ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
PHEROMONES-signals secreted into the environment
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Supplemental Module prepared by
JEANNETTE R. ABELLA M.D.
HOMEOSTASIS- depends on precise regulation of organs
& organ system
NERVOUS- controls activity of tissue by sending AP
along axons w/c release chemical signals near the cell
they control
ENDOCRINE- releases chemical signals into the
circulatory system w/c carries them to all parts of the
body
ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS
WATER BALANCE-controls solute concentration of the
blood
UTERINE CONTRACTION & MILK RELEASE-oxytocin
GROWTH, METABOLISM & MATURATION- growth
hormone- bones & muscles
ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS
ION REGULATION- regulates Na+, K+, Ca+ in the blood
HR & BP REGULATION-helps blood for physical activity
BLOOD GLUCOSE- insulin
IMMUNE REGULATION-immune cell production
REPRODUCTIVE FUNCTIONS- males & females
CHEMICAL SIGNALS
Signals are molecules released from one location that
move to another location to produce a response.
CHEMICAL SIGNALS
1. INTRA CELLULAR - are produced in 1 part of a
cell(CM) and travel to another part(same cell) and bind
to receptors (cytoplasm or nucleus).
2. INTER CELLULAR - are released from 1 cell carried in
the INTER CELLULAR fluid and bind to receptors found in
some cells of the body.
FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIES OF INTERCELLULAR SIGNALS
-based on the tissues where they are released or
secreted from and tissues they regulate
1. AUTOCRINE- signals released by cells and have local
effects on the same cell type from w/c the signal is
released.
2.PARACRINE – Signal released by cells having effect on
another cell type near the cell from w/c they are
released, not carried into the circulation
3. HORMONES – Signals secreted into the circulatory
system travels some distance to target tissues,
influencing specific activities
4. NUERO HORMONES – Signals also secreted into the
circulatory sys. Produced by neurons and function like
hormones.
5. NEURO TANSMITTER or MODULATORS – signals
secreted by nerve cells w/c plays a important role in the
function of the NERVOUS SYSTEM
6.
to modify the behavior & physiology of other individuals
Pheromones of women may influence the length of
menstrual cycle in other women
RECEPTORS - are protein or glycoprotein that binds with
chemical signals to produce a response.
RECEPTOR SITE - binding site, shape and character of
receptor site allows only specific signals to bind to it.
SPECIFICITY - tendency to bind to specific chemical
signal and not to others.
2 Major Types of receptor sites
MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS
INTRACELLULAR RECEPTORS
1. MEMBRANE BOUND RECEPTORS -receptor sites on
the outer surface of the CM
-receptors respond to signals that are large, water
soluble molecules that do not diffuse across the CM.
-receptors that binds and extends to the inside of the
cell to produce a response.
A. Receptors that directly alter membrane
permeability-causes ion channels to open or close,
resulting to change in membrane permeability.
eg. Acetylcholine of the nerve endings binds to
membrane found receptor of the skeletal m. causing
contraction
B. RECEPTORS and G proteins -activation of a complex
protein at the inner surface at the CM called G protein.
Activated G protein can either
a. open or close membrane channel to produce
response.
b. activate enzymes that produce intracellular chemical
signals
3. RECEPTORS that directly alter the activity of enzymes
either increase or decrease activity of enzymes
enzymes on the other hand can increase or decrease
the synthesis of intracellular signals like cGMP
2. INTRACELLULAR RECEPTORS
RESPONSE- could be enzymes or DNA bound
COMPARISON
Intercellular signal membrane bound receptor (process
is rapid but few signals are bound to form) activated
receptors produces many signals
COMPARISON
Intracellular signals activated enzymes + intracellular
receptors ( several hours required) m RNA + protein
produces intercellular signals (cycle re-starts)
HORMONES
ENDOCRINE ( to separate w/in )
implies that intercellular signals are produced w/in and
secreted from the ENDOCRINE GLANDS but the signals
have effect at the locations away from or separate from
the gland
EXOCRINE (to separate outside)
secretes product into ducts w/c exit the glands and
carry the secretory product to an external or internal
surface.
HORMONES - Intercellular signals secreted by endocrine
glands
-set in motion because hormones set responses by cells
into motion.
- distributed in the blood to all parts of the body but
only target tissues respond to each type of hormone
CHEMICAL CATEGORIES OF HORMONES
1.PROTEIN, peptide and amino acid derivatives
HORMONES
this hormones are bind to membrane bound receptors
except thyroid gland peptide hormone w/c diffuses
through membrane binds to intra cellular receptors.
2. LIPID HORMONES
a. Steroid hormone are lipids derived from cholesterol
-diffuses across CM and binds to intra cellular receptors.
b. ECOSANOIDS – from fatty acid arachidic acid
> bind to membrane bound receptor associated with G
protein response
3 WAY OF REGULATING HORMONE SECRETION
1.Blood levels of chemicals – secretion is controlled
directly by blood levels.
2.Hormones – secretion is controlled by other
hormones
3. Nervous system – by NS control
CNS adrenals Epinephrine
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND HORMONES
- are ductless glands w/c secretes hormones directly to
the blood.
-supplied by network of blood vessels.
- richest blood supply – adrenal and thyroid
- some glands – perform functions aside from secretion
PITUITARY AND HYPOTHALAMUS - small pea size gland
- located at the sphenoid bone inferior to the
hypothalamus and posterior to the optic chiasma
Specifically sella turcica
PITUITARY AND HYPOTHALAMUS
*HYPOLALAMUS & ENDOCRINE control system
- located inferior to the thalamus
*INFUNDIBULUM – is a stalk that connects the pituitary
gland to the hypothalamus.
PITUITARY GLAND DIVIDED
1. Anterior – made up of epithelial cells derived from
embryonic oral cavity .
2. Posterior – is an extension of the brain made up of
nerve cells.
PITUITARY GLAND – aka Master gland because it
controls the function of so many other glands.
a. controls the function of the ovaries, testes, thyroid,
adrenal cortex
b. also secretes hormone that influences growth, kidney
function and birth and milk production* is now known
that pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus
2 Ways of control
1. ANTERIOR PITUITARY – hormone secretion is
controlled by releasing hormones/inhibitory hormones
2. POST PITUITARY – hormone secretion is controlled
by stimulation of nerve cells w/in the hypothalamus.
HORMONES
1. GROWTH HORMONE
- Stimulates growth of bones, muscles and other organs.
- Also RESIST protein breakdown and FAVORS fat
breakdown
GROWTH HORMONE
GH is controlled by GSH and GIH.
GROWTH can also be influenced by genetics, nutrition
and sex hormones
GH= increase in somatomedin secretion from the liver
and binds to receptor cells of bone and cartilage.
GROWTH HORMONE CONDITIONS
a. Low GH in the young causes PITIUTARY DWARFISM
Small but proportional
Treatment: administer GH
b. High GH young before bone growth is complete
GIANTISM
Abnormally tall
Treatment: removal of tumor
c.High GH older, bone diameter continues to grow
ACROMEGALY
Facial features & hands are abnormally large
2. THYROID STIMULATING HORMONE
TSH-binds to membrane bound receptors on cells of the
thyroid gland and causes to secrete TH ( T3 & T4)
3.ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE
ACTH-bind with MBR of cortex of adrenal glands
-increase secretion of cortisol or hydrocortisone to
keep the adrenal cortex from degenerating
-also bind to melanocytes in the skin and increase
pigmentation
GONADOTROPINS – hormones that binds to MBR on
the cells of gonads(testes and ovaries)
-regulates the growth, development and function of the
gonads.
FEMALE GONADOTROPHINS
4. LH- cause the ovulation of oocytes and secretion of
the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone from the
ovaries.
5. FSH- stimulates the development of follicles in the
ovaries
MALE GONADOTROHINS
4.ICSH / LH– stimulates the secretion of the sex
hormone testosterone from the interstitial cells of the
testes
5. FSH- stimulates the development of sperm cells in the
testes
6. PROLACTIN
PRL – binds to MBR in the breast
> helps promote develop of the breast during
pregnancies.
> stimulates the production of milk in the breast ff.
pregnancy
7.MELANOCYTE STIMULATING HORMONE
MSH -binds MBR on melanocytes causes them to
synthesize melanin
over secretion of MSH = dark skin.
Similar with ACTH=synthesize melanin
8.ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE
ADH -binds to MBR & increase H20 reabsorption by
kidney tubules
Less H2O lost in urine = < U.O.
Blood vessel to constrict when release in large amounts
(VASOPRESSIN)
If ADH is less → large amount of diluted urine → > U.O.
DIABETES INSIPIDUS -lack of ADH secretion causes large
amount of diluted urine
Severe cases- high osmolality of body fluids & loss of
important electrolytes in the urine ( Ca+, Na+, K+)
9. OXYTOCIN -binds to MBR causes contraction of the
smooth muscle of the uterus & milk ejection or milk let
down reflex from lactating women
Commercially prepared oxytocin are used to assist in
child birth & constrict uterine blood vessels following
child birth
THYROID GLAND
> made up of 2 tubes connected by a narrow band
>located on either side of the trachea inferior to the
larynx
>it is 1 of the largest endocrine glands
> red because it is highly vascular
>surrounded by a connective tissue capsule
THYROID FOLLICLES - are small spheres w/ walls that
connect of simple cuboidal epithelium
-synthesizes TH stored in the follicles
- is filled w/ protein to w/c thyroid hormones are
attached.
PARAFOLLICULAR CELLS -cells scattered in the network
of loose connective tissue between follicles
Producing calcitonin
Secreted if blood level of calcium is high
THYROID GLAND FUNCTIONS
1.Main function – secrete TH w/c bind to intracellular
receptors & regulate rate of metabolism
2. Growth & development- cannot proceed w/o normal
rate of TH secretion
HYPOTHYROIDISM- lack of TH
CRETENISM- in infants, mental retardation, short
stature w/ abnormally formed skeletal structure
In ADULTS
Reduced rate of metabolism- sluggishness
Reduced ability to perform routine task
Myxedema- accumulation of fluids & other molecules in
the subcutaneous tissue
HYPERTHYROIDISM-high TH secretion
GRAVES DISEASE- result from production of abnormal
protein by immune system that is similar in structure &
function to TSH
HYPERTHYROIDISM- elevated rate of metabolism -
Extreme nervousness, chronic fatigue
EXOPTHALMIA- bulging of the eye
THYROID GLAND
-requires IODINE to synthesize TH
Iodine → taken up → thyroid follicle →TH= T3 & T4
If IODINE is insufficient → production & secretion of TH
is diminished
TH are stored in combination w/ protein called
Thyroglobin in the follicles
Decrease iodine in diet → low T3 & low T4 synthesis →
take table salts
HYPOTHALAMIC – PITUITARY PORTAL SYSTEM
TSH-RH – causes cells in the anterior pituitary to
secrete TSH w/c passes thru the general circulation to
the thyroid gland.
TSH – causes the release of TH T3 & T4 into the
circulation
T3 and T4 acts on target tissue to produce a response
T3 and T4 also have inhibitory effect on the secretion of
TRH from the hypothalamus and THS from the anterior
pituitary
11. THYROID HORMONES- T3 /T4
a. METABOLISM
b. BODY TEMPERATURE
c. NORMAL GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Increase TH → inhibits secretion of TSH-RH from the
HYPOTHALAMUS→ inhibit secretion of TSH in the
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
If TH is decrease → stimulates release TSH secretion &
TH in the thyroid gland
Because of the negative feedback TH fluctuates w/in
narrow concentration in the blood
GOITER- when excess TSH causes thyroid gland to
enlarge
IODINE DEFICIENCY GOITER- develop if iodine is low →
low T3 & low T4
12.CALCITONIN- secreted by parafollicular cells
-It decreases the level of high blood calcium to normal
range
-binds to MBR & reduce rate of CALCIUM reabsorption
from bones
FUNCTION
Prevent blood calcium level from becoming overtly
elevated following meals high with calcium
Lack of calcitonin does not result in prolonged increase
in calcium
Other mechanism controls calcium blood level for lack
of calcitonin secretion
*PARATHYROID GLAND
- there are 4 tiny glands embedded in the posterior wall
of the thyroid gld
they secrete PTH essential for regulate of blood calcium
level
-more important than calcitonin
binds MBR and increases the absorption of Ca from
intestines.
13. PARATHYROID HORMONE
Causing an increase Vitamin D formation
PTH – also increase reabsorption or breakdown of bone
tissue to release calcium into the circulation
It decrease the rate of calcium lost in the urine
Acts on target tissue to raise blood calcium to normal
PROLONGED HIGH PTH
Reduce bone density causing
1.Soft flexible bones
2.Deformed bones in the young
3. Porous & fragile bone in the old
But if calcium is high → PTH secretion will decrease=
lower Ca+ to normal level
HYPERPARATHYROIDISM- Abnormally high PTH
secretion
TUMOR→ high PTH--. high bone resorption→ high
Calcium release →
1.SOFT DEFORMED FRACTURE bones with < nerve &
muscle fatigue & muscle weakness
2. Kidney STONE FORMATION
3.Deposits in soft tissue causing INFLAMMATION
HYPOPARATHYROIDISM- abnormally low PTH
SURGICAL REMOVAL of thyroid →
Low PTH → less bone sorption → less Calcium in the
blood→
1.Nerves & muscles become more excitable causing
MUSCLE CRAMPS or TETANUS
2. Less Vitamin D formation
ADRENAL GLANDS- MEDULLA -located superior to each
kidneys
14. EPINEPHRINE – PRINCIPAL HORMONE
15. NOREPINEPHRINE – small amount
Both released by sympathetic NS w/c become active
when physically active or excited
FIGHT OR FLIGHT HORMONES
1. Breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver, release
glucose in the blood& fatty acids from fat cells
GLUCOSE & FATTY ACID use as ENERGY SOURCE to
increase body’s rate of metabolism
2. Increase HR→ increase BP
FIGHT OR FLIGHT HORMONES
3. Stimulates smooth muscles of arteries supplying
internal organs & skin to decrease flow & increasing
flow to skeletal muscles
4. Increase BP due to contraction of blood vessels in
internal organ & skin
5. Increase metabolic rate of the skeletal, cardiac &
nervous tissue
ADRENAL GLAND- CORTEX
16.GLUCOCORTICOIDS- help to regulate blood nutrients
in the body
a. Cortisol- major glucocorticoid, increases breakdown
of fat & protein, use as source of energy
b. Cortisone-closely related to cortisol
- to reduce inflammation & allergy
CORTISOL
Cortisol acts on muscle protein amino acids liver
converts amino acids to glycogen glucose
Cortisol acts on adipose tissue fat stores fatty acids
Cortisol reduces inflammatory response & act as source
of energy in stressful conditions
CORTISOL
Low blood glucose level→ hypothalamus→ stimulate
releasing hormone for ACTH in the anterior pituitary
gland→stimulates cortisol release
Without ACTH –adrenal cortex will atrophy & loss ability
to secrete cortisol
17. MINERALOCORTICOIDS- regulates blood volume
through Na+ & K+ blood levels
a. Aldosterone- major hormone, binds in the kidneys,
intestines, sweat & salivary glands
ALDOSTERONE
1.Causes Na+ & H2O to be retained in the body
2. Increase rate at w/c K+ is eliminated
Adrenal gland is more sensitive to K+ changes than in
Na+
Aldosterone secretion is increase if K+ is high & Na+ is
low
ALDOSTERONE REGULATION
1.High K+ or low Na+= increase secretion of aldosteron
2. Low BP detected by the kidneys in response to
increase RENIN in the circulation
RENIN → angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
ACE→ angiotensin I to angiotensin II→ causing
vasoconstriction → increase BP
Angiotensin II increases Aldosteron → affects on the
kidneys→ stimulates Na+ retention & K+ excretion &
less water loss → increase BP
18. ANDROGEN- stimulates & develops male sexual
characteristics
Small amount secreted for both sexes
Males-most androgens secreted by the testes
Females –adrenal androgens influences female sex drive
PANCREAS
EXOCRINE PORTION- surrounds the pancreatic islets &
produces digestive enzymes carried through ducts of
the small intestines
ENDOCRINE PORTION- islets of langerhans secretes
hormones
Alpha cells → GLUCAGON
Beta cells → INSULIN
BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL
Important in maintaining normal range of value since
glucose is the N.S. main source of energy
1. Low blood glucose→ malfunction in the N.S.
Fat & protein are broken down--. as alternative source
of energy
Fatty acid →acidic ketones→ ACIDOSIS (<PH)
Proteins → aminoacids → glucose
2. Too high blood glucose→ kidneys produce large
volume urine w/ glucose→ DEHYDRATION
19. INSULIN
bound to MBR directly or indirectly→ increase rate of
glucose & amino acid uptake in the tissue
Glucose is converted to glycogen, fat or amino acid to
synthesize protein
MAJOR TARGET TISSUE- Liver, Adipose tissue, Muscles ,
Satiety center- area of hypothalamus that controls
appetite
INSULIN
*High blood glucose level →released of insulin by the
beta cells
Parasympathetic stimulation associated w/ digestion of
a meal→ release insulin
Increase amino acid→ may also stimulate insulin
secretion
*Low blood glucose → low insulin to conserve glucose
to provide adequate energy source in the brain
*Low blood glucose → also allow other tissue to
metabolize fatty acid & glycogen
Stimulation of sympathetic N.S. → low insulin
DIABETES MELLITUS
May result from the following
1.Secretion of little insulin
2.Insufficient insulin receptors on target cells
3.Defective receptors- do not respond to insulin
HYPERGLYCEMIA
In patients w/ DM tissue can not take up glucose
effectively causing blood glucose level to increase
Glucose can not enter the cells of the satiety center w/o
Insulin → responses as if there was very little blood
glucose → EXAGGERATED APPETITE (Polyphagia)
Glucose is also secreted in the urine→ increase urine
production→ OSMOTIC DIURESIS (Polyuria)→
dehydration→ THIRST (Polydypsia)
Although blood glucose is high, fat & protein are broken
down→ alternative source of energy for metabolism→
WASTING, ACIDOSIS, KETOSIS
20.GLUCAGON -released by alpha cells when blood
glucose is very low
-binds w/ MBR in the liver causes conversion of
glycogen to glucose
Glucose is released in the blood to normalize blood
glucose level
After meals → high glucose → (-) GLUCAGON
OTHER MECHANISM
1. Insulin & Glucagon work together→ regulate normal
blood glucose level
If low gluc. → insulin (-) & glucagon (+)
If high gluc. → insulin (+) & glucagon (-)
2. Epinephrine, Cortisol & Growth hormone- maintain
blood nutrients
If glucose is low → hormones are secreted at greater
rate
Epinephrine & Cortisol → breakdown fat & protein &
synthesize glucose → increase nutrients
Growth hormone → slows protein breakdown & favors
fat breakdown
TESTES- 21. TESTOSTERONE
MALES - responsible for growth & development of male
structures
-Muscle enlargement
-Growth of body hairs
-Male sexual drive
OVARIES- 22. ESTROGEN PROGESTERONE
FEMALES- together they contribute to the development
& function of the female reproductive structures &
female sex characteristics
-Enlargement of the breast
-Distribution of fats shape of hips, breast & thigh
-Female menstrual cycle
THYMUS- 23. THYMOSIN
-upper part of the thoracic cavity
-important function in immune system
THYMOSIN- helps the development of certain WBC
called T cells
T CELLS- protect the body against infection by foreign
organism
Important in early life, becomes smaller in older adults
Infants w/o thymus gland→ immune system does not
develop normally & body is less capable of fighting
infections

PINEAL BODY - 24. MELATONIN

Small pine cone shape structure superior & posterior to
the thalamus
MELATONIN- thought to decrease LH & FSH by
decreasing the release of hypothalamic releasing
hormone
Acts to inhibit the function of the reproductive system
-plays a role on the onset of puberty

OTHER HORMONES
1. GASTRIN- stomach & intestinal cells secrete
hormones that produce digestive juices from the
stomach, pancreas & liver

2. PROSTAGLANDINS- intracellular signal function as

autocrine or paracrine
-causes relaxation of smooth muscles dilatation of
blood vessels
-contraction of smooth muscles uterus & initiates
abortion
-play a role in inflammation
-produce localize swelling & pain
-for blood clotting

3. ERYTHROPOETIN- kidney hormone responses to

reduced O2 levels
-acts on the bone marrow to increase production of RBC

4. HCG- human chorionic gonadotrophin

-placental hormone that maintain pregnancy &
stimulates breast devp.

AGE RELATED CHANGES

Gradual decrease in secretion but not
all endocrine glands
GH- diminish as people age
May not occur in older people who exercise regularly
MELATONIN- lessen, influences age related sleep
pattern
TH- 10% less in elderly women
RENIN- less ability to response to decrease BP
GONADOTROPHINS- decreases in menopause
THYMOSIN- less effective immune system
PTH- osteoporosis