuits as well,
even though they are shown for this one special function here.
Page references are given in italics.
Abbreviations (when used): vln. = violin
b.c. = basso continuo
str. bass = string bass
A
Abbado, Michelangelo, editor of:
Locatelli, 183
Pugnani, 224
Abel, Carl Friedrich, 217218
sonata in G, op. 5, 218
sonata in B flat, op. 13, no. 3, 218
sonata in B flat (unnumbered), 218
Abnormal tuning, see Scordatura
Académie de Danse, 185
Accompanied keyboard sonata, 206222
role of violin in, 215226
Adler, Guido,
evaluation of Biber sonatas, 34
on performance freedom, 38
on scordatura in Biber sonata, 28
Albinoni, Tommaso, 8284
modern edition of sonatas, 8283
twelve violin sonatas, op. 6 (Trattenimenti Armonici per Camera Divisi in Dodici sonate), 8284
sonata in C, op. 6, no. 1, 82, 83
sonata in G min., op. 6, no. 2, 82, 83
sonata in D min., op. 6, no. 4, 82, 84
sonata in F, op. 6, no. 5, 83
sonata in A min., op. 6, no. 6, 83
J.S. Bach's continuo realization in, 136
sonata in D, op. 6, no. 7, 83, 84
sonata in A, op. 6, no. 11, 83
Arco, Count, 255
B
Bach, Anna Magdalena, 135
Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel, 211214
Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, 211
teacher of J.C. Bach, 214
sonatas for Cembalo obbligato e Violino, 211214
sonata in D (W. 71), 211, 214
sonata in B min. (W. 76), 211213
Bach, Johann Christian, 206, 214217, 231
Six Sonatas for the Harpsichord or Pianoforte with an Accompagnement for a Violin, op. 10, 215216
sonatas, op. 10, nos. 1, 2, 3, and 5, 216
Six Sonatas for Harpsichord or Piano with Flute or Violin, op. 16, 216217
sonata, op. 16, no. 1, 216
sonata, op. 16, no. 2, 217
sonata in A, op. 16, no. 4, 217
sonata in E flat for vln. and b.c., 217
Bach, Johann Christoph,
teacher of J.S. Bach, 111
Bach, Johann Sebastian, 48, 109137, 206
Art of Fugue, 137
biographical data, 111
Brandenburg concerti, 112
composers contemporary with, 138145
desirable approach to, 137
duo sonatas vs. C.P.E. Bach's, 213
fluctuating vogue for, 137
instrumental compositions of the Cöthen years, 112
nature of his music, 109110
partita no. 3 for violin alone, 137
realization of continuo in Albinoni sonata, op. 6, no. 6, 136
St. Matthew Passion, 112
Mendelssohn's revival of, 137
sonata no. 1, in G min., for violin alone, 111
transcription of Vivaldi, 153
six sonatas for violin and obbligato keyboard (BWV 10141019), 112114
character of, 112
compared with Handel's sonatas, 108
compared with Mondonville's sonatas, op. 3, 201
sources used in NBA edition of, 117
tempi suggestions for, 119
treatment of melodic detail in, 110111
treatment of violin and keyboard in, 110
varied part-writing texture of, 112114
sonata in B min., no. 1, 112114
sonata in A, no. 2, 112114, 131133
similarity to Vivaldi sonata, 76
sonata in E, no. 3, 112114, 119131
sonata in C min., no. 4, 112114, 113135
sonata in F min., no. 5, 112114, 117, 135
versions of, 117
sonata in G, no. 6, 112114
transfer of sonata movements to partita no. 6, Clavierübung, part 1, 115
versions of, 114117
sonata in G, for violin and continuo (BWV 1021), 135137
sonata in F, for violin and keyboard (BWV 1022), 135
doubtful authenticity of, 135
sonata in E min., for violin and continuo (BWV 1023), 135137
organ as continuo instrument in, 137
Bariolage, 40
in Vivaldi ''Pisendel" sonata no. 2, 76
Barison, Cesare, editor of Locatelli, 182
Basso continuo, 12, 13
instrumentation, 51, 52
realization of, 12
Bassoon, in Fontana trio sonata no. 10, 18
Beckmann, Gustav, editor of Walther, 39
Beethoven, Ludwig van (see also vol. II),
Fourth Piano Concerto, 252
violin sonata in A, op. 47 (Kreutzer),
two recorded performances, 37
Benda, Franz (Frantisek), 148150
sonatas for violin and b.c., 149150
sonata in A, 149
sonata in A min., 149
sonata in B, 149
sonata in Schering, Alte Meister], 150
Benda, Friedrich Ludwig, 227
Benda, Georg (Jiri), 148149
Ariadne auf Naxos, 148149
Medea, 148149
Benevenuti, Giovanni, teacher of
Corelli, 49
Bernabei, G.A., teacher of
Veracini, 152
Biber, Heinrich Ignaz Franz, 21, 2538
use of scordatura tuning, 21, 2630
use of variation, 35
Mystery or Rosary sonatas: fifteen sona-
C
Cart, Georg (Czarth), 227
Cartier, Jean Baptiste, 166
L'Art du Violon, 166, 226
Cazzati, Maurizio, 4344
sonata, op. 55, no. 1, 4344
Cello, in basso continuo, 12, 13, 52
use in J.S. Bach's sonatas for violin and obbligato keyboard, 118
use in dall'Abaco sonatas, op. 1, 85
use in Mozart's accompanied keyboard sonatas, 232
Cerba, Friedrich, editor of:
Fontana, 1718
Schmelzer, 21
Chapel Royal (France), 198
Chrysander, Friedrich, editor of
Corelli, 50
Cima, Giovanni Paolo, 14
sonata for violin and b.c., 14
Clavecin, 13
Clavicembalo, 13
Clementi, Muzio, 206
Cobbett, Walter, on Vivaldi, 65
Colloredo, Hieronymus, Archbishop of Salzburg, 230, 255
Composer's instructions to player, 2
Concert spirituel, 188, 198, 204
Continuo (basso continuo, thorough bass, figured bass), 12
C.P.E. Bach on, 211
as principle of composition, 12
Continuo instrumentation,
harpsichord vs. piano, 100
Corelli, Arcangelo, 4863
ardor in performance, 49
biographical data, 49
compositions of, 49
ornaments as played by, 50
teacher of: Geminiani, 77
Locatelli, 174
Mascitti, 185
Muffat, 42
Somis, 87
Follia, variations, see sonata, op. 5, no. 12
sonatas, op. 5, 5063
sonata in D, op. 5, no. 1, 41, 45, 5051, 5358, 156
and Vivaldi sonata no. 2, 70
sonata, op. 5, no. 2, 5063
sonata, op. 5, no. 3, 58, 59
sonata, op. 5, no. 4, 58, 60
sonata, op. 5, no. 6, 59
sonata, op. 5, no. 7, 58, 60, 61
sonata, op. 5, no. 9, 58, 6062
sonata, op. 5, no. 10, 58, 61, 83, 147
sonata, op. 5, no. 11, 58, 61
sonata, op. 5, no. 12 (La Follia, variations), 6263
Corporation of minstrels (Guild of Minstrels), France, 185, 188
Corrette, Michel, 204
sonata, Les Jeux Olympiques, from op. 25, 204
D
dall'Abaco, Evaristo Felice, 8486
twelve sonatas for violin and continuo, op. 1, 8586
sonatas 2, 4, 7, and 11, 85
sonatas 5 and 6, 86
twelve sonatas for violin and continuo, op. 4, 8586
sonatas nos. 4 and 8, 86
Dart, Thurston,
The Interpretation of Music, 5253
on keyboard instrument for early music, 52
Debroux, J., editor of Leclair, 189
Debussy, Claude, on J.S. Bach, 109
degli Antonii, Pietro, 44, 4647
sonatas, op. 4, 46
sonatas, op. 5, 4647
sonatas, op. 5, nos. 1 and 6, 46
sonata, op. 5, no. 4, 4647
Dittersdorf, Karl Ditters von, 227
sonata in B flat, 227
sonata in G, 227
Doktor, Paul, editor of Nardini, 225
Donington, Robert,
article, ''Ornamentation," 52
The Interpretation of Early Music, 52
on tasto solo performance, 51
Double-stop writing for violin,
in Marini sonatas, 15
in Schmelzer, 21
Duo egalitarianism, 89
Duo performance, factors in, 5
Duval, François, 186187
sonatas for violin solo with bass, Book VI, 187
sonata in D, 187
sonata in G, 187
E
Eckardt, Johann Gottfried, 209
Editing of older music, note values in, 17, 2223
Einstein, Alfred,
on Kirchoff, 139
on Mozart sonatas:
(K. 402) 286, (K. 454) 287, (K. 526) 299, (K. 547) 302
Eitner, Robert, editor of Leclair, 190
Electronic sounds, in new music, 27
Eppstein, Hans, on J.S. Bach's sonatas for violin and obbligato keyboard:
dating of, 115
departure from continuo principle, 118
trio sonata concept in, 112
versions of sonatas nos. 5 and 6, 114117
editor of J.S. Bach, 112
F
Farina, Carlo, in Germany, 20
Fellerer, Karl G.,
editor of Benda (Franz), 150
Ferand, Ernest T.,
editor of Benda (Franz), 150
Improvisation in Nine Centuries of Western Music, 150
Fesch, Willem De, 145
six sonatas for violin and b.c., 145
Festing, Michael, 144145
sonata in D, op. 8, no. 5, 144145
Figured bass, 12, 52
Finney, Ross Lee, editor of Geminiani, 81
Flesch, Carl, editor of Nardini, 226
Follia (folia), theme, 62
Fontana, Giovanni Battista, 1618
eighteen "Sonatas for 1, 2, 3 [players]," 1617
six sonatas for violin and b.c., 1618
sonata no. 1, 17, 18
sonatas nos. 2, 3, 4, and 6, 18
sonata no. 5, 17, 18
sonata no. 10, for violin, bassoon and continuo, 18
Forkel, J. N.,
description of J.S. Bach sonatas, 110
Fund for Support of Decayed Musicians, 144
G
Gaibara, Ercole, teacher of Corelli, 49
Galliard, Johann Ernest, 49
Gasparini, Francesco,
teacher of Veracini, 152
Gaviniès, Pierre, 204205
Geiringer, Karl, on J.C. Bach, 216
Geloso, Girolamo, 16
Geminiani, Francesco Saverio, 49, 7782, 152
The Art of Playing the Violin, 78
twelve movements from, 82
biographical data, 77
editions of op. 4 and op. 5 sonatas, 81
elaboration of Corelli's sonata no. 9, 6162
pupil of Lonati, 63
sonatas for violin alone, op. 1, 78
twelve Sonate a Violino, Violone, e Cambalo, op. 1, 7881
sonata in A, op. 1, no. 1, 7879
sonata in D min., op. 1, no. 2, 7980
sonata in E min., op. 1, no. 3, 80
sonata in D min., op. 1, no. 12, Moffat version: Sonata Impetuosa, 81
H
Handel, George Frederick, 48, 97108
biographical data, 9798
compositions of, 98
Messiah, 98
sonata for flute, op. 1, no. 1, 101
sonata for oboe, op. 1, no. 6 (intended as violin sonata), 100
six sonatas for violin and continuo, from op. 1, 98108
continuo instrumentation in, 99
editions of, 98, 99
evaluation of, 108
sonata in A, op. 1, no. 3, 98, 107
sonata in G min., op. 1, no. 10, 107
sonata in F, op. 1, no. 12, 107
sonata in D, op. 1, no. 13, 100107, 156
chorus (from sonata, op. 1, no. 13) in oratorio, Solomon, 106107
sinfonia (from sonata, op. 1, no. 13) in oratorio, Jephtha, 106
sonata in A, op. 1, no. 14, 107108
sonata in E flat, op. 1, no. 15, 108
Harpsichord, nature of its sound, 13
vs. pianoforte, 207208
popularity of, 207
Hasse, Johann A., 231
Hauser, Michael Mischka, arranger, Nardini ''violin concerto," 225226
Hawkins, Sir John, on Corelli and Vivaldi, 65
on Geminiani, 77, 78
A General History of the Science and Practice of Music, 65
Haydn, Franz Joseph, 231
student of Porpora, 184
sonatas for keyboard and violin, 221
Heinichen, Johann David,
Der General-Bass in der Composition, 136
teacher of Pisendel, 140
Hermann, Friedrich,
editor of Tartini, 165, 167, 169
Heuss, Alfred, on scordatura in Biber Mystery sonatas, 28, 31
Hinnenthal, J. P.,
editor of T.A. Vitali, 45
Höckner, W., editor of Mondonville, 199
Holzbauer, Ignaz, 231
Hummel, Johann Nepomuk, 206, 222
sonata for piano with violin accompaniment, op. 5, no. 1, 222
Humor in performance, 9
J
Jensen, Gustav, editor of Corelli, 50
Joachim, Joseph, editor of Corelli, 50
Johnson, Mildred J.,
editor of Nardini, 225
Jouy, Madame Brillon de,
harpsichordist, 218
K
Keiser, Reinhard, 97
Kelly, Michael, on Mozart's attitude to contemporary musicians, 290
Keyboard,
instrument in basso continuo, 1213
"and violin," top billing, 216
vs. violin, 208
Kimmel, Anton, 227
Kirchoff, Gottfried, 139
twelve sonatas for violin and b.c., 139
sonatas nos. 2, 4, 6, and 10, 139
Kolneder, Walter, editor of:
Mascitti, 185
Veracini, 163
Vivaldi, 66n.
Küster, Albert, editor of J.C. Bach, 217
N
Nardini, Pietro, 225227
''Concerto" in E min., 225
six sonatas, 225226
sonata in B flat for vln. and b.c., 226
sonata in D for vln. and b.c., 226227
Newman, William S.,
on the accompanied keyboard sonata, 206
on the sonata idea, 53
Notation, what it tells the player, 2
Nozeman, Jacobus, 145
six sonatas for vln. and b.c., op. 1, 145
sonatas in C, E, and F min., op. 1, 145
six sonatas for vln. and b.c., op. 2, 145
O
Organ, as continuo instrument, 16, 46
Ornaments,
"as played by" Corelli, 50
in Leclair, 196
P
Paumgartner, Bernhard, editor of:
Corelli, 50
degli Antonii, 46, 47
Pepusch, Johann Christoph, 138139
The Beggar's Opera, 138
six sonatas, 137138
Performance, avenue for individuality, 10
humor in, 9
interpretative freedom in, 38
contrasting Kreutzer recordings, 37
problems of, 1
vitality of, 15, 2324
Q
Quantz, Johann Joachim, 100
R
Racek, Jan, editor of J. Stamitz, 146
Reinken, Jan Adams, 111
Reitz, Robert, violinist, 28
Richter, Franz Xaver, 146147
three sonatas from op. 2, 146147
Riemann, Hugo, editor of Schobert, 210
Robbins-Landon, H. C., 215
Roger, Estienne, publisher of:
Corelli's sonatas, op. 5, 3rd edition, 50, 53
Locatelli sonatas, 174
Roger, Jeanne,
publisher of Handel sonatas, 98
Rolland, Romain, on Telemann, 8889
Roussel, Louise, wife of Leclair, 189
Royal Academy of Music (France), 185, 198
Royal Society for Musicians, 144
Ruf, Hugo, editor of: C.P.E. Bach, 213
Leclair, 190
Rutini, Giovanni M. P., 206
S
Sadie, Stanley, editor of Handel, 100, 104
Salmon, Joseph, editor of Somis, 87
Sammartini, Giambattista, 231
Sartori, Claudio, 179
Scarlatti, Alessandro,
teacher of Geminiani, 77
Schering, Arnold, editor of:
Benda (Franz), 150
Corelli, 62
Marini, 15
Porpora, 184
Tartini, 165
Schmelzer, Johann Heinrich, 2025
teacher of Biber (?), 25
six Sonatae unarum fidium seu a violino solo (''Sonatas for one violin [and continuo]"), 2125
sonata no. 1, 21
sonatas nos. 2 and 6, 22
sonata no. 3, 21, 22
sonata no. 4, 22, 23
sonata no. 5, 22, 2425
Sonate Cucu, 41
Suite in D, no. 2, 41
Schmitz, Hans-Peter, editor of:
Benda (Franz), 149
Handel, 108
Mozart, 233
Die Kunst der Verzierung im 18. Jahrhundert, 149
on treatment of the accompanying instrument, 233
Schneider, Max, on DTÖ edition of Biber's Mystery sonatas, 32
Schobert, Johann, 206, 208211, 231
biographical data, 208209
compositions, 210
and Mozart, 209
sonatas as preparatory study for Mozart sonatas, 217
sonata in A, op. 9, no. 2, 210211
sonata in C min., op. 14, no. 3, 210, 211
sonata in D min., op. 14, no. 4, 211
Schubert, Franz (see also vol. II)
Sonatina no. 1, in D, relation to Mozart's K. 526, 298
Schulz, Johann Peter Abraham, 221
sonata in D for vln. and b.c., 221
Schuster, Josef, 235
six duets for clavicembalo and vln., 235
Schwarz, Boris, on Nardini, 226
Scordatura (abnormal tuning), 21
in Biber, 21, 2630
T
Tartini, Giuseppe, 164174
biographical data, 164165
teacher of:
J.G. Graun, 142
Nardini, 225
and Veracini, 152, 165
twelve sonatas, op. 1, 173174
sonata in A, op. 1, no. 1, 173174
sonata in C, op. 1, no. 3, 173
sonata in G, op. 1, no. 4, 173
sonata in E min., op. 1, no. 5, 173
sonata in G, op. 2, no. 12, 174
six sonatas, op. 5, 171173
sonatas, op. 5, nos. 1 and 2, 171
sonatas, op. 5, nos. 3 and 4, 172
sonata, op. 5, no. 5, 172173
sonata, op. 5, no. 6, 173
sonata in C (Peters 1099c, Brainard C12), 170171
sonata in G min., Didone abbandonata, 165, 169170
in Polo edition, 174
sonata, Devil's Trill, 166169
Tasto solo, 51
Tchaikovsky, Peter Ilyitch,
on Mozart, 294
Telemann, Georg Philipp, 48, 8897
biographical data, 8990
evaluation as composer by Romain Rolland, 8889
Musical Essays, or Twelve Soli and Twelve Trios (Essercizii Musici), 97
sonata no. 1, in F, 97
sonata no. 7, in A, 97
sonata for vln. and b.c., from Musique de Table, part II, 94
Six Sonatas for Violin Solo, Accompanied by Harpsichord, 9193
sonata no. 2, in D, 92
sonata no. 3, in B min., 91, 92
sonata no. 6, 93
Sonate Metodiche, op. 13, 9597
six sonatas (1728) "for Violin Solo or
Flute," 9596
sonata no. 5, 96
sonata no. 6, 95
six sonatas (1732) "for Flute or Violin," 95
Six Sonatinas for Violin and Harpsichord, 9091
sonatinas nos. 1, 3, and 5, 91
Tempo indications, 246
Tempo judgment,
advice by Leopold Mozart, 7, 247
in Beethoven's Kreutzer Sonata, op. 47, 35
Thorough-bass (basso continuo, figured bass), 12
Torelli, Giuseppe, 44
teacher of:
dall'Abaco, 85
Pisendel, 140
Tremais, 204
sonata in F min., op. 1, no. 12, 204
Trio sonata, 14, 18
Tuning, see Scordatura
Valentini, Giuseppe, 63, 64
Sonate da camera, op. 8, 64
sonata in D min., op. 8, no. 1, 64
sonata in G, 64
Vannucci, Domenico,
teacher of Boccherini, 218
Z
Zachau, Friedrich Wilhelm, teacher of:
Handel, 97, 139
Kirchoff, 139
Zaslaw, Neal, 53
Zellner, L. A.,
arranger of Nardini "viola sonata," 225226
tampers with Tartini sonata, Didone abbandonata, 169170