NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

Benefits of nuclear technology

Non-Military Purpose
1. Provides electricity to a nation without polluting its environment unlike electricity
produced from thermal sources like coal.
2. Source of huge employment for a nation.
3. It helps in boosting the economy of a nation and helps in achieving Sustainable
Development Goals.
4. Nuclear power is used for space exploration.
5. Used for providing potable water through desalination
6. Used in cancer treatment
7. Used for sterilizing medical equipment.
8. A country’s security needs are addressed using nuclear-powered submarines and
aircraft carriers.
9. Nuclear radiation is used in the treatment of food by killing bacteria, insects, and
parasites that cause illness.
10. Nuclear energy could play a major role in transportation by acting as a substitute for
fossil fuels.
11. Nuclear energy offers many advantages as the emissions-free workhorse of our
energy grid. Its unique value cannot be found in any other energy source.
12. Nuclear fights climate change. Nuclear energy provides large amounts of 24/7
carbon-free electricity now, which is irreplaceable in protecting the environment
13. Nuclear produces electricity reliably. Around-the-clock electricity is a must for our
nation to prosper in the 21st century. Clean, reliable nuclear energy is a critical part
of U.S. infrastructure because it runs nonstop for 18-24 months at a time.
14. Nuclear generates jobs. Nuclear energy provides more than 100,000 well-paid, long-
term jobs and supports local economies with millions of dollars in state and local tax
revenues.
15. Nuclear protects our air. Nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and
mercury: are all things you don’t want in the air, you breathe. Nuclear energy
provides power 24/7 without a trace of those pollutants.
16. Nuclear boosts international development. Nuclear energy helps developing nations
meet sustainable development goals.
17. Nuclear power electric vehicles. Electrified transportation promises to reduce carbon
emissions. Electric vehicles can reach their full potential when powered by carbon-
free nuclear energy.

Military purpose
1. Nuclear protects national security. U.S. leadership in nuclear energy maintains
safety and non-proliferation standards globally, supports a resilient electrical grid at
home, and fuels a strong navy.
2. Nuclear Research enables us to acquire nuclear weapons. Several defense experts
have pointed out the importance of ‘nuclear deterrence’ in the context of the Russia-
Ukraine conflict.
Nuclear technology in India
After thermal, hydroelectric, and renewable energy sources, nuclear power is India’s fourth-
largest source of electricity. With an installed capacity of 6780 MW as of 2016. India has 22
nuclear reactors running in 8 nuclear power plants.
Our long-term plan to reduce carbon emissions heavily relies on nuclear power. It is the
most suitable clean energy source to progressively replace coal. The lack of cheaper
storage options for solar and wind energy has led to more use of nuclear power. This is
necessary to both uphold economic expansion and fulfill the Paris Climate Agreement.
In the long run, India requires nuclear energy. We are running out of oil, gas, and even coal,
which is why imports account for more than 70% of the consumption of petroleum products,
40% of gas, and 20% of coal. From a long-term standpoint, renewable energy is
unavoidable, yet the nuclear option should still be kept as a backup.
The hydropower potential of India varies greatly from month to month. As little as 10% of
the power from run-off-the-river plants during the peak month may be produced during the
lean month.
Nuclear power contributes to energy security and system diversification. Nuclear plants are
economically appealing if we can install them quickly and under budget. Energy security is
crucial if India is to grow at a rate of 7% to 8% and nuclear energy plays a part in that .
Types of nuclear reactors
● PRESSURIZED WATER REACTORS (PWR):

High-pressure, high-temperature water is used in the PWR to transfer heat from the core to
a steam generator. The water-containing secondary loop, which is at lower pressure,
receives the heat from the primary loop there. A little below the pressure and temperature
needed to start boiling, the water in the secondary loop reaches the steam generator.
However, as a result of absorbing heat from the primary loop, it eventually gets saturated
and somewhat superheated. In a steam-turbine cycle, the steam so produced eventually
acts as the working fluid.
Pros:
1. Water that begins to bubble causes the reactor to cool down since the coolant
provides the moderator needed to keep the chain reaction going. The strong
negative void coefficient
2. Maintenance is simple since the secondary loop keeps radioactive materials from
turbines.
3. The designs and processes have mainly been optimized as a result of the extensive
operational experience that has been gathered.
Cons:
1. If a pipe breaks, pressurized coolant will quickly leak out, requiring several backup
cooling systems.
2. Cannot produce new fuel because of "uranium scarcity"

● BOILING WATER REACTORS (BWR):

A direct power cycle is a basis for a BWR's operation. At a level of intermediate pressure,
water that is traveling through the core is permitted to boil. The saturated steam is
conveyed via a sequence of separators and dryers inside the reactor vessel, which
encourage a superheated condition, as it leaves the core region. The steam turbine is
subsequently turned using the superheated water vapor as the working fluid.
Pros:
1. Cheaper due to simpler plumbing
2. By simply speeding up the jet pumps, providing less heated water, and using more
moderation, power levels may be boosted. Load-following is therefore
straightforward and uncomplicated.
3. The designs and processes have mainly been optimized as a result of the extensive
operational experience that has been gathered.
Cons:
1. Water in the system can be both liquid and gaseous, which opens the door to a
variety of strange transients and complicates safety analysis.
 2. Turbines and primary coolant are in direct contact, therefore radioactive material
might be applied to the turbine in the event of a fuel rod leak. Since the employees
must dress for radioactive settings, this makes maintenance more difficult.
3. Cannot produce new fuel because of "uranium scarcity"
4. performs poorly in station outage situations, such as the one in Fukushima.

● CANDU reactors:

Canada has concentrated its research and development efforts on reactors that use
cheap, abundant native natural uranium as fuel instead of having to rely on services for
enrichment that can only be obtained from foreign nations. The Canada Deuterium
Uranium (CANDU) reactor—a series of naturally uranium-fueled reactors moderated
and cooled by heavy water—is the outcome of this approach. A tank, or calandria
vessel, with a cold heavy water moderator at atmospheric pressure, makes up this type
of reactor.
Uranium that has not been enriched is used as fuel, while heavy water is used as a
coolant and neutron moderator. For example, in a pressurized water reactor, the heavy
water is held at a high pressure, which enables it to be heated to greater temperatures
without boiling.

Pros:
1. Very little uranium enrichment is necessary.
2. can be refueled while running, maintaining high-capacity factors (as long as the
gasoline handling equipment doesn't malfunction).
3. are incredibly adaptable and can run on any fuel.
cons:
1. Some variations have coolant temperature coefficients that are positive, raising
safety issues.
2. Deuterium absorbs neutrons and produces radioactive tritium, which frequently
escapes in minute amounts.
3. Theoretically, they could be upgraded to produce weapons-grade plutonium a
little bit more quickly than ordinary reactors.

● SODIUM COOLED FASTER REACTOR

These reactors are cooled by liquid sodium metal. Sodium is heavier than hydrogen, a fact
that leads to the neutrons moving around at higher speeds (hence fast). These can use
metal or oxide fuel and burn a wide variety of fuels.
Pros:
1. Can breed its fuel, effectively eliminating any concerns about uranium shortages
(see what is a fast reactor?)
2. Can burn its waste
 3. Metallic fuel and excellent thermal properties of sodium allow for passively safe
operation — the reactor will shut itself down safely without any backup systems
working (or people around), only relying on physics.
Cons:
1. Sodium coolant is reactive with air and water. Thus, leaks in the pipes resulting in
sodium fires. These can be engineered around but are a major setback for these
reactors.
2. To fully burn waste, these require reprocessing facilities which can also be used for
nuclear proliferation.
3. The excess neutrons used to give the reactor its resource-utilization capabilities
could clandestinely be used to make plutonium for weapons.

● FAST REACTORS

Fast reactors are a class of advanced nuclear reactors that have some key advantages
over traditional reactors in safety, sustainability, and waste. While traditional reactors
contain moderators to slow down neutrons after they’re emitted, fast reactors keep their
neutrons moving quickly (hence the name). Fast neutrons can unlock the energy in the
dominant isotope of uranium (U238) and thus extend known fuel resources by around 200x.
Your average thermal neutron moves around at about 2200 m/s while a fast neutron might
be cruising well above 9 million m/s, which is about 3% of the speed of light.
Pros:
1. Fast reactors get more neutrons out of their primary fuel than thermal reactors, so
many can be used to breed new fuel, vastly enhancing the sustainability of
nuclear power.
2. Fast reactors are capable of destroying the longest-lived nuclear waste, transforming
it to waste that decays to harmlessness in centuries rather than hundreds of
millennia.
3. Fast reactors typically use liquid metal coolants rather than water. These have
superior heat-transfer properties and allow natural circulation to remove the heat in
even severe accident scenarios. The result: if something goes very wrong at the
plant, and none of the operators are awake, AND none of the control rods work, the
reactor can just naturally shut itself down. This comes with a con (see cons).
4. Fast reactors can employ metallic fuel rather than oxides (thanks to chemical
compatibility with the liquid metal coolant). Since metal has very high thermal
conductivity, the reactor can shut itself down without surpassing temperature limits.
This enhances the safety of these reactors significantly.
Cons:
1. While fast reactors are up to 200x more resource efficient, they require 3x or more
fissile atoms to start up initially. This is the main reason why thermal reactors were
developed first.
2. Time scales in fast reactors are typically faster than those in thermal reactors (mostly
because there are fewer delayed neutrons in fast reactors). Thus they can go
through unpredicted changes faster than thermal reactors.
 3. Bubbles in fast reactor coolant can cause the reactor to heat up rather than cool
down, as in a traditional reactor. Higher heat makes more bubbles, which makes
more heat, and so on. This positive feedback is scary (but manageable, thanks to
overpowering negative feedback).
4. To keep the neutrons moving quickly, fast reactors require exotic coolants derived
from heavy atoms. The most common coolant is liquid sodium, which is well-known
but highly reactive with air and water. Another is liquid lead-bismuth eutectic, which
isn’t the most pleasant material either. These bizarre materials require extra care
and lower tolerance in many systems (such as piping), possibly bringing costs up.

India`s three-stage nuclear program

Homi Bhabha developed India's three-stage nuclear power program in the 1950s to ensure
the nation's long-term energy independence through the utilization of uranium and thorium
reserves discovered in the monazite sands of coastal regions in South India. The program's
main goal is to make it possible for India to use its thorium supplies to meet the nation's
energy needs.
Three-stage nuclear power program:
Stage 1- Pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR): 
In the initial phase, natural uranium was used to power PHWRs, which also produced
plutonium-239 as a byproduct. In the 1960s, India possessed the most effective reactor
design in terms of uranium utilization, hence PHWRs were chosen for the initial stage.
It was a prudent and logical choice to use Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors rather than
Light Water Reactors. Light Water Reactors needed enriched uranium, whereas
Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors used unenriched uranium.
In addition, in a contrast to LWRs, India could domestically make parts of PWHR.
Additionally, the second stage would make use of the byproduct plutonium-293.

Stage 2- Fast breeder reactor (FBR): 

In the second step, fuel for Fast Breeder Reactors would be created using plutonium-239.
Energy is created from the fission of plutonium 239 Thorium will be used in the reactor after
there is enough plutonium-239 to make uranium-233. The third stage depends on this
uranium.

Stage 3- Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR): 

Stage 3's primary goal is to create a sustainable nuclear fuel cycle. Uranium-233 and
Thorium would be combined to form an advanced nuclear system. India has a large amount
of thorium that would be used in a thermal breeder reactor.
Thorium utilization was postponed until the very end because, despite its high availability, it
has been fraught with difficulties in the creation of energy. It can't be used straight up.
Thorium absorbs the neutrons, allowing the Fast Breeder Reactor to create more Plutonium
more quickly and more efficiently.
Thus, the ultimate goal of the aforementioned initiative is to equip India with the ability to
utilize thorium for the generation of sustainable nuclear energy.

Challenges in 3-stage programs:

1. Safety and waste management are nuclear technology's two biggest challenges.
Chornobyl and Fukushima Daichi are grave causes for concern. Catastrophic incidents are
less likely if nuclear energy is produced by the greatest safety requirements.
2. Fissile material accessibility is another worry. Nuclear fuel is hard to come by and
requires diplomatic efforts.
3. Another significant issue in the nation is the decision on the location of nuclear power
plants (NPP) and the acquisition of land. NPPs like Kudankulam in Tamil Nadu have had
numerous delays as a result of difficulties with land acquisition.
4. The supply of nuclear weapons is severely constrained by sanctions against India
because it is not a member of the NPT or NSG. After the waiver in 2009 and bilateral
nuclear energy agreements with many nations, the situation has changed.
5. India also needed to increase its capacity for reprocessing and enrichment. India needs
cutting-edge technology for this to properly utilize the spent fuel and increase its enrichment
capability.
6. Maintenance of the skill base and ongoing, efficient safety control is required to assure
the safety and security of using nuclear power. Consideration must be made to advancing
waste management and disposal infrastructure. Maintaining and strengthening international
non-proliferation agreements is also crucial.
NPT (NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION TREATY)
THE TREATY ON NUCLEAR PROLIFERATION
The NPT is a multinational agreement with three components that aims to stop the spread
of nuclear weapons: non-proliferation, disarmament, and peaceful nuclear energy. Between
the five nuclear weapon nations and the non-nuclear weapon states, these components
make up the "great bargain."
The NPT has the following implications:
1. States without nuclear weapons won't acquire them.
2. Nuclear-armed states will work toward disarmament.
3. Under safeguards, all states can access nuclear technology for peaceful purposes
Important clauses:
• According to the Treaty, nuclear weapon states (NWS) are those that had produced and
exploded a nuclear explosive device before January 1, 1967. Therefore, all other countries
are regarded as non-nuclear weapon states (NNWS).
• The Treaty does not impair the right of state parties to develop, generate, and use nuclear
energy for peaceful reasons. • The five nuclear weapon states are China, France, Russia,
the United Kingdom, and the United States.
States' functions:

● Nuclear weapon states are forbidden from giving away any nuclear weapons to
anyone and must not help NNWS manufacture or otherwise get nuclear weapons.
● Non-nuclear weapon states are not allowed to produce or obtain nuclear weapons or
receive them from any transferor.
● NNWS is required to consent to IAEA safeguards being applied to all nuclear
materials on their soil or in their possession.
Indian Position on the NPT:

● India is one of only five nations that either did not sign the NPT or signed it but later
withdrew, joining the likes of Pakistan, Israel, North Korea, and South Sudan on this
list.
● India has consistently refused to sign the NPT because it views it as discriminatory.

● Since the international agreements aimed at preventing nuclear proliferation only

applied to certain non-nuclear nations and legitimized the five nuclear-armed states'
monopolies, India has resisted them.

IAEA
Set up as the world’s “Atoms for Peace” organization in 1957 within the United Nations
family.
Reports to both the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council. Headquarters
in Vienna, Austria.
Functions:
● Works with its Member States and multiple partners worldwide to promote the safe,
secure, and peaceful use of nuclear technologies.
● Seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any
military purpose, including nuclear weapons.
● Board of Governors:22 member states (must represent a stipulated geographic
diversity) — elected by the General Conference (11 members every year) – 2 year
term.
● At least 10 member states — nominated by the outgoing Board. Board members
each receive one vote.

Functions:
● Recommendations to the General Conference on IAEA activities and budget.

● Responsible for publishing IAEA standards.

● Responsible for making most of the policy of the IAEA.

● Appoints the Director General subject to General Conference approval.

Programs:
● Program of Action for Cancer Therapy (PACT).

● Human Health Program.

● Water Availability Enhancement Project.

● International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles, 2000.

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