For

Computer Technology program

(I Scheme Curriculum)

Padmashri Dr.Vitthalrao Vikhe Patil Institute of

Technology & Engineering (Polytechnic) college,
Pravaranagar-413736.
(2022-2023)

A Micro project Report On

“APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION”
 Padmashri Dr.Vitthalrao Vikhe Patil Institute of
Technology & Engineering (Polytechnic) college,
Pravaranagar-413736.
Micro project
Of
‘Applied Mathematics’

❖ Branch: Computer Technology

❖ Year: First year

❖ Academic year: 2022-23

❖ Topic of Project: “application of integration”

❖ Group Number: 5

❖ Group Leader: Mr.Supe Omkar Dattatray

❖ Subject Teacher: Prof.Pathare D V.

 Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education
(MSBTE), MUMBAI

Certificate
This is to certify that the following students of semester First year diploma
in Computer Technology of Padmashri Dr.Vitthalrao Vikhe Patil Institute of
Technology & Engineering (Polytechnic) college, Pravaranagar-413736
(INST.Code-0030) have completed the micro project satisfactorily in course of
Applied Mathematics for the academic year 2022-23 as prescribed in the
curriculum.

SUBMITTED BY –

Sr Enrollment Exam Seat Name of Students/

No. No No Group Member
SUPE OMKAR DATTATRAY
1. 2200300019
GITE VRUSHABH SANJAY
2. 2200300044
SAYYAD SIDDIK FIROZ
3. 2200300053
4. 2200300026 Kadri Shahid Arif
5. 2200300070
Chougule Abhishek kishore

GUIDED BY- Prof.Pathare D V

Guide Head OF Department Principal

 PART A - MICRO PROJECT PRAPOSAL
1.0. Aim/Benefits of micro-project: -

1. The objective of applied mathematical research is not only to

intelligently apply existing mathematical tools and insights to solve
scientific problems, but also to develop novel and useful mathematics
inspired and driven by the applications

2.0 Course outcome addressed.

C01: Calculate the equation of tangent, maxima, minima, radius of curvature by differentiation.
C02: Solve the given problem(s) of integration using suitable methods.
C03: Apply the concept of integration to find area and volume.
C04: Solve the differential equation of first order and first degree using suitable methods.
C05: Utilize basic concepts of Numerical methods to solve elementary engineering problems.

3.0. Proposed Methodology: -

2. First of all, we have to select a topic and then take a reference of subject
teacher. The teacher will assign one set of micro projects and said to the
student to create a report on respective topic.
3. We collected information about the topic using sources such as the
internet. Applied Mathematics Book and then we asked subject teacher
about topic on which we have a micro project and then we type the
required part-A and done proper page. Set up and submitted to subject
teacher after the setup of part-A. We prepare a report of our topic. After
finishing all the data in proper arrangement. We selected proper margin
font. Lay out 4A size etc. At least we get the printouts of the micro-
project and submitted to teacher.
4.0. Action Plan: -
Sr. Detail of Activity Planned Planned Name of
No. Start Finished Members
Date Date
1 Group formation and All team
allocation of micro members
project
Tittle
2 Information search and All team
required members
Analysis
3 Actual All team
/assembly project members
4 Testing of project All team
members
5 Acquire the printout and All team
submit It members

6 Submission All team

members

5.0 Resources used:

Sr. Name of resource

Specifications Quantity
no. material

12 GB RAM, Windows
1 Computer System 1
10 OS

2 Internet You tube / Wikipedia

Basic 1
3 Textbook/Manual
Mathematics 22103
 PART- B

 ------------------------
1.0 Brief Introduction/Rationale
 Conclusion

2.0 Actual Resources Use

Sr. no. Name of resource material Specifications Quantity

1 Computer System 16 GB RAM, Windows 10 OS 1

2 Internet You tube / Wikipedia

3 textbook/manual Basic Mathematics 22103 1

3.0 Skill Developed

1. Teamwork
2. Communication skills
 Introduction to Integration
Integration is a way of adding slices to find the whole.

Integration can be used to find areas, volumes, central points and

many useful things. But it is easiest to start with finding the area
under the curve of a function like this:

What is the area under y = f(x) ?

Slices

We could calculate the function at a few

points and add up slices of
width Δx like this (but the answer won't
be very accurate):
We can make Δx a lot smaller and add
up many small slices(answer is getting
better):

And as the slices approach zero in

width, the answer approaches thetrue
answer.

We now write dx to mean the Δx slices

are approaching zero in width.

That is a lot of adding up!

But we don't have to add them up, as there is a "shortcut".
Because ...

... finding an Integral is the reverse of finding a

Derivative.

(So you should really know about Derivatives before reading

more!)

Like here:
Example: What is an integral of 2x?

We know that the derivative of x2 is 2x ...

... so an integral of 2x is x2

Notation

The symbol for "Integral" is a

stylish "S"
(for "Sum", the idea of
summing slices):

After the Integral Symbol we put the function we want to find the
integral of (called the Integrand),

and then finish with dx to mean the slices go in the x direction

(and approach zero in width).

And here is how we write the answer:

Plus C
We wrote the answer as x2 but why + C ?

It is the "Constant of Integration". It is there because of all the

functions whose derivative is 2x:

The derivative of x2+4 is 2x, and the derivative of x2+99 is

also 2x, and so on! Because the derivative of a constant is zero.

So when we reverse the operation (to find the integral) we only

know 2x, but there could have been a constant of any value.

So we wrap up the idea by just writing + C at the end.

Tap and Tank

Integration is like filling a tank from a tap.

The input (before integration) is the flow rate from the tap.

Integrating the flow (adding up all the little bits of water) gives us
thevolume of water in the tank.

Imagine the flow starts at 0 and gradually increases (maybe a

motor is slowly opening the tap).

As the flow rate increases, the tank fills up faster and faster.

With a flow rate of 2x, the tank fills up at x2.

We have integrated the flow to get the volume.

Example: (assuming the flow is in liters per minute) after 3
minutes (x=3):

 the flow rate has reached 2x = 2×3 = 6 liters/min,

 and the volume has reached x2 = 32 = 9 liters.

We can do the reverse, too:

Imagine you don't know the flow rate.

You only know the volume is increasing by x2.

We can go in reverse (using the derivative, which gives us the

slope) and find that the flow rate is 2x.

Example: at 2 minutes the slope of the volume is 4, meaning it is

increasing at 4 liters/minute, which is the flow rate. Likewise at 3
minutes the slope is 6, etc.

So Integral and Derivative are opposites.

We can write that down this way:

 The integral of the flow rate 2x tells us the ∫2x dx =
volume of water: x2 + C

And the slope of the volume increase x2+C gives (x2 + C)

us back the flow rate: = 2x

And hey, we even get a nice explanation of that "C" value ...
maybe the tank already has water in it!

 The flow still increases the volume by the same amount

 And the increase in volume can give us back the flow rate.

Which teaches us to always add "+ C".

So get to know those rules and get lots of practice.

The Indefinite Integral is:∫cos(x) dx = sin(x) + C

So let us do the calculations:

= sin(3) − sin(1)
 = 0.141... − 0.841...

= −0.700...

Try integrating cos(x) with different start and end values to see
for yourself how positive and negative areas work.

Continuous
Oh yes, the function we are integrating must
be Continuous between a and b: no holes, jumps or vertical
asymptotes (where the function heads up/down towards infinity).

Example:

A vertical asymptote between a and b affects the definite integral.

Properties

Reversing the interval

Reversing the direction of the interval gives the negative of the
original direction.

Integration Rules

Integration
Integration can be used to find areas,
volumes, central points and many useful
things. But it is often used to find
the area underneath the graph of a
function like this:

The integral of many functions are well known, and there are
useful rules to work out the integral of more complicated
functions, many of which are shown here.
Multiplication by constant

Example: What is ∫6x2 dx ?

We can move the 6 outside the integral:

∫6x2 dx = 6∫x2 dx
And now use the Power Rule on x2:

= 6 x3/3 + C

Simplify:

= 2x3 + C

Use the Difference Rule:

∫ew − 3 dw =∫ew dw − ∫3 dw
Then work out the integral of each (using table above):

= ew − 3w + C
Sum, Difference, Constant Multiplication And Power
Rules

Example: What is ∫8z + 4z3 − 6z2 dz ?

Use the Sum and Difference Rule:

∫8z + 4z3 − 6z2 dz =∫8z dz + ∫4z3 dz − ∫6z2 dz

Constant Multiplication:

= 8∫z dz + 4∫z3 dz − 6∫z2 dz

Power Rule:

= 8z2/2 + 4z4/4 − 6z3/3 + C

Simplify:

= 4z2 + z4 − 2z3 + C

Integration by Parts
Integration by Parts is a special method of integration that is
often useful when two functions are multiplied together, but is
also helpful in other ways.

You will see plenty of examples soon, but first let us see the rule:
 ∫u v dx = u∫v dx −∫u' (∫v dx) dx

 u is the function u(x)

 v is the function v(x)

As a diagram:

And let us get straight into an example:

Example: What is ∫x cos(x) dx ?

First choose u and v:

 u=x
 v = cos(x)

Differentiate u: u' = x' = 1

Integrate v: ∫v dx = ∫cos(x) dx = sin(x) Now put it

together:
Simplify and solve:

x sin(x) − ∫sin(x) dx
x sin(x) + cos(x) + C

So we followed these steps:

 Choose u and v
 Differentiate u: u'
 Integrate v: ∫v dx
 Put u, u' and ∫v dx here: u∫v dx −∫u' (∫v dx) dx
 Simplify and solve

In English, to help you remember, ∫u v dx becomes:

(u integral v) minus integral of (derivative u, integral v)

Let's try some more examples:

Example: What is ∫ln(x)/x2 dx ?

First choose u and v:

 u = ln(x)
 v = 1/x2

Differentiate u: ln(x)' = 1/x

Integrate v: ∫1/x2 dx = ∫x-2 dx = −x-1 = -1/x (by

the power rule)

Now put it together:

Simplify:

−ln(x)/x − ∫−1/x2 dx = −ln(x)/x − 1/x + C

−(ln(x) + 1)/x + C

Example: What is ∫ln(x) dx ?

But there is only one function! How do we choose u and v ?

Hey! We can just choose v as being "1":

  u = ln(x)
 v=1

Differentiate u: ln(x)' = 1/x

Integrate v: ∫1 dx = x

Now put it together:

Simplify:

x ln(x) − ∫1 dx = x ln(x) − x + C

Example: What is ∫ex x dx ?

Choose u and v:

 u = ex
 v=x

Differentiate u: (ex)' = ex

Integrate v: ∫x dx = x2/2
Now put it together:

Well, that was a spectacular disaster! It just got more

complicated.

Maybe we could choose a different u and v?

Example: ∫ex x dx (continued)

Choose u and v differently:

 u=x
 v = ex

Differentiate u: (x)' = 1

Integrate v: ∫ex dx = ex
Now put it together:
Simplify:

x e x − ex + C
ex(x−1) + C

The moral of the story: Choose u and v carefully!

Choose a u that gets simpler when you differentiate it and

a v that doesn't get any more complicated when you integrate it.

A helpful rule of thumb is I LATE. Choose u based on which of

these comes first:

 I: Inverse trigonometric functions such as sin-1(x), cos-1(x),

tan-1(x)
 L: Logarithmic functions such as ln(x), log(x)
 A: Algebraic functions such as x2, x3
 T: Trigonometric functions such as sin(x), cos(x), tan (x)
 E: Exponential functions such as ex, 3x

And here is one last (and tricky) example:

Example: ∫ex sin(x) dx

Choose u and v:

 u = sin(x)
 v = ex

Differentiate u: sin(x)' = cos(x)

Integrate v: ∫ex dx = ex
Now put it together:

∫ex sin(x) dx = sin(x) ex -∫cos(x) ex dx

Looks worse, but let us persist! We can use integration by

parts again:

Choose u and v:

 u = cos(x)
 v = ex

Differentiate u: cos(x)' = -sin(x)

Integrate v: ∫ex dx = ex
Now put it together:

∫ex sin(x) dx = sin(x) ex - (cos(x) ex −∫−sin(x)

ex dx)

Simplify:

∫ex sin(x) dx = ex sin(x) - ex cos(x) −∫ ex sin(x)dx

Now we have the same integral on both sides (except one is
subtracted) ...
... so bring the right hand one over to the left and we get:

2∫ex sin(x) dx = ex sin(x) − ex cos(x)

Simplify:

∫ex sin(x) dx = ex (sin(x) - cos(x)) / 2 + C

Where Did "Integration by Parts" Come From?

It is based on the Product Rule for Derivatives:

(uv)' = uv' + u'v

Integrate both sides and rearrange:

∫(uv)' dx = ∫uv' dx + ∫u'v dx

uv = ∫uv' dx + ∫u'v dx
∫uv' dx = uv − ∫u'v dx
Some people prefer that last form, but I like to integrate v' so the
left side is simple:

∫uv dx = u∫v dx − ∫u'(∫v dx) dx

Integration by Substitution
"Integration by Substitution" (also called "u-substitution") is a
method to find an integral, but only when it can be set up in a
special way.
The first and most vital step is to be able to write our integral in
this form:

Note that we have g(x) and its derivative g'(x)

Like in this example:

Here f=cos, and we have g=x2 and its derivative of 2x

This integral is good to go!

When our integral is set up like that, we can do this

substitution:

Then we can integrate f(u), and finish by putting g(x) back as

u.

Like this:

Example: ∫cos(x2) 2x dx
We know (from above) that it is in the right form to do the
substitution:
Now integrate:

∫cos(u) du = sin(u) + C

And finally put u=x2 back again:

sin(x2) + C

So ∫cos(x2) 2x dx = sin(x2) + C worked out really nicely!

(Well, I knew it would.)

This method only works on some integrals of course, and it may

need rearranging:

Example: ∫cos(x2) 6x dx
Oh no! It is 6x, not 2x. Our perfect setup is gone.

Never fear! Just rearrange the integral like this:

∫cos(x2) 6x dx = 3∫cos(x2) 2x dx

Then go ahead as before:

3∫cos(u) du = 3 sin(u) + C
Now put u=x2 back again:

3 sin(x2) + C

Done!

Now we are ready for a slightly harder example:

Example: ∫x/(x2+1) dx
Let me see ... the derivative of x2+1 is 2x ... so how about we
rearrange it like this:

∫x/(x2+1) dx = ½∫2x/(x2+1) dx

Then we have:

Then integrate:

½∫1/u du = ½ ln(u) + C

Now put u=x2+1 back again:

½ ln(x2+1) + C

Example: ∫(x+1)3 dx
the derivative of x+1 is ... well it is simply 1.

So we can have this:

∫(x+1)3 dx = ∫(x+1)3 · 1 dx
Then we have:

Then integrate:

∫u3 du = (u4)/4 + C

Now put u=x+1 back again:

(x+1)4 /4 + C
Example 2:1 Find the area between x = y + 3 and x = y2 from y = –1 to y = 1.
INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS

Recall the definitions of the trigonometric functions.


 

The following indefinite integrals involve all of these well-known

trigonometric functions. Some of the following trigonometry
identities may be needed.

 A.)
 B.)

 C.) so that

 D.) so that
 E.)
 F.) so that
 G.) so that

It is assumed that you are familiar with the following rules of

differentiation.

These lead directly to the following indefinite integrals.

 o 1.)

o 2.)

o 3.)

o 4.)

o 5.)

o 6.)

Application of Integration in Real Life

1. Laboratory Systems Integration

Application Integration

Integration between applications and ERP systems, SAP, MES systems, CAPA and document
management systems listed below can be relatively straight forward or extremely complex. Guided
by your business needs and pragmatism (the result of working in hundreds of laboratories) we will
design and implement the appropriate application integration strategy for your business.

Integration Benefits

 Improved quality
  Reduction in transcription errors

 Increased speed of results

 Reduced resource demands

 Freeing of laboratory personnel for more critical tasks

 Less remediation and review time

2. Centroid of an Area by Integration

Typical (straight sided) Problem

In tilt-slab construction, we have a concrete wall (with doors and windows cut out) which we need
to raise into position. We don't want the wall to crack as we raise it, so we need to know the centre
of mass of the wall. How do we find the centre of mass for such an uneven shape?
 Tilt-slab construction, also known as tilt-wall or tilt-up

Basically the integration concept is used to find the centroid of an area with straight sides, then we'll
extend the concept to areas with curved sides. Besides, the concept of moment also involved where
the definition of moment of a mass is a measure of its tendency to rotate about a point. Clearly, the
greater the mass (and the greater the distance from the point), the greater will be the tendency to
rotate.

The moment is defined as:

Moment = mass × distance from a point

Example 1

In this case, there will be a total moment about O of:

(Clockwise is regarded as positive in this work.)

M = 2 × 1 – 10 × 3 = −28 kgm
(A) Centre of Mass
We now aim to find the centre of mass of the system and this will lead to a more general result.

(B) Centre of Mass (Centroid) for a Thin Plate

1) Rectangle:
The centroid is (obviously) going to be exactly in the centre of the plate, at (2, 1).

2) More Complex Shapes:

We divide the complex shape into rectangles and find x (the x-coordinate of the centroid) and y
(the y-coordinate of the centroid) by taking moments about the y- and x-coordinates respectively.

Because they are thin plates with a uniform density, we can just calculate moments using the area.

6(1) + 8(2) = (6 + 8)𝑦

6 + 16 = 14𝑦
22
𝑦=
14
4
=1
7
13 4
So the centroid is at: ( , )
14 7
We would use this process to solve the tilt slab construction problem mentioned at the beginning of
this section.

In general, we can say:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

X=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑦−𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Y=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

This idea is used more extensively in the next section.

(C) Centroid for Curved Areas

Taking the simple case first, we aim to find the centroid for the area defined by a function f(x), and
the vertical lines 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = 𝑏 as indicated in the following figure.
To find the centroid, we use the same basic idea that we were using for the straight-sided case
above. The "typical" rectangle indicated is x units from the y-axis, and it has width Δx (which
becomes dx when we integrate) and height y = f(x).

Generalizing from the above rectangular areas case, we multiply these 3 values (x, f(x) and Δx, which
will give us the area of each thin rectangle times its distance from the x-axis), then add them. If we
do this for infinitesimally small strips, we get the x-coordinates of the centroid using the total
moments in the x-direction, given by:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 1 𝑏
x=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
=
𝑎
∫𝑎 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) dx
And, considering the moments in the y-direction about the x-axis and re-expressing the function in
terms of 𝑦, we have:

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 1 𝑑
Y=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
=
𝑎
∫𝑐 𝑦 𝑓(𝑦) dy

Notice this time the integration is with respect to y, and the distance of the "typical" rectangle from
the x-axis is y units. Also note the lower and upper limits of the integral are c and d, which are on
the y-axis.
Of course, there may be rectangular portions we need to consider separately. (I've used a different
curve for the y case for simplification.)

Alternate method: Depending on the function, it may be easier to use the following alternative
formula for the y-coordinate, which is derived from considering moments in the x-direction (Note
the "dx" in the integral, and the upper and lower limits are along the x-axis for this alternate
method).

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 1 𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)

Y= = ∫𝑎 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑎 2
1 𝑏 [𝑓(𝑥)]2
= ∫𝑎 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 2
This is true since for our thin strip (width dx), the centroid will be half the distance from the top to
the bottom of the strip.

Another advantage of this second formula is there is no need to re-express the function in terms
of y.

(D) Centroids for Areas Bounded by 2 Curves

We extend the simple case given above. The "typical" rectangle indicated has width Δx and
heighty2 − y1, so the total moments in the x-direction over the total area is given by:
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝟏 𝒃
𝒙= = ∫ 𝒙 (𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏) 𝒅𝒙
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨 𝒂
For the y coordinate, we have 2 different ways we can go about it.

Method 1: We take moments about the y-axis and so we'll need to re-express the
expressions x2 and x1as functions of y.
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝟏 𝒅
𝒚= = ∫ 𝒙 (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙𝟏) 𝒅𝒚
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨 𝒄
Now, for the y coordinate, we need to find:

𝑥2 = 2 (𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚)

1
𝑥1 = 𝑦 3 (𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚)
𝑐 = 0, 𝑑 = 8.

1 𝑑
𝑦= ∫ 𝑦 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1) 𝑑𝑦
𝐴 𝑐

1 8
= ∫ 𝑦 (2 − 𝑦 1/3 ) 𝑑𝑦
4 0

1 8
= ∫ (2𝑦 − 𝑦 4/3 ) 𝑑𝑦
4 0
7 8
1 2 3𝑦 3
[𝑦 − ]
4 7
0

1 3 × 128
= [64 − ]
4 7
= 2.29
So the centroid for the shaded area is at (1.6, 2.29).
 3. Moments of Inertia by Integration
The moment of inertia is measure of the resistance of a rotating body to a change in motion. The
moment of inertia of a particle of mass m rotating about a particular point is given by:

Moment of inertia = md2

Where d is the radius of rotation.

Inertia for a Collection of Particles

If a group of particles with masses m1, m2, m3, ... , mn is rotating around a point with
distances d1, d2, d3, ...dn, (respectively) from the point, then the moment of inertia I is given by:

I = m1d12 + m2d22 + m3d32 +... + mndn2

If we wish to place all the masses at the one point (R units from the point of rotation) then

d1 = d2 = d3 = ... = dn = R and we can write:

I = (m1 + m2 + m3 ... + mn)R2
R is called the radius of gyration.

Moment of Inertia for Area

We want to find the moment of inertia, 𝐼𝑦 of the given area, which is rotating around the y-axis.

Each "typical" rectangle indicated has width dx and height 𝑦2 − 𝑦1, so its area is (𝑦2 − 𝑦1)𝑑𝑥.

If k is the mass per unit area, then each typical rectangle has mass 𝑘(𝑦2 − 𝑦1)𝑑𝑥.

The moment of inertia for each typical rectangle is [𝑘(𝑦2 − 𝑦1)𝑑𝑥] 𝑥2, since each rectangle
is x units from the y-axis.

We can add the moments of inertia for all the typical rectangles making up the area using
integration:
𝑏
𝐼𝑦 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑥 2 (𝑦2 − 𝑦1) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Using a similar process that we used for the collection of particles above, the radius of gyration Ry is
given by:
𝐼𝑦
𝑅𝑦 = √
𝑚
where m is the mass of the area.

b) The mass of the area, m.

Now m = kA, where A is the area.

1
𝐴 = ∫ (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥
0

1
𝑥3
= [𝑥 − ]
3 0
1
=1−
3
2
=
3
2𝑘
𝑆𝑜 𝑚 = 𝑘𝐴 = 3

c) The radius of gyration:

𝐼𝑦
𝑅𝑦 = √
𝑚
2𝑘/15
=√
2𝑘/3
1
=√
5
≈ 0.447
𝟐𝒌
This means that if a mass of 𝟑
was placed 0.447 units from the y-axis, this would have the same
moment of inertia as the original shape.

Rotation about the x-axis

For rotation about the x-axis, the moment of inertia formulae become:
𝑑
𝐼𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑦 2 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1) 𝑑𝑦
𝑐
And

√𝐼𝑥
𝑅𝑥 =
𝑚
4. Work by a Variable Force using Integration

The work (W) done by a constant force (F) acting on a body by moving it through a distance (d) is
given by

W=F×d

Example of work done by a constant force

An apple weighs about 1 𝑁. If you lift the apple 1 m above a table, you have done approximately 1
Newton meter (Nm) of work.

Work done by a Variable Force

If the force varies (e.g. compressing a spring) we need to use calculus to find the work done.

If the force is given by F(x) (a function of x) then the work done by the force along the x-axis
from a to b is:
𝑏
𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Hooke's Law for springs

The force (F) that it takes to stretch (or compress) a spring x units from its normal length is
proportional 𝑡𝑜 𝑥.

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
We can find the spring constant k from observing what force gives what stretch for each spring. This
spring constant is also called the stiffness of the spring.
Interactive Appplet

Example 1

(a) Find the work done on a spring when you compress it from its natural length of 1 m to a length
of0.75 m if the spring constant is k = 16 N/m.

𝐹 = 16𝑥

We start compressing the spring at its natural length (0 m) and finish at 0.25 m from the natural
length, so the lower limit of the integral is 0 and the upper limit is 0.25. So:

0.25
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = ∫ 16𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0

0.25
= [8𝑥 2 ]0

= 0.5 𝑁. 𝑚

(b) What is the work done in compressing the spring a further 30cm?

This time, we start pushing the spring at 0.25 m from the natural length and finish at 0.55 m from
the natural length, so the lower limit of the integral is 0.25 and the upper limit is 0.55.

0.55
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = ∫ 16𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0.25

= [8𝑥 2 ]0.55
0.25

= 1.92𝑁. 𝑚

Note: For a spring,

𝑏
∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Requires that 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 are the distance from the natural position of the spring.
5. Average Value of a Function by Integration
The average value of the function y = f(x) from x = a to x = b is given by:
𝑏
𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑦𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ∫
𝑎 𝑏 −𝑎
Why? When you see a formula like this for the first time, think about where it comes from and why it
should work.

Hint: How do we find the average of a set of numbers? What are we really doing each time we find an
integral? What does the integral symbol stand for?

Example

The temperature T (in °C) recorded during a day followed the curve

𝑇 = 0.001𝑡4 − 0.280𝑡2 + 25

Where t is the number of hours from noon (−12 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 12)

What was the average temperature during the day?

Answer

First, we consider the graph of the situation and estimate that the average should be around 14 to 16
degrees.

𝑏
𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑦𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ∫
𝑎 𝑏 −𝑎
12
∫−12(0.001𝑡4 − 0.28𝑡2 + 25) 𝑑𝑡
=
12 − (−12)
12
1 0.001𝑡5 0.28𝑡3
= [ − + 25𝑡]
24 5 3 −12
 12
2 0.001𝑡5 0.28𝑡3
= [ − + 25𝑡]
24 5 3 0

1
= [49.7664 − 161.28 + 300]
12
= 15.7 ∘ 𝐶

7. Force Due to Liquid Pressure by Integration

The force F on an area A at a depth y in a liquid of density w is given by

𝐹 = 𝑤𝑦𝐴

The force will increase if the density increases, or if the depth increases or if the area increases.

So if we have an unevenly shaped plate submerged vertically in a liquid, the force on it will increase
with depth. Also, if the shape of the plate changes as we go deeper, we have to allow for this.

So we have:

Now, the total force on the plate is given by

𝑏
𝐹 = 𝑤 ∫ 𝑥𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝑎

Where

𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑖𝑛 𝑚) 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑦)

𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ (𝑖𝑛 𝑚) 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑤 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑖𝑛 𝑁 𝑚 − 3)

(𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑤 = 9800 𝑁 𝑚 − 3)
𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚)

𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚)

8. Head Injury Criterion (HIC) part 1: Severity Index

In this section we'll see an example of the average value of a function. Our aim is to find the Head
Injury Criterion, a measure of damage to the head.

In the 1950s, cars were efficient killing machines. There were no such things as airbags, safety belts,
anti-lock braking, crumple zones or plastic knobs. Ralph Nader pressured car manufacturers in the
1960s and 1970s to produce safer cars - and it worked.

Normal Braking

Normal braking in a street car: 10 ms-2 (or about 1 g).

Normal braking in a racing car: 50 ms-2 (or about 5 g). This is due to aerodynamic styling and large
tyres with special rubber.

When we stop in a car, the deceleration can be either abrupt (as in a crash), as follows:

or more gentle, as in normal braking:

Either way, the area under the curve is the same, since the velocity we must lose is the same.
Crash Tests

Imagine a car travelling at 48.3 km/h (30 mph). Under normal braking, it will take 1.5 to 2 seconds
for the car to come to rest. But in a crash, the car stops in about 150 ms and the life threatening
deceleration peak lasts about 10 ms. Crash test experiments include the use of dummies, dead
bodies, animals and boxers!

Mercedes Benz Crash Test Data - Deceleration of the Head

The Mercedes Benz Company has been a world leader in car safety, and has conducted many crash
tests involving dummies, with the aim of reducing injuries for humans. Our head is like a pendulum
and so it's the most vulnerable part of our body in a crash. In cars without an airbag, the
deceleration is quite violent and lasts a very short time. The Head Injury Criterion (HIC) is very high in
such cases, indicating that the occupants' heads will be injured.

The A-3 ms Value

The A-3 ms value in the following graphs refers to the maximum deceleration that lasts for 3 ms.
(Any shorter duration has little effect on the brain.)

If an airbag is present, it will expand and reduce the deceleration forces. Notice that the peak forces
(in g) are much lower for the airbag case.
The blue rectangles in these deceleration graphs indicate the most critical part of the deceleration,
when the maximum force is exerted for a long duration. With an airbag, you are far more likely to
survive the crash. The airbag deploys in 25 ms.

Car design and crash outcomes

This photo was taken just after the car crash in 1997 that killed all occupants, including Princess
Diana. Notice how the front crumple zone of the Mercedes did its job while the cabin retained its
shape. Unfortunately, it was not enough to save her.

Crumple zones absorb impact forces, so that deceleration is reduced, an in turn, injury is reduced.

A model to describe head injuries

We aim to describe the risk of head injury in a crash by a number.

The two main approaches are the Severity Index and the Head Injury Criterion.

The Severity Index

The first model developed historically was the Severity Index (SI).

It was calculated using the formula:

𝑇
𝑆𝐼 = ∫ {𝑎(𝑡)}2.5 𝑑𝑡
0
Where

T is the duration of the deceleration during the crash; and

a(t) is the deceleration at time t.

The index 2.5 was chosen for the head and other indices were used for other parts of the body
(usually based on possibly gruesome experiments on human or animal bodies).

The Severity Index was found to be inadequate, so researchers developed the Head Injury Criterion.

10. Arc Length of a Curve using Integration

Example 1 - Corrugated iron sheeting

Corrugated iron roof.

Corrugated iron is used extensively throughout the world as a versatile building material. Bending
the material into a regular wave pattern gives it greater strength than if a flat sheet is used.

Another example of a light, thin and weak sheet that is made much stronger by having regular folds
is corrugated cardboard, used for protecting goods in transit.
 The flat sheet is rolled into corrugations, and will be narrower.

To make corrugated iron, you need to bend a wide flat sheet into waves. The resulting corrugated
sheet is then narrower, of course. The corrugations are commonly in the form of a sine curve.
We take a real example of a 4.2" Corrugated Metal Panel, which is a "high profile, wavy style
corrugated panel that can be used in almost any roofing, siding, or decorative application." [Source]

Corrugated metal, in the shape of a sine wave

This panel has a finished width of 106.7 cm, a period of 10.67 cm (distance from the top of each
wave to the top of the next), and has amplitude 1.35 cm (height from the mid-point of the wave to
the top of a crest).

How wide should the flat sheet be to give us a corrugated sheet of width 106.7 cm?

We then use Pythagoras' Theorem to find the length OA:

 𝑂𝐴 = √2.652 + 1.352 = 2.97

The distances AB, BC, CD are all equal, so we can say:

𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷 = 4 × 2.97 = 11.88

So we expect the curved distance OD to be around 12 cm.

Exact value

We'll use calculus to find the 'exact' value. But first, some background.

We zoom in near the centre of the segment OA and we see the curve is almost straight.

For this portion, the curve EF is getting quite close to the straight line segment EF.

For this zoomed-in section, we have:

𝑏
Curved length 𝐸𝐹 = 𝑟 ≈ ∫𝑎 √12 + 0.572 0.57 = 1.15

Of course, the real curved length is slightly more than 1.15.

Let's generalise this.

General Form of the Length of a Curve

If the horizontal distance is "dx" (or "a small change in x") and the vertical height of the triangle is
"dy" (or "a small change in y") then the length of the curved arc "dr" is approximated as:

𝑑𝑟 ≈ √𝑑𝑥2 + 𝑑𝑦2

Now, if we move point E very close to point F, we will have a very good approximation for the length
of the curve in that local region.
We need to add all those infinitesimally small lengths. We use integration, as it represents the sum
of such infinitely small distances. We have for the distance between where x=a to x=b:

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑟 = ∫ 𝑎𝑏√(𝑑𝑥)2 + (𝑑𝑦)2

By performing simple surd manipulation, we can express this in more familiar form as follows.

The arc length of the curve y = f(x) from x = a to x = b is given by:

𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑟 = ∫ 𝑎𝑏√1 + (𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦)2𝑑𝑥

Of course, we are assuming the function y=f(x) is continuous in the region x=a to x=b (otherwise, the
formula won't work).

The derivative of our function is

𝑑𝑦 640 𝑒 𝑥/1326 +𝑒 −𝑥/1326

= ( )
𝑑𝑥 663 2
Using the length of a curve formula, with start point x = -640 and end point x = 640, we have:
640
640 𝑒𝑥/1326 + 𝑒 − 𝑥/1326 2
∫∫ √1 + ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = 1326.956
−640 663 2

So the length of the central span of the main cable is 1327.0 m.

Of course, the cable continues on both sides of the towers. The total length of each cable is 2,332 m.