Safety Science 140 (2021) 105290

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Safety Science
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/safety

Battery hazards and safety: A scoping review for lead acid and
silver-zinc batteries
Spyros Schismenos a, b, 1, Michail Chalaris c, *, 2, Garry Stevens a, 1
a
School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Humanitarian and Development Research Initiative (HADRI), Western Sydney University, Sydney, Australia
b
UNESCO Chair on Conservation and Ecotourism of Riparian and Deltaic Ecosystems, International Hellenic University, Drama, Greece
c
Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences, International Hellenic University, Kavala, Greece

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Batteries play a critical role in our lives. However, depending on their chemical compositions and contents, they
Safety data sheet may turn into serious threats for both humans and the environment. Misuses and high temperatures during the
Battery fire operations may result in cell cracks and release hazardous liquids and gasses. In order to prevent fire ignition,
Technological fire
strict safety regulations in battery manufacturing, storage and recycling facilities should be followed. This
Safety regulation
Health impact
scoping review presents important safety, health and environmental information for lead acid and silver-zinc
Environmental impact batteries. Our focus is on the relative safety data sheets and research studies. All findings are explained in a
simple and clear manner. The goal of this paper is to identify risks and recommend solutions appropriately
designed for increasing battery fire awareness.

1. Introduction
Battery research is a field that advances rapidly due to current
technological innovations and industrial demands. There are several
battery types and sizes all around the world. The origin of the word is
French (baterie). It was first used by Benjamin Franklin in 1748, when
he tried to describe the multiple electrochemical cells that were con­
nected. The etymology is a military term and refers to a group of
weapons (cannons) operating together. Since they were first created,
batteries have changed in design and use. Even though they satisfy a
plethora of applications including handheld devices, gadgets, and other
tech-accessories, improvements are necessary for increasing capacity,
reliability and safety (Jones et al., 2017).
Regarding the safety, concerns seem to increase when batteries are
stored in one location (e.g. battery manufactories, storage facilities and
distributors). Faulty batteries or short circuits may ignite fires that can
turn into serious threats and affect personnel, fire crews, nearby com­
munities and local ecosystems. In order to avoid this from happening,
battery plants should follow specific safety protocols and be equipped
with fire safety equipment.
Despite the disasters that could generate from batteries, there is a
worldwide need for more battery manufactories. In 2017 alone, the
global market for consumer batteries exceeded US$ 55 with Europe and
China to be among the leading battery consumers. For the same year, the
global battery manufacturing capacity reached the 103 GW-hours. Ac­
cording to the manufacturers, this capacity is expected to be 278 GW-
hours by the end of 2021. For instance, Gigafactory 1 by Tesla Inc., that
is a lithium-ion battery factory located in Storey County, Nevada, USA
operates since 2016 and estimates to increase its annual production to
35 GW-hours by 2020. In addition, Tesla, Inc. has announced the crea­
tion of additional large energy storage factories (known as Giga­
factories) in order to increase the energy storage capacity production
within the next years (Deign, 2017; Hirtenstein, 2017). Table 1 presents
the largest battery manufacturers and their estimated capacity produc­
tion by 2020.
It should be noted that most manufacturers in Table 1 produce
lithium-ion batteries, lead-acid batteries (LAB) and silver-zinc batteries
(SZB).
This scoping review focuses on LAB and SZB. It investigates their
components, properties and generated risks. To our knowledge, there
has been no similar review study. Our motivation was the fire incident
that occurred at Sunlight Systems, a battery manufacturing plant in the
region of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace in Greece in 2018. Parts of the
facilities of the factory were greatly damaged, however, no major

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: S.Schismenos@westernsydney.edu.au (S. Schismenos), mchalaris@chem.ihu.gr (M. Chalaris), G.Stevens@westernsydney.edu.au (G. Stevens).
1
Address: Locked Bag 1797, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia.
2
Address: St Loukas, GR-654 04 Kavala, Greece.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105290
Received 1 October 2020; Received in revised form 8 February 2021; Accepted 2 April 2021
Available online 14 April 2021
0925-7535/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Schismenos et al. Safety Science 140 (2021) 105290

Table 1 2. Background
Battery gigafactories and capacity production (2016–2020).
Company Location Intention 2.1. Major fire incidents in battery manufacturing and recycling plants
Daimler (subsidiary Stuttgart, Increase the annual lithium-ion
Accumotive) Germany battery production from 80,000 Fire disasters in battery manufacturing and recycling plants can be
units to 320,000 extremely dangerous as they can cause both direct and indirect impacts.
Energy Absolute Bangkok, Build a new battery plant in Asia Table 2 summarizes major fire incidents that occurred in such facilities
Thailand so to achieve an annual from 2010 to 2018.
production capacity of 50 GW-
hours by 2020
As indicated in Table 2, battery fire incidents occurred in several
Boston Energy and Innovation, Multiple Build a new battery plant with an countries over the last years (Greece, USA, China, India, South Africa
Charge CCCV, C&D locations annual production capacity of and Canada). Most fire incidents were reported in the US (4), with China
Assembly, Primet Precision 15 GW-hours on IBM’s former and South Africa to follow (2 incidents per country). Most fires of known
Materials and Magnis Huron Campus manufacturing
causes were ignited due to short circuits. No major environmental im­
Resources site located in New York, USA
Boston Energy and Innovation, Multiple Build a new battery plant with an pacts were reported in any of the fires. In two cases (Sunlight Systems
Charge CCCV, C&D locations annual production capacity of and Inmetco) both evacuation and stay at home orders were placed,
Assembly, Magnis Resources 15 GW-hours in Queensland, whereas in Toxco, Gould and Quallion no such actions required. The
and Eastman Kodak Group Australia. known number of firefighters and response time in minutes varied per
Energy Renaissance Darwin, Build a new battery plant with an
Australia annual production capacity of 1
case. The burning materials in two cases (Sunlight Systems and Amara
GW-hour Raja Batteries Limited) could cause serious health and environmental
Tesla Multiple Build 4 new Gigafactories. concerns as they involved plastics, acids and other flammable materials.
locations Confirmed locations for the two Lastly, two facilities of Metair (both located in South Africa) were
of them (China and Europe)
entirely and half burnt.
Johnson Controls Wisconsin, Build two new plants of 13.5
USA million batteries annual capacity
production.
References: Deign, 2017; Hirtenstein, 2017 2.2. General overview of the Sunlight Systems battery types

The Sunlight Systems plant is located in north Greece. It produces

casualties or environmental impacts were reported due to the safety
conditions and fire crews response (Mandravelis, 2018). The following
parts of this paper are Background, Method, Results, Discussion,
Conclusion, and Limitations and Future Work.
LAB and SZB. Each battery type has specific characteristics, advantages
in use and considerations regarding the safety, health and environ­
mental concerns.
As detailed by Van den Bossche et al. (2006), the LAB is an electrical
battery that can be charged, discharged and recharge multiple times. It is

Table 2
Major fire incidents in battery manufacturing and recycling plants (2018–2010).
Year Name, Type of Facility Location Burning Materials Possible Cause Fire crew/ Environmental impacts and References
response time emergency response planning
(in minutes)

2018 Olympia Group - Sunlight Xanthi, Greece Plastics, acids and Short-circuit from 56/150 Minor environmental impacts. (Hasnat, 2018;
Systems, Battery other flammable battery charger An evacuation was ordered. Mandravelis,
Manufacturing Plant materials Some residents had to stay 2018)
indoors
2018 Quallion LLC, Battery Los Angeles, Lithium-ion N/A 99/65 Minor environmental impacts. (City News
Manufacturing Firm USA batteries No evacuation was ordered Service, 2018)
2017 Samsung SDI, Battery Tianjin, China Lithium-ion Discarded faulty 110/N/A N/A (Gibbs, 2017; Sin,
Manufacturing Facility battery wastes batteries 2017)
and deficient
units
2017 Amara Raja Batteries Andhra Plastics, acids and Electric short-circuit N/A N/A (The Hindu
Limited, Storage Battery Pradesh, India other flammable Businessline,
Manufacturing Company materials 2017)
2015 Inmetco, Battery Ellwood City, N/A N/A N/A Minor environmental impacts. (Ferral, 2015)
Recycling Plant USA An evacuation was ordered.
Some residents had to stay
indoors
2014 Metair - First National East London, Entire facility Short-circuit in one of N/A N/A (Cokayne, 2014)
Battery, Battery South Africa the batteries or a spark
Manufacturer and from a damaged
Distributor connecter line
2012 Inmetco, Battery Ellwood City, N/A N/A N/A N/A (Ferral, 2015)
Recycling Plant USA
2011 Metair - First National Benoni, South Half the facility N/A N/A N/A (Cokayne, 2014)
Battery, Battery Africa
Manufacturer and
Distributor
2011 N/A, Battery Factory Suixi, China N/A N/A Over 100/180 N/A (China Daily,
2011)
2011 Gould, Battery Plant West N/A N/A N/A Minor environmental impacts. (KTBS3, 2011)
Shreveport, No evacuation was ordered
USA
2010 Toxco, Lithium Battery Trail, Canada N/A N/A N/A Minor environmental impacts. (Cumberland
Recycling Facility No evacuation was ordered News Now, 2017)

2
S. Schismenos et al.
consisted of two lead-based plates that are chemically dissimilar (positive
and negative) and are placed in a dilute sulphuric acid solution. The
positive plate includes lead dioxide; whereas the negative pure lead in a
spongy form. This voltage value is universally accepted for all LAB.
During the discharging phase, an interaction occurs between the sulphite
ions in the electrolyte and the negative and positive plates. This condition
forms lead sulphate on both plates. During the recharging phase, the
electric current converts the plates back to their charged state and the
sulphate back to sulphuric acid. Hence, the specific gravity increases.
There are two main LAB types: sealed/valve regulated and flooded/
vented.
• Sealed lead acid: These batteries are sealed with a pressure release
valve which controls the escape of gas. In this type of battery, the
electrolyte is immobilized. Doing so, can prevent any possible
spillage and facilitate gas recombination within the battery. Usually,
this type has compact size and cannot be topped up which makes
them vulnerable to high temperatures as they may dry out.
• Vented lead acid: This group of batteries is “open” and allows gas to
escape without any positive pressure building up in the cells. This
type can be topped up, thus they present tolerance to high temper­
atures and over-charging. The free electrolyte is also responsible for
the facilitation of the battery’s cooling.
Besides, LAB, the advanced lead acid battery should also be
mentioned. This group includes batteries with high performance. They
were invented by achieving technological breakthroughs in the battery
research. It should be highlighted that the Advanced Lead Acid Battery
Consortium that was formed in 1992 has been a major sponsor of such
research activities. This battery type provides notable benefits in regard to
the cost, performance efficiency and type of use (hybrid electric vehicles,
submarines, military equipment, energy storage products, etc.) and they
can be competitive to nickel metal hydride or lithium-ion batteries. Their
innovation lies in the addition of specific types of carbon to the traditional
LAB. Doing so, results in a more efficient energy flow regulation (charge
and discharge) and extends both battery power and life (McKeon et al.,
2014; First Nation Battery, 2020; Gopher Resource, 2020).
The SZB is a disposable battery that is supplied as fully-charged and
is discarded after use. It is based on silver-oxide/-zinc chemistry and can
provide very high energy to weight performance. For that reason, SZB
are used in torpedoes, aircrafts and missiles of various types. They use
the potassium hydroxide solution, also known as caustic potash, that is
an inorganic compound (Schultz et al., 2000).
2.3. Understanding of safety data sheet
Fire risks in batteries come in many forms. The fact that a battery is
an energy storage unit is a risk alone. Other risks include the storage and
transport conditions, handling operations, existing conditions and uses
(Amon et al., 2012). The highest possibilities of fire risks are usually in
facilities where batteries are produced, collected and stored, or recycled
and disposed. The fire risk management in these spaces follows several
local and national (sometimes even regional) regulations, such as the
safety data sheet (SDS). An SDS is a catalogue that concludes important
information for occupational health and safety. The information in an
SDS is provided in 16 sections. Specifically, it includes sections that
describe the identification of product (product, manufacturer and sup­
pliers, physical addresses, emergency numbers, etc.), hazard(s) identi­
fication - based on the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and
Labeling of Chemicals (GHS) 3Composition and ingredient information,
3
The GHS has been developed by the United Nations as a non-binding treaty
for member countries. It is continually reviewed and updated by a United Na­
tions Sub-Committee. It is a framework that can be adopted into countries’
chemicals regulations by legislation.
3
Safety Science 140 (2021) 105290
first aid measures, firefighting measures, accidental release measures,
handling and storage, exposure controls/personal protection, physical/
chemical properties, stability and reactivity, toxicological information,
ecological information, disposal considerations, transportation infor­
mation, Regulatory information and any other relevant information
such as preparation information (responsible person/organization and
date) (VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing
Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017; Willey Ronald, 2012).
The SDS were first developed as a policy response to the ‘right-to-
know’ legislation in the USA and Canada, hazard classification regula­
tions in Europe, and hazardous substances regulations in Australia.
When the hazard communication model operates effectively it not only
provides information for disease prevention, diagnosis and manage­
ment, but also it enables a two-way flow of information, with clinicians
able to report back to workplaces and product manufacturers thereby
“closing the loop”. Accurate and accessible SDS can be used by both
management and workers for exposure reduction, and by clinicians for
recognition of work-related disease, exposure surveillance and notifi­
cation activity. The success of the hazard communication system de­
pends upon two factors, the quality of the information available
regarding hazardous substances and the effectiveness of communicating
this information to managers, workers, and health care providers.
At this point it should be noted that an SDS is primarily designed for
use by work personnel and fire crews. Therefore, SDS are often inex­
plicable to the general public. What is more, SDS formulations, sections
and labels vary and depend on the regulations of each region and
country. This condition may also confuse non-professionals.
3. Method
This scoping review is based on the framework of Arksey and
O’Malley (2005). Their method has been used in various disciplines and
fields (e.g. Pham et al., 2014; Wali et al., 2020).
3.1. Research questions
The primary goal of this scoping review is to collect and present
important findings regarding LAB and SZB. The following research
questions guided our review:
1. What information for both LAB and SZB is critical for safety, health
and environmental awareness?
2. What factors cause battery fire incidents, how can they be identified,
and how to increase awareness and safety?
3.2. Search string
Our search was based on the following string which was used for the
identification of relevant studies and reports:
(“safety data sheet” OR “battery fire” OR “fire”) AND (“lead acid” OR
“silver zinc”)
3.3. Identification of relevant articles
For this review, ScienceDirect, Taylor and Francis Journals, and
Emerald Insight were selected as the primary search engines. These
engines have a range of disciplines that are relevant to this study (e.g.
fire science, engineering, energy, occupational health and safety). The
following academic Journals were selected for our search due to their
relevance in the topic:
• Fire Safety Journal
• Journal of Chemical Health and Safety
• Journal of Energy Storage
• Journal of Hazardous Materials
• Procedia Engineering
S. Schismenos et al. Safety Science 140 (2021) 105290

Fig. 1. Visual representation of articles selection.

• Process Safety and Environmental Protection
• Safety and Health at Work
• Safety Science
In addition, ‘grey literature’ was also examined. This includes re­
ports, studies and other materials (i.e. SDS) published by private or
public entities. For this study, the following manufacturers were
searched due to their large share in battery market and global impact in
battery technology:
identified. The title and abstract screening resulted in 29 articles. The
full-text screening resulted in three articles (Winder et al., 2005; Liu
et al., 2013; Willey Ronald, 2012). The ‘grey literature’ search and its
full-text screening resulted in four articles (VARTA, 2010; Seiko In­
struments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Company, 2013; Batteries
Plus, 2017). One more article (Van der Kuijp et al., 2013) was added due
to its high relevant content with our research questions – this article was
found via the Google search engine using string keywords. In total, eight
articles were included. The process is visually explained in Fig. 1.

• VARTA Microbattery GmbH 3.6. Data analysis

• Seiko Instruments Inc.
• East Penn Manufacturing
• Batteries Plus
3.4. Inclusion and exclusion criteria
Only case reports, data articles/sheets, practice guidelines, product
reviews, review articles and research articles, available in English were
included in the search. All other article types and languages were
excluded. The selected search period was roughly between 2000 and
early 2021. This is because new LAB and SZB products have become
available since the beginning of the second millennia.
3.5. Selection of articles
As of 25 January 2021, a total of 4520 articles were retrieved from
the three databases. After Journal searching, 372 articles were
The summary of the inclusive articles is presented throughout the
Tables 3–16. Each Table accords with one major SDS section. The reason
for categorizing the Tables in this way is dual-purpose; to allow pro­
fessionals detect relevant information easily, and to familiarize non-
professionals with a general SDS structure. All information is simply
and clearly written in order to be understood by everyone.
4. Results
The scoping review led to four critical findings:
• The LAB and SZB differ in components and properties; therefore,
their hazard risks vary.
• The LAB can be extremely harmful to human health and the envi­
ronment, primarily due to its lead-based components. The SZB may
cause health impacts but is relatively safe for the environment.

Table 3
Physical data.
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries

Ingredients (Chemical/ Chemical Abstracts Service Contents Ingredients (Chemical/ Chemical Abstracts Service Contents
Common Names) Number (CAS No.) Common Names) Number (CAS No.)

Lead, inorganic (Lead and/or 7439–92-1 43–70% Silver oxide 20667–12-3 5–35%
Lead Oxide)
Electrolyte (Sulfuric acid and 7664–93-9 20–44% Manganese dioxide 1313–13-9 0–20%
Water)
Antimony 7440–36-0 0–4% Zinc 7440–66-6 5–10%
Arsenic 7440–38-2 <0.01% Potassium hydroxide 1310–58-3 0–3%
Polypropylene 9003–07-0 5–10% Sodium hydroxide 1310–73-2 0–2%
– – – Mercury (in zinc alloy) 7439–97-6 0,15–0,5% (<25
mg/cell)
– – – Lead 7439–92-1 20 – 60 mg/kg
– – – Cadmium 7440–43-9 < 5 mg/kg

Other ingredients
– – – Nickel plated steel N/A 27–70%
– – – Copper N/A 2–5%
– – – Polymers N/A 2–7%
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017

4
S. Schismenos et al. Safety Science 140 (2021) 105290

Table 4 Table 6
Physical/Chemical properties. Hazardous symbols, H statements and their explanation (GHS Classification).
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries
batteries
Routes and Methods of Entry Inhalation Inhalation
Appearance and Odor Industrial/commercial battery with Finished sealed Battery Electrolyte N/A
no apparent odor product (Sulfuric Acid):
Odor Threshold N/A N/A
Physical State • Sulfuric Acid: Liquid N/A • May cause severe
• Lead: solid respiratory irritation
pH: ~1–2 N/A Lead/Lead Compounds:
Boiling Point Electrolyte: 235-240◦ F (113-116◦ C) N/A
Melting Point N/A N/A • May cause irritation of
Freezing Point N/A N/A upper respiratory tract
Vapor Pressure Electrolyte: 10 mmHg N/A and lungs
Vapor Density (AIR = >1 N/A Skin Contact Skin Contact
1) Battery Electrolyte N/A
Specific Gravity (H2O Eletrolyte:1.2–1.3 N/A (Sulfuric Acid):
= 1)
Evaporation Rate < 1(n-BuAc = 1) N/A • May cause severe
Solubility in Water Electrolyte: 100% N/A irritation, burns and/or
Reactivity in Water N/A N/A ulceration
Flash Point Below room temperature (as N/A Lead/Lead Compounds:
hydrogen gas)
Auto-Ignition N/A N/A • It cannot be absorbed
Temperature through the skin
Lower Explosive Limit 4% (as hydrogen gas) N/A Arsenic Compounds:
(LEL)
Upper Explosive Limit 74% (as hydrogen gas) N/A • May cause dermatitis
(UEL) and skin
Partition Coefficient N/A N/A hyperpigmentation
Decomposition N/A N/A Eye Contact Eye Contact
Temperature Battery Electrolyte N/A
Viscosity (poise @ 25 ◦
N/A N/A (Sulfuric Acid):
C):
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing • May cause severe
Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017 irritation, burns, cornea
damage and/or
blindness
Lead/Lead Compound:
Table 5
Hazard identification. • May cause eye irritation
Ingestion Ingestion
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries
Battery Electrolyte
Health • Toxicity (acute) • Not hazardous in normal use (Sulfuric Acid): • The swallowing of
• Eye Damage • Possible electrolyte leakage in case this battery type
• Skin Corrosion/ of mistreatment or fault • May cause severe can be harmful
Sensitization • Rupture may be caused while irritation of mouth,
• Mutagenicity/ charging throat, esophagus, and
Carcinogenicity • The electrode materials are in stomach
• Reproductive/ general safe. However, if they are Lead/Lead Compounds:
Developmental released either by a mechanical
• Specific Target Organ damage or if the cell is exposed to • May cause abdominal
Toxicity fire, they can be hazardous pain, nausea, vomiting,
Environmental • Aquatic Toxicity Other Information: diarrhea and severe
(acute and chronic) • If the cell is swallowed, it may melt. cramping
Physical • Flammable gas This can cause stomach or intestine • May lead to systemic
• Explosive Chemical inflammation toxicity
• A fire ignition will not occur if the Signs and Symptoms Acute Effects/Target Acute Effects/
cell opens Organs Target Organs
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Battery Electrolyte
Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017; Willey Ronald, 2012; Van der Kuijp et al., (Sulfuric Acid): • No effects/target
2013 organs reported
• May cause severe skin
irritation, damage to
• Both battery types may cause hazards under extreme conditions or cornea, and upper
respiratory irritation
misuses. Due to the variety in materials and generated risks, specific
Lead/Lead Compounds:
occupational health and safety measures should be taken.
• The handling, storing, charging, disposing and transporting of both • May cause headache,
battery types should follow the manufacturer’s instructions. fatigue, abdominal pain,
loss of appetite,
muscular aches and
From the findings above, four primary themes can be distilled: weakness, sleep
disturbance and
i. Components, properties and hazard information irritability
Subchronic/Chronic
Effects
When physical data, as well as physical and chemical properties are
(continued on next page)
identified, there is a better understanding of specific components,

5
S. Schismenos et al.
Table 6 (continued )
CarcinogenicityInformation
Lead acid batteries
Battery Electrolyte
(Sulfuric Acid):
• May cause erosion of
tooth enamel,
inflammation of nose,
throat and bronchial
tubes
Overexposure to Battery
Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid):
• May cause lung damage
• May aggravate
pulmonary conditions
• May aggravate diseases
including eczema and
contact dermatitis if it
comes in contact with
skin
Lead/Lead Compounds:
• May cause anemia,
neuropathy (particularly
of the motor nerves),
wrist drop, kidney
damage, reproductive
changes (in both
genders)
• May lead to nervous
system toxicity
Overexposure to Lead/
Lead Compounds:
• May lead to central
nervous system damage,
encephalopathy and
blood-forming (hemato­
poietic) tissues damage
• May aggravate kidney,
liver and neurologic
diseases
Battery Electrolyte
(Sulfuric Acid):
• According to IARC,
sulfuric acid mist is
classified as a Category I
carcinogen; it is
carcinogenic to humans
• This classification does
not include the sulfuric
acid liquid forms and the
sulfuric acid solutions
that are contained
within this battery type
• The inorganic acid mist
(sulfuric acid mist) is not
generated under normal
conditions and use of
this battery type.
However, any misuse,
such as overcharging
may generate sulfuric
acid mist
Lead/Lead Compounds:
• Lead is classified as a
Group 2B carcinogen.
There is no proof
carcinogenicity in
humans (lacking data).
However, it is known
that it can be
carcinogenic to animals
at extreme doses
Arsenic Compounds:
• According to NTP, IARC,
OSHA and NIOSH
Safety Science 140 (2021) 105290
Table 6 (continued )
Silver-zinc batteries Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries
Subchronic/ arsenic is carcinogenic
Chronic Effects only after the exposure
is prolonged and at high
• No subchronic/ levels
chronic effects Precaution and General • This battery type • This is a finished
reported Heath Information contains heavy metals, sealed product.
such as lead. Heavy Under normal
metals can be taken into conditions the
the human body release of
primarily by inhalation ingredients is rare
and ingestion • In the case of
• Inhalation intake can be accidental
avoided if adequate ingredients
precautions are followed release, the
(e.g. space ventilation necessary
and respiratory measures and
protection) procedures should
• Personal hygiene is be followed
usually critical for (described in other
avoiding heavy metals’ chapters)
inhalation and ingestion
(e.g. washing hands and
face before leaving the
work site, eating or
smoking)
• Contaminated clothing,
including equipment
should be kept out of
non-contaminated areas
and remain at the work
site
• Food, drinks tobacco
and cosmetics should be
restricted from
contaminated areas
• This battery type must
be kept away from
children
Additional Information • According to the 19th N/A
Amendment to EC
Directive 67/548/EEC,
• This battery type lead compounds,
is not carcinogenic especially soluble forms
are classified as possible
toxic to reproduction
and unborn children.
This excludes lead in
metal form)
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing
Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017; Willey Ronald, 2012; Winder et al., 2005
chemical abstracts and content range. This information is important to
workers, end-users and fire crews as it familiarizes them with the bat­
teries, and the health, environmental and physical hazards they may
cause. In some battery products the hazard classification (under the
GHS) is presented with symbols (pictograms), signal words, hazard
statements, and precautionary statements. It is important to memorize
pictograms, H statements and their meanings.
ii. Health impacts and environmental concerns
It is necessary to be aware of the most important toxicological and
environmental information caused by LAB and SZB components. This
information is critical during battery fire incidents where smoke plumes
and fumes spread within the facilities and nearby locations.
iii. Occupational safety and health information
In general, both LAB and SZB are stable under normal conditions,
and they are considered safe if all safety and operation protocols are
followed. However, in case of an anomaly, incompatibility and extreme
6
S. Schismenos et al.
Table 7
Toxicological information.
Routes and Methods of Entry
Signs and Symptoms
CarcinogenicityInformation
Precaution and General Heath
Information
Safety Science 140 (2021) 105290
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries
Inhalation Inhalation
Battery Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid): N/A
• May cause severe respiratory irritation
Lead/Lead Compounds:
• May cause irritation of upper respiratory tract and lungs
Skin ContactBattery Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid): Skin Contact
N/A
• May cause severe irritation, burns and/or ulceration
Lead/Lead Compounds:
• It cannot be absorbed through the skin
Arsenic Compounds:
• May cause dermatitis and skin hyperpigmentation
Eye ContactBattery Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid): Eye Contact
N/A
• May cause severe irritation, burns, cornea damage and/or blindness
Lead/Lead Compound:
• May cause eye irritation
IngestionBattery Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid): Ingestion
• May cause severe irritation of mouth, throat, esophagus, and stomach • The swallowing of this battery type can be harmful
Lead/Lead Compounds:
• May cause abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and severe cramping
• May lead to systemic toxicity
Acute Effects/Target OrgansBattery Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid): Acute Effects/Target Organs
• May cause severe skin irritation, damage to cornea, and upper respiratory • No effects/target organs reported
irritation
Lead/Lead Compounds:
• May cause headache, fatigue, abdominal pain, loss of appetite, muscular aches
and weakness, sleep disturbance and irritability
Subchronic/Chronic EffectsBattery Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid): Subchronic/Chronic Effects
• May cause erosion of tooth enamel, inflammation of nose, throat and bronchial • No subchronic/chronic effects reported
tubes
Overexposure to Battery Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid):
• May cause lung damage
• May aggravate pulmonary conditions
• May aggravate diseases including eczema and contact dermatitis if it comes in
contact with skin
Lead/Lead Compounds:
• May cause anemia, neuropathy (particularly of the motor nerves), wrist drop,
kidney damage, reproductive changes (in both genders)
• May lead to nervous system toxicity
Overexposure to Lead/Lead Compounds:
• May lead to central nervous system damage, encephalopathy and blood-
forming (hematopoietic) tissues damage
• May aggravate kidney, liver and neurologic diseases
Battery Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid): • This battery type is not carcinogenic
• According to IARC, sulfuric acid mist is classified as a Category I carcinogen; it
is carcinogenic to humans
• This classification does not include the sulfuric acid liquid forms and the
sulfuric acid solutions that are contained within this battery type
• The inorganic acid mist (sulfuric acid mist) is not generated under normal
conditions and use of this battery type. However, any misuse, such as
overcharging may generate sulfuric acid mist
Lead/Lead Compounds:
• Lead is classified as a Group 2B carcinogen. There is no proof carcinogenicity in
humans (lacking data). However, it is known that it can be carcinogenic to
animals at extreme doses
Arsenic Compounds:
• According to NTP, IARC, OSHA and NIOSH arsenic is carcinogenic only after
the exposure is prolonged and at high levels
• This battery type contains heavy metals, such as lead. Heavy metals can be • This is a finished sealed product. Under normal
taken into the human body primarily by inhalation and ingestion conditions the release of ingredients is rare
(continued on next page)
7
S. Schismenos et al. Safety Science 140 (2021) 105290

Table 7 (continued )
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries

Additional Information
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017; Liu et al., 2013; Van der Kuijp et al., 2013
• Inhalation intake can be avoided if adequate precautions are followed (e.g. • In the case of accidental ingredients release, the
space ventilation and respiratory protection) necessary measures and procedures should be followed
• Personal hygiene is usually critical for avoiding heavy metals’ inhalation and (described in other chapters)
ingestion (e.g. washing hands and face before leaving the work site, eating or
smoking)
• Contaminated clothing, including equipment should be kept out of non-
contaminated areas and remain at the work site
• Food, drinks tobacco and cosmetics should be restricted from contaminated
areas
• This battery type must be kept away from children
• According to the 19th Amendment to EC Directive 67/548/EEC, lead N/A
compounds, especially soluble forms are classified as possible toxic to
reproduction and unborn children. This excludes lead in metal form)

Table 8
Ecological information.
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries

Persistence and Degradability
Bioaccumulative Potential
(including Mobility)
Aquatic Toxicity
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017
• Lead and lead compounds are persistent in soils • Primary Silver-Zinc oxide button cells do not contain mercury and lead, as well as
and sediments cadmium as defined by the European directive 2006/66/EC Article 21. Therefore, they
• No available data for biodegradation are not expected to present environmental hazards
• Low mobility of metallic lead between ecological
compartments • Some products may differ. Referring to the SDS for ingredient identification is highly
• Bioaccumulation of lead is possible in aquatic and recommended
terrestrial animals and plants
• Bioaccumulation of lead is rare through the food
chain
the above statements are based on studies that investigate
lead compounds, except solid inorganic lead
Battery Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid):
• 24 h LC50, fresh water fish (Brachydanio rerio): 82
mg/l
• 96 h Loec, fresh water fish (Cyprinus carpio): 22
mg/l (lowest observable effect concentration)
Lead/Lead Compounds:
• 48 h LC50 (modeled for aquatic invertebrates):
<1mg/L, based on lead bullion
Arsenic Compounds:
• 24 h LC50, freshwater fish (Carrassisus auratus)
greater than 5000 g/L
Notes:
- LC50: Lethal concentration required to kill 50% of
the population
- Loec: Lowest Observed Effect Concentration

conditions, the battery cells may crack and release hazard liquids and
gasses at the local level or worse, ignite a larger-scale fire incident.
Therefore, information regarding the stability and reactivity of the
batteries, personal protection, accident release, first aid, and firefighting
measures is required.
iv. Basic safety information for handling, storing, charging,
disposing and transporting
Training and information regarding the handling, storing and
charging, disposal, and transportation is important for new and per­
manent workers. This minimizes threats and reduces risks caused by
human-induced actions.
5. Discussion
The findings from this review can help improve our understanding
regarding LAB and SZB uses and risks. Importantly, they highlight the
value of SDS – an essential material containing information which is
often used in the evaluation and management of fire hazard risks in
industries (Jang et al., 2019; Willey Ronald, 2012). The familiarization
with battery components, chemical concentrations and content range
allows a more effective preparedness in health response. For instance,
the SZB have no direct impact on human health, unless ingested.
However, the LAB contain lead. This is a pervasive neurotoxin that
impacts the human body with serious neurological damages. It is lethal
and mimics calcium ions which allows it to access the central nerve
system, poison it and affect all the organs, including the kidney. The lead
is responsible for serious inflictions such as brain damage, encepha­
lopathy, nervous system disorders, mental retardation, psychological
and behavioral disorders and cell function deterioration until it is
completely eradicated (Sanders et al., 2009; Van der Kuijp et al., 2013).
Among the health issues caused indirectly (e.g. through lead smoke
plumes and fumes), the most concerning is perhaps the high blood lead
levels which are often above 100 μg/L in several sensitive groups
residing in urban areas (Van der Kuijp et al., 2013). This threat can be

8
S. Schismenos et al. Safety Science 140 (2021) 105290

Table 9
Stability and reactivity information.
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries

Stability Stable under normal conditions of use at ambient temperature Stable under normal conditions of use at
ambient temperature
Incompatibility (materials to Lead/Lead Compounds: • Strong oxidizing agents
avoid) • Strong acids, strong bases, halides, halogenates, nascent hydrogen, permanganate, peroxides,
potassium nitrate, and reducing agents
Battery Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid):
• Combustible and organic materials (may cause fire and explosion)
• Metals, strong reducing agents, strong oxidizers, sulfur trioxide gas, and water
Arsenic Compounds:
• Bromide azide, and strong oxidizers
Hazardous Decomposition Lead/Lead Compounds: N/A
Byproducts • Any temperatures above the melting point can produce toxic metal fumes, vapors, and dust

Hazardous Polymerization
Conditions to Avoid
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017
• Any contact with strong acids, strong bases and nascent hydrogen may result in the generation
of highly toxic arsine gas
Battery Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid):
• Carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, sulfuric acid mist, sulfur dioxide, and sulfur trioxide
This will not occur N/A
• Overcharging at high current • Overheating (temperatures greater than
• Placing the battery near ignition sources 70 ◦ C)
• Ingesting the battery
• Crushing the battery
• Disassembling the battery
• Recharging the battery
• Short circuit

fatal to fire crews and workers if they are unfamiliar with LAB compo­
nents and their impacts.
Even though efforts are made to minimize the use of lead in the cities
and products, health impacts continue to occur due to the spread of LAB
manufacturers around the world. For instance, China owns the largest
LAB industry with more than 30% in terms of the global production/
consumption (Chen et al., 2009). The lead is derived from both primary
sources such as mining and secondary (recycling, refining, etc.). Almost
80% of the global commerce lead goes to the production of LAB, 97% of
which is recycled and reprocessed in developing countries (Van der
Kuijp et al., 2013).
Regarding the environmental threats, besides confining any hazards
so to prevent them from reaching natural resources and human settle­
ments, attention should also be given to the resilience level of in­
frastructures for battery production and storage against the impacts of
climate change (Shakou et al., 2019). Weather extremes, such as

Table 10
Exposure controls/personal protection.
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries

Engineering Controls/ • Handling and storing activities must take place in well-ventilated areas • This is a finished sealed product. Under normal
Systems Design • In the case of mechanical ventilation, it is highly recommended for the components to be conditions the release of ingredients is rare
Information acid-resistant
• Cautious battery handling is highly recommended
• Secure vent caps on is highly recommended
• Avoid any physical contact with internal components if the battery is damaged. The use of
protective clothing, including face and eye and protection equipment is highly
recommended, especially during the when filling, charging, and handling processes
• Metallic articles must not contact the negative and positive terminals of the battery
simultaneously
• Battery charging in well-ventilated areas is highly recommended
Ventilation • The general dilution ventilation is recommended N/A
Respiratory Protection • Under normal handling conditions no additional respiratory protection is required N/A
• In the case where the concentrations of sulfuric acid mist are known to exceed Permissible
Exposure Limits (PELs), the use National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH)- and Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA)-approved respiratory
protection is highly recommended
Eye Protection • In the case of battery damage, the use of face and eye protection equipment is highly N/A
recommended
Skin Protection • In the case of battery damage, the use of acid-resistant clothing, apron and boots, as well as N/A
rubber/plastic acid-resistant gloves with elbow-length gauntlet is highly recommended
Other Protection • In the case where water and sulfuric acid solutions are handled in concentrations that N/A
exceed 1%, the use of emergency eyewash stations or showers is highly recommended
(these facilities must provide unlimited water supply)
• The use of chemically impervious apron and face protection equipment are highly
recommended during the process in which water or electrolyte is added to the battery
• Washing hands after battery handling is highly recommended
Additional Information This battery type is housed in polypropylene cases. Polypropylene cases are regulated as total N/A
dust or respirable dust only when they are ground up during the recycling processThe OSHA
PEL for total dust and respirable dust is 15 mg/m3 and 5 mg/m3, respectively. However, the
local regulations may differ.
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017

9
S. Schismenos et al. Safety Science 140 (2021) 105290

Table 11
Accidental release measures.
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries

Person related • Avoiding any skin contact is highly recommended • If large spills are detected the related safety personnel should be
Precautions • The neutralization of any spilled electrolyte can be achieved with informed immediately
neutralizing agents. Soda ash, sodium bicarbonate, and lime or very dilute • The use of appropriate clothing in order to avoid eye and skin
sodium hydroxide solutions are some of the recommended agents. contact, as well as any inhalation of vapors and fumes is highly
• Avoid using combustible materials recommended for the clean-up
• Acid-resistant clothing, including gloves, face and eye protection equipment • The affected area should be ventilated
is highly recommended • All the batteries that are not operational should be collected and
placed in appropriate disposal containers
Environment related • Spilled materials’ prevention from entering sewers and waterways is highly • Avoid any skin contact
Precautions recommended • Collect all the released materials in a plastic lined container.
• Disposal procedures should follow local and national regulations
• Prevent leached substances to get into soil and water resources
Spill Containment and • Neutralizers or absorbents should be added to spill the affected area(s). • If the battery is leaking, inform the safety personnel immediately
Clean-up Precautions • Spilled materials and used neutralizers/absorbents should be placed in • Cleaning the affected area with water or diluted acetic acid is highly
appropriate containers recommended
• Disposal procedures of non-recyclable material should follow the local and
national regulations
References: Varta, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017

wildfires and floods could affect infrastructures, and result in fire igni­
tion and fume development. In this case, the SDS is crucial to fire crews
as it provides readily available data and allows pragmatic exposure risk
evaluations before operating. In addition, the frequent maintenance and
surveillance of the facilities should also include the updating of safety
information. Such information could be disseminated to faculty workers,
fire crews and general public (e.g. end-users, local populations residing
near the facilities, visitors, etc.). This can increase public awareness and
create a “common culture” for occupational health and safety (Anyfantis
et al., 2018).
As to the handling, storing, charging, disposing and transporting
operations, the focus should be on the frequent inspection and mainte­
nance since the early detection of issues is critical and can reduce risks
(Verma et al., 2020). Safety training and good communication between
workers are equally essential (Verma et al., 2020; UK Health and Safety
Executive, 2006). Importantly, the training should not only focused on
new personnel but also permanent workers (Varianou-Mikellidou et al.,
2020). This is because, relative studies conclude that the work ability of

Table 12
First aid measures.
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries

After Eye Electrolyte/Lead: • Immediately flush eyes with water for 15 min or more. Lift both lower and upper eyelids
Contact • Immediately flush eyes with water for 15 min or more. Lift both occasionally
lower and upper eyelids occasionally • Seek medical attention
• Seek medical attention
After Skin Electrolyte: • A damaged battery may release concentrated potassium hydroxide, a compound that is
Contact • Immediately flush all the affected areas with water caustic (also known as caustic potash). Avoid any contact
• The use of deluge emergency shower is highly recommended (if • If the battery is leaking and the material contacts the skin, flush all the affected areas with
available) for 15 min or more water
• All the contaminated clothes, including shoes must be removed • All the contaminated clothes, including shoes must be removed immediately
immediately • Seek medical attention
• Contaminated clothes must be washed well before reusing. The
contaminated shoes should be discarded
• Seek medical attention
Lead:
• Immediately wash all the affected areas with water and soap.
• Seek medical attention
After Electrolyte: • If the battery is leaking, some of its contents may cause irritation to respiratory tracts.
Inhalation • Seek a location with fresh air immediately Seek a location with fresh air immediately
• If the affected person is not breathing, give artificial respiration • Seek medical attention
immediately
• If the breathing of the affected person is difficult, give oxygen
immediately
• Seek medical attention
Lead:
• Move to a safe location. Gargle and wash both nose and lips
immediately
• Seek medical attention
After Ingestion Electrolyte/Lead: • Give large amounts of water immediately
• In case of swallowing, give large amounts of water immediately. • Inducing vomiting is not advised
• Inducing vomiting is not advised as it may cause permanent • Giving ipecac is not advised
injuries, including death • Seek medical attention
• If the affected person is unconscious, avoid giving anything by
mouth.
• Seek medical attention.
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017

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S. Schismenos et al. Safety Science 140 (2021) 105290

Table 13
Firefighting measures.
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries

Extinguishing Media • Carbon dioxide, foam, and dry chemical type extinguishers are highly recommended • Water, carbon dioxide, foam, and any class of
(suitable/unsuitable) • Avoid direct use of carbon dioxide on cells extinguisher are highly recommended
• Avoid breathing vapors • Avoid placing the battery close to heat sources. It may
• Avoid using water on live electrical circuits ignite fire
• The use of appropriate media for surrounding fire is highly recommended • Avoid exposing the battery to high temperatures as it
may result in generating explosions and harmful gases
Special procedures and • The use positive pressure and self-contained breathing apparatus is highly • Full protective clothing, including self-contained
protective equipment recommended breathing apparatus is highly recommended
• During water applications, aware of acid splatter. Acid-resistant clothing, including
gloves, face and eye protection equipment is highly recommended
• If the battery is charging, shutting off the power to the charging equipment is highly
recommended
Unusual Fire and Explosion • Charging or any other operation of the battery may result in the generation of highly • Fire sources may cause a battery burst. This can release
Hazards flammable hydrogen gas. Avoid placing the battery near high temperature or fire hazardous decomposition products
sources
• Fire sources may cause explosion with casing fragments and corrosive liquid
electrolyte disperse
• Metallic articles must not contact the negative and positive terminals of the battery
simultaneously
• In regards to the installation and service, always follow the instructions of the
manufacturer(s)
Specific Hazards in case of • Thermal shocks can result in battery case cracks • Thermal decomposition can release hazardous fumes
Fire • If heated, the containers may explode
Additional Information Note that firefighting water runoff and dilution water can be toxic and corrosive. This N/A
may result in adverse environmental impacts
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017

Table 14
Handling, storing and charging.
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries

Handling • Avoid breaching the casing or emptying the contents of the battery
Precautions (during recycling operations, this should be done by specialized
personnel)
• Avoid tipping as it may result in electrolyte leakage. Electric shocks from
strings of connected batteries are possible to occur
• When not used, containers must be tightly closed
• In case of broken battery cases, avoiding any contact with the internal
components is highly recommended
• Keeping vent caps on and covering terminals can prevent short circuits
• Placing cardboards between the layers of stacked automotive batteries
can prevent damage and short circuits
• Avoid placing the battery near combustible materials, strong oxidizers,
organic chemicals, reducing substances, metals and water
• The use of banding or stretch wrap can secure items during the process of
shipping
Storage • Storing the battery in cool, dark, well-ventilated and dry area is highly
Precautions recommended
• Avoid placing the battery near combustible materials or activities that
may create flames, spark or heat
• In the case of electrolyte spills, storing on smooth and impervious
surfaces can increase liquid containment
• Avoid any metallic objects in order to avoid bridging the terminals of the
battery (short-circuit prevention)
• Ventilating the space where the battery is stored is highly recommended
Charging • The charging equipment, whether or not being used may cause electric
Precautions shocks
• The power to chargers when not used must be shut off
• When the battery is charging, flammable hydrogen gas is generating
• Ventilate the space where the battery is being charged
• Battery vent caps must be always kept in position
• Avoid smoking or any activity that may ignite flames and sparks nearby
• The use of protective clothing, including face and eyes face and eye
protection equipment is highly recommended when near batteries being
charged
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017
• Avoiding any mechanical or electrical abuse is highly recommended
• The battery can rupture or vent if it is (i) disassembled, (ii) crushed, (iii)
recharged, and (iv) exposed to high temperatures. Avoid short circuit and
incorrect installation
• Follow the instructions of the manufacturer(s) when installing a battery
• Pay attention to the battery warning information, as well as the manuals (if
available)
• The use of the recommended battery types is highly recommended
• Keep the battery away from children
• Avoid swallowing the battery
• Avoiding throwing the battery into the water or burying it in the soil.
• Avoid throwing the battery into fire
• Avoid attempting short-circuit the battery
• Storing the battery in cool, dark, well-ventilated and dry area is highly
recommended
• Avoid very low or very high temperatures
• Avoid sudden and large temperature changes. An approximate temperature of
20 ◦ C is highly recommended for battery storing
• If the temperature is high, this may reduce the electrical performance of the
battery
• Avoid storing unpacked batteries as it may cause short circuit or heat generation
For Large Amounts:
• Storing the batteries in the original packaging is highly recommended (short
circuit prevention)
• The installation of a fire alarm in the space where the batteries are stored is
highly recommended
• The installation of an automatic fire extinction where the batteries are stored is
highly recommended
N/A

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S. Schismenos et al. Safety Science 140 (2021) 105290

Table 15
Disposal considerations.
Lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries

Waste Disposal The end-user has the responsibility for the disposal process. Any disposal
In general, this battery type is classified as non-hazardous waste and it is safe for
Methods method must follow the local and national regulationsUsed batteries:disposal in the normal municipal waste streamHousehold Setting (US Federal):
• They should be sent to lead smelters for reclamation according to the
• After used, this battery type can be safely disposed as normal household waste
local and national regulations • The accumulation of large quantities is not recommended as it may cause short
• They are not regulated as hazardous waste when some specific circuit
requirements are met for their region (e.g. regulation 40 CFR Section
Non-Household Setting (US Federal):
266.80 – US Federal) • They are considered as non-hazardous waste according to Federal RCRA regu­
Battery Electrolyte (Sulfuric Acid): lation (40 CFR 261)
• Placing the neutralized slurry into sealed acid resistant containers is
Household/Non-Household Setting (EU):
highly recommended • Manufacturing, handling and disposal of batteries are subject to the regulations of
• Any large water diluted spills must be managed in accordance with thethe Directive 2006/66/Ec of the European Parliament and of the Council of 6
local and national regulations September 2006 on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and
accumulators and repealing Directive 91/157/EEC
• Importers and users outside EU must consider the national regulations
• In order to avoid short circuit and heating, used batteries of this type should never
be stored or transported in bulk
Additional Proper measures against short circuit: Proper measures against short circuit:
Information • Storage of batteries in original packaging • Storage of batteries in original packaging
• Coverage of the terminals • Coverage of the terminals
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017

Table 16
Transportation information.
Lead acid batteries/advanced lead acid batteries Silver-zinc batteries

Proper Shipping Name • Batteries, Wet, Filled with Acid • Batteries, Dry Cell
Ground Transportation • United States Department of Transportation (DOT)
Regulations Authorities • Accord Europeén Relatif au Transport International des Marchandises
Dangereuses par Route (ADR)
• Règlement concernant le transport international ferroviaire de
marchandises Dangereuses (RID)
Aircraft Transportation • International Civil Aviation Administration (ICAO)
Regulations Authorities • International Air Transport Association (IATA)
Vessel Transportation • International Maritime Organization (IMO)
Regulations Authorities • International Maritime Dangerous Goods Regulations (IMDG)
General Regulation DOT regulations and more specifically the 49 CFR 173.159 (e) specifies This battery type is often unregulated for transportation purposes.
Policies that when this battery type is transported by highway or rail is not subject However, there are specific regulatory provisions that apply and require
to any other requirements of this subchapter, if all of the following this battery to be packed properly in containers so to prevent damages by
conditions are met: high humidity, heat and short circuits.The IMDG that regulate them
under Special Provision 304 for ocean transportation clarifies that:
• No other hazardous materials are transported in the same vehicle “Batteries, dry, containing corrosive electrolyte which will not flow out of the
• The batteries are loaded or braced in such a way so to prevent damage battery if the battery case is cracked are not subject to the requirements of ADR
and short circuits in transit provided the batteries are securely packed and protected against short-
• The other material(s) loaded in the same vehicle must be blocked, circuits.”
braced, or secured to prevent contact with or damage to the batteries
• The transport vehicle must not carry material(s) shipped by any person
other than the shipper of the batteries
If these conditions are not met, the shipment follows the regulations of
Class 8 Corrosive Hazardous Materials
References: VARTA, 2010; Seiko Instruments, 2011; East Penn Manufacturing Company, 2013; Batteries Plus, 2017

longer-term workers could be decreased due to various factors such as
the physical and mental work and non-work-related conditions (Hol­
termann, et al., 2010), stress, lack of motivation and creativity (Gharibi
et al., 2016), ageing that results in problems with mobility, reflexes and
senses (e.g. visibility, and hearing) (Kowalski-Trakofler et al., 2005;
Monteiro et al., 2006) unsatisfaction of current work conditions, and
poor management and supervision (Varianou-Mikellidou et al., 2020).
Poor performance could lead to accidents; therefore appropriate
training and frequent communication should be prioritized.
6. Conclusion
Batteries have significantly improved the quality of human lives.
Consumer applications that require batteries will continue to increase in
the following years and battery technology will develop in more rapid
and aggressive ways. As a result, more attention is drawn to the issues of
battery safety, particularly the preparedness against fire incidents and
other hazards that are caused by batteries. It is important for battery-
related industries to apply comprehensive frameworks and systems
that can minimize or even prevent fire risks. From the perspective of
consumers and emergency responders, it is important to become more
self-aware of the risks associated with batteries being left in soil and
water resources, and batteries being misused or not maintained prop­
erly. By collecting and presenting importan information for LAB and
SZB, this paper aims to familiarize its readers with safety regulations, as
well as possible threats these battery types can cause to human health
and the environment.

12
S. Schismenos et al.
7. Limitations and future work
The available articles for the comparison of LAB and SZB generated
risks are limited. This justifies the need for substantial research in the
topic. Future studies could include other databases and SDS in order to
present more comprehensive data.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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