BIOMOLECULES

MACROMOLECULES  Glucose
All living things are made up of four - If rich in starch, it is also rich in
classes of large biological molecules: glucose.
 Carbohydrates - Glucose is the most utilized
 Lipids monosaccharides in cells.
 Proteins
 Nucleic acids  Fructose
- Present in sugar.
Why only living things? Sugar is sucrose. Sucrose
 Living things are the only ones who is a disaccharide.
can manufacture or synthesize Combination of glucose
biological molecules or and fructose.
macromolecules. For what is table sugar
(sucrose)?
Why is it called macromolecules? To make our food sweet.
2 things to consider:
 Its size. It is smaller than a water  Galactose
molecule (which is not a biological - Present in milk.
molecule). You need microscope - Only produced by mammals.
to see the biological molecules. - Milk can contain
 Its content on our body. carbohydrates.
Macromolecules is second to the
water which holds the most Proteins
abundant compound in our body. Monomer: Amino Acids (Ex: Leucine)

MONOMER VS. POLYMER Lipids

Monomer: Fatty acids + glycerol
MONOMER
(monomer of triglyceride)
 The building blocks.
To form the polymer triglyceride,
 Monomers can be combined
we need 1 glycerol and 3 fatty
together to form larger molecule
acids.
called a polymer.
Monomer: Phosphate head + lipid tails
 Without monomer, we can’t come
(monomer of phospholipid)
up with a polymer.
Ex: Amino acids are
Nucleic Acids
monomers of polypeptides
Monomers: Nucleotide
(protein).
5 types of Nucleotide: Guanine,
Thymine (for polymer DNA),
Adenosine, Uracil (for polymer
RNA), Cytosine
If a nucleic acid contains thymine,
then its polymer is DNA.
If a nucleic acid contains uracil,
then its polymer is RNA.

POLYMER
 A long molecule consisting of
many similar building blocks.
 Composed of sub-units or smaller
substances or materials.
 In proteins, palakihan.
Carbohydrates  In lipids, carbo, and nucleic acid,
Monomers: Monosaccharide (Glucose, pahabaan.
Fructose, Galactose)
  Most common polysaccharide is
starch.
Starch is the polymer of
glucose.
Ex: DNA (protein help dna
with its stability while
undergoing cellular
division), Starch, Glycogen,
Cellulose
 First level polymer (Disaccharide):
2 monosaccharides
 Second level polymer
(Oligosaccharides): Composed of
3-10 monosaccharides.
 Third level (Polysaccharides): 10
or more monosaccharides
Carbohydrates
Polymer: Polysaccharide (Starch,
Glycogen, Cellulose)
Proteins
Polymer:
 Lower level: Peptide Chain
 Higher level: Proteins (combination
of amino acids)
Lipids
Polymer: Triglyceride (most commonly
known as fats and oils)
Polymer: Phospholipid (no glycerol)
Nucleic Acids
Polymer: DNA and RNA
CREATING AND BREAKING
DOWN POLYMERS
Dehydration/Condensation Reaction
 Two monomers bond together
through the loss of a water
molecule.
 The dehydration reaction produces
Maltose from two Glucose
Molecules.
 Process of creating polymers
with loss of water.
 When we combine 2 monomers, 1
water molecule is lost.
Hydrolysis
 Hydrolysis turns a peptide chain
into amino acids.
 Two bonded monomers (polymer)
split apart using a water molecule
 Breaking down of polymers to
become monomer.
 “Hydro” – water, “Lysis” – destroy
Ex: Demolish bahay,
hydrolysis. Construct new
house, dehydration
reaction.
Hydrolysis:
 Combine 3 monomers = 2 water
molecules produced
 Combine 10 monomers = 9 water
molecules produced
CARBOHYDRATES
MONOSACCHARIDES
 Simplest carbohydrate monomers.
 Monosaccharides have molecular
formulas that are usually multiples
of CH20.
Glucose (C6H12O6) is the
most common
monosaccharide.
 Chemical formula of
monosaccharides follows this
order: In every 1 carbon atom,
there are 2 hydrogen atoms and a
single oxygen atom.
 Other monosaccharides:
Fructose (C6H12O6) and
Galactose (C6H12O6), they differ in
the arrangement of chemical
structure.
 Common carbohydrate monomers:
(pentose sugar – monomers with 5
carbon)
Fructose – Fruit sugar
(derived from plants)
Galactose – Milk sugar
(derived from mammals, bc
only mammals can produce
milk)
 Ribose – Component of
RNA (called pentose sugar,
pentose sugar ribose)
Deoxyribose – Component
of DNA (called pentose
sugar, pentose sugar
deoxyribose)
**If a chemical ends in ose, it is a
carbohydrate.
DISACCHARIDE
 Two monosaccharides bond
together using a dehydration
reaction to create a disaccharide.
 Chemical formula: C12H22O11
 Why C12H22O11 and not C12H24O12?
Because of dehydration reaction,
we removed water (H2O).
 Available disaccharide in nature:
Sucrose
- Glucose + Fructose
- Found in sweet
carbohydrate foods (ex.
chocolates, donut, cake)
Maltose
- Glucose + Glucose
Lactose
- Glucose + Galactose
- Why is there no disaccharide
made out of fructose and
galactose?
Because fructose is made from
plants and galactose is from
mammals and there’s no
organism that is both a plant
and a mammal.
In laboratory, possible to
create. In nature, no.
 If there’s starch, it can be
converted into maltose.
POLYSACCHARIDES
 More complex carbohydrate
polymers.
 Long chains of single sugars.
 Some important polysaccharides
include: (present in environment)
Starch (aka amylose)
Glycogen
Cellulose (found in plant
cell walls, the ‘fiber’ that
you can see in food labels)
Chitin
2 Categories of
Polysaccharides:
1. Storage
Polysaccharides
(consists of starch and
glycogen)
2. Structural
Polysaccharides
(consists of cellulose
and chitin)
 Starch
- The storage polysaccharide in
plants.
Ex: rice, pasta, bread,
noodles
- When chemically digested, it
transforms into its simple form:
glucose
- The most common
polysaccharide that we take in.
 Glycogen
- The storage polysaccharide in
animals.
- When digested, it transforms
into glucose.
- What happens to glucose in
our body if we digest many
foods high in starch in a small
amount of time? How do we
convert glucose to glycogen?
Not all glucose is utilized
immediately, some are
used by cells but most of it
stays in our bloodstream.
So, our pancreas will start
to produce hormone insulin
and the insulin will tell the
skeletal muscles and liver
to convert the glucose in
the bloodstream into
glycogen for storage.
Glycogen will be stored in
our liver and skeletal
muscles.
 Cellulose
- The structural polysaccharide
found in plant cell walls.
Ex: When u eat malunggay
or corn, it stays as
 malunggay/corn when you
desiccate. Why?
Because our body doesn’t
have the enzyme to break
down cellulose.
We cannot digest it, but it
forms the dietary fiber who
acts as a cleaning agent
(ie, when we eat
malunggay, as it passes
through our digestive track,
it is carrying with it
unwanted materials)
 Chitin
- The structural polysaccharide
found in the cell walls of fungi.
LIPIDS
Ex: Oils, Fats, Phospholipids, & Steroids
TRIGLYCERIDES (Fats and Oils):
 Two major components:
Glycerol
3 Fatty Acids
 The major function of fats is energy
storage and providing energy
(same as carbohydrates).
 1tsp carbohydrates vs. 1tsp lipids,
which has more energy to provide?
1tsp lipids.
 If lipids are stored in our body for a
long period of time, it can cause
danger like highblood pressure,
hypertension, stroke,
atherosclerosis.
Chemical Structure:
2 main parts:
 Glycerol head (violet)
 Fatty acid tails (green)
*Triglycerides have 3 tails while
phospholipids have 2 tails.
FATTY ACID TAILS:
2 categories:
1. Saturated fatty acids
- Have maximum number of
hydrogen atoms possible and
no double bonds.
- Solid in room temperature.
- Why is it solid at room temp?
Because it is easier to
compress because the
structure is just a straight line.
Ex: fats from animals
(parang sa lechon),
papaitan
2. Unsaturated fatty acids
- Have one or more double
bonds.
- Liquid in room temperature.
- Why liquid at room temp?
Because it’s harder to
compress because of the
double bond which causes a
zigzag pattern in the structure.
Ex: Oils from plants
(vegetable oil, corn oil, olive
oil)
Which is safer? Saturated or unsaturated?
It is safer to consume unsaturated fats
because it’s already liquid, therefore hard
to store as compared to saturated which
will enter us in solid form, it leads to a
higher chance in blockage in our
bloodstream and other body parts.
PHOSPHOLIPIDS
 Major component of all cell
membrane.
 Hydrophobic – formed with two
fatty acid tails
 Hydrophilic head – formed with
phosphate, glycerol, and choline
STEROIDS lipid-based protein like sex
 Lipids that are characterized by a hormones.
carbon skeleton consisting of four  Transport
fused rings. Ex: hemoglobin, it carries
Ex: Cholesterol - Important oxygen from the lungs and
steroid and component in then brings it to the
all animal cell membranes. different parts of the body
Ex: Sex hormones  Assisting in chemical reactions
Facilitates various chemical
PROTEINS reactions specially in digestion.
Proteins are polymers made up of Amino Ex: Enzymes – special
Acids. proteins that assist in
There are 20 different amino acids: chemical reactions. Each
11 Non-Essential Amino Acids enzyme has one specific
(amino acids that we our body can job and can carry out that
manufacture) job over and over again.
9 Essential Amino Acids (amino
acids that we cannot produce) Can protein provide energy?
 Histidine Yes, but it’s not a priority because it has
 Isoleucine many functions and there’s a
 Leucine carbohydrates and lipids for that task.
 Lysine
 Methionine NUCLEIC ACIDS
 Phenylalanine  Molecules that code for genetic
 Threonine information of organisms.
 Tryptophan  DNA and RNA are polymers made
 Valine up of monomer called nucleotides.

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION
2 Major Processes Involved in Energy
Utilization:
1. Cellular Respiration
2. Photosynthesis

In cellular respiration and photosynthesis,

energy is either stored or broken
Different proteins have specific functions down/released from what we are eating.
including:
 Structure CELLULAR RESPIRATION
Ex: keratin and collagen, found on  Breaking process (glucose is
the skin and they function for broken down so that energy will be
structure released).
 Movement  Chemical Formula:
Ex: muscles Glucose (C6H12O6) + 6 Oxygen
 Defense (O2) >> 6Carbon Dioxide (CO2) +
Ex: idk kasi nacut audio pero alle 6 H2O + Energy
sa iba hinde so ask ko nalang
 Storage
Ex: milk has carbohydrates and
proteins and one example of a
protein in milk is casein
 Communication
Ex: hormones, but not all
hormones are proteins. Some are
*Left side: Reactants 3 Sub Processes in Cellular Respiration
*Right side: Products 1. Glycolysis
*Main product: Energy 2. Kreb Cycle
*Byproducts: Carbon dioxide and water 3. Electron Transportation
Reactants: 1 glucose molecule + 6
oxygen molecules Why is glycolysis different from the other
Why is it called molecule and not an two?
atom? 1. Glycolysis does not take place in
1. The oxygen that we inhale from the the mitochondrion.
atmosphere is composed of 2 2. Glycolysis does not require
atoms of oxygen. oxygen.
2. Called molecule because it is
covalently bonded. GLYCOLYSIS

Products: 6 carbon dioxide molecules, 6

water molecules, energy

 Oxygen in cellular respiration is

utilized to break down glucose.
 Glucose contains energy. Energy
is found between the bonds of the
molecules.
 Glycolysis is also known as
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) breaking down of glucose.
 Takes place in the cytoplasm.
 Aside from glucose, we also need
2 ATPs.
 During glycolysis, glucose is
broken down to 2 Pyruvic Acids or
Pyruvate.
 A product of 4 ATPs, but we will
only count 2 net ATPs because we
used 2 ATPs a while back.
*ATP is a biomolecules, nucleic acids.
 A product of 2 NADH molecules.
*ATP is always in the form of a monomer.
NADH – co enzyme and carrier of
electrons.
 After the energy is released, the
 3 carbon for 1 pyruvic acid.
energy will be temporarily restored
 Total: 2 ATPs, 2 NADH
in the ATP.
 ATP will carry the energy where it
is needed.
 Energy is stored in between the
first phosphate from the left and
the second phosphate. The
strongest bond is located in there.
The stronger the bond, the greater
the energy.
 After the ATP releases the energy,
it is now called ADP (Adenosine *If 02 is present = Kreb Cycle & Electron
Diphosphate). Transport Chain
*If 02 is not present = Fermentation
In perfect scenario, 1 glucose molecule =
38 ATPs
A. Fermentation B. Kreb Cycle

 Takes place if pyruvate is building  Also called as citric acid cycle.

up faster than it can be
metabolized due to the not
sufficient amount of oxygen.
 This process is also done by
anaerobic bacteria to produce
energy.
 The pyruvate will be converted into
2 ATPs and 2 Lactic Acid.
When bacteria and fungi
undergo fermentation, they
produce ethanol.
 When lactic acid builds up, it
makes our muscles sore and we
experience cramps.
 Total: 2 ATPs, 2 Lactic Acid
 2 Acetyl CoA and Oxaloacetic Acid
is available in the mitochondrion.
 2 Acetyl CoA and Oxaloacetic Acid
will form a larger compound, 2
Citric Acid.
 1 citric acid, 6 carbon dioxide.
 The carbons came from
oxaloacetic acid.
 Will undergo oxidation again.

B. Pre-Kreb Cycle

 In oxidation, it will release 4 carbon

dioxide molecules. 2 from each
citric acid.
 In oxidation, you will also produce
oxaloacetic acid.
 Main products: 6 NADH (carrier of
electrons), 2 FADH2 (also a
coenzyme, carrier of electrons)
 The pyruvic acid is oxidated.
 Happens in the mitochondrion,
Total (from glycolysis): 10 NADH, 4 ATPs
inside the inner membrane.
 Oxidation: breaking process.
Electron Transport Chain
 Pyruvic acid will now become 2
Acetyl Coenzyme A or Acetyl CoA
 The 2 carbon dioxide are attached
to the oxygen that was involved in
the oxidation process producing 2
carbon dioxides.
 Other products are 2 ATPs and 2
NADH
 Total: 2 ATPs, 2 NADH
 The real ATP maker.
 Takes place in the inner
membrane of mitochondria.
 Utilizes oxygen.
 The 10 NADH and 2 FADH2 will
now release their electrons. They
will transfer it to an electron carrier
found inside the membrane
(proteins).
 Electrons – negatively charged.
 Electrons lumabas pero hanggang
membrane lang, protons lumabas
talaga sa membrane.
 The electrons are trapped in the
electron carriers at pagpapasahan
ng electron carriers.
 When it reached the last electron
carrier, it will bring it back inside
the inner membrane of the
mitochondrion.
 Sa loob may receptor oxygen tas
icoconvert ng electrons ang
oxygen into water molecules.
Produce 6 water molecules (H20).
 The protons will cause an
accumulation outside and an
imbalance so the mitochondria will
bring the protons back inside. It will
go back thru ATP synthase
(channel).
 As protons move inside, ATP is
generated. Will produce 34 ATPs.
 The problem can arise in electron
transport chain.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Organisms with chloroplasts are
organism that can perform
photosynthesis. (ie, plants, algae)
Photosynthesis: a storing
process
Cellular respiration: a
releasing process.
 Prokaryotic organisms: perform
thru their specialized membrane or
cell membrane. (bc no organelles)
 Photosynthesis: It is the process
by which photosynthetic organisms
(like plants) capture light and use it
to convert water and carbon
dioxide into glucose and oxygen.
 It is a storing process of energy in
the form of glucose (a biomolecule;
chemical)
 During this process, light from the
sun (solar energy) is converted into
chemical energy in the form of
glucose.
 Light: main source of energy for all
living organisms
Photosynthetic organisms:
plants, cyanobacteria,
algae
Photosynthesis Formula
 Get carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
 Main product: Sugar
 Byproduct: Oxygen
 Photosynthesis is a reverse
process of cellular respiration. The
products of photosynthesis are the
reactants of cellular respiration.

*In chemical formula
 Since chemistry is the study of
matter and light is still not
considered as matter, light is not
included in the reactants but is still
involved in the process.
How does Photosynthesis work?
 Plants have light capturing
molecules, called pigments that
help them do this.
 Humans also have pigments but its
purpose is not photosynthesizing.
Ex: melanin in skin.
 One pigment that plants use for
photosynthesis is called chlorophyll
that is found in the chloroplast of
plant cells, which is not present in
animal cells.
 Chlorophyll is good at absorbing
red and blue light, but not so much
green light, which they reflect. This
is why many plants appear to be
green to our eyes.
 Based on that, Green light is the
most useless light in
photosynthesis, while red and blue
lights are the most utilized.
 Aside from chlorophyll, there are
more pigments like carotenes
(orange), anthocyanins (between
indigo and violet), and xanthophylls
(yellow) which explains why green
is not the only color we see in
plants.
 Algae make use of different kinds
of pigments.
 Bacteria (Cyanobacteria) do not
have a chloroplast. They make use
of their highly-specialized
membrane in photosynthesis.
Two Reactions of Photosynthesis
 Similar with cellular respiration,
photosynthesis has two major
reactions which occur in the
chloroplast.
 In eukaryotic and photosynthetic
organisms, there are two major
reactions.
1. Light Dependent Reaction
2. Light Independent Reaction
 These two reactions happen
simultaneously in most plants. An
exemption is the cacti/cactus. Most
plants use C3 photosynthesis while
cactus uses CAM photosynthesis.
 Cactus performs a portion of
photosynthesis at night (absorption
of carbon dioxide).
 Both reactions happen in the
chloroplasts in eukaryotic and
photosynthetic organisms. But they
have different venues inside the
chloroplast.
Light Dependent Reaction
 It occurs in the thylakoids in the
chloroplast.
 Thylakoids (disk-like) are
membrane-bound compartments
inside chloroplasts.
 Thylakoids have different groups or
stack. A stack is called granum
(plural: grana).
Major Events in Light Dependent
Reactions
1. Light is converted through a
complex process that involves
multiple “photosystems” into
chemical energy (ATP and
NADPH).
Photosystems – Sections in the
thylakoid composed of pigment +
proteins. Convert light into
chemical energy in ATP and
NADH.
 2. Water (H2O) is split into electrons,
protons and oxygen, which is
another product of this reaction.
 In light dependent reaction, the
entities really involved here is the
sunlight (light energy) and water.
Chemical reaction happens in
thylakoids. Water is split and the
products are 2 electrons, 2
hydrogen ions and the formation of
oxygen, all with the utilization of
light energy.
 Cyanobacteria produces more
oxygen than plants.
 ATP – energy carrier
 NADPH – electron carrier
 To summarize, in light dependent
reaction, water and sunlight are the
needed entities and the products
are the oxygen, NADPH and ATP.
 Water and Light were used, and
oxygen was produced.
Light Independent Reaction
 It is also called Calvin Cycle or
Dark Reaction (former name),
although it doesn’t happen in the
dark.
 It needs items from the light
dependent reaction so they both
happen at the same time.
 It happens in the stroma inside the
chloroplast.
 Stroma is the fluid that surrounds
the thylakoids, inside the
chloroplast.
Major Events during Light Independent
Reaction
 Carbon Fixation- Carbon Dioxide
is fixed by changing the inorganic
carbon dioxide into a more organic
form with the help of the major
enzyme RuBisCo (Ribulose-1,5-
biphosphate carboxylase-
oxygenase). CO2 has some part
that is needed to be fixed before
being utilized (it must be a usable
inorganic).
 ATP from the light dependent
reactions helps supply energy.
 NADPH from the LDR supplies
reducing power. It helps add high
energy electrons to this process.
NADPH has negative charge that
reduces.
 In a very complex series of
pathways, the fixed carbon dioxide,
ATP, and NADPH are used to
make a product ultimately can be
converted into glucose.
 During the Light Independent
Reaction, carbon dioxide was
used, and sugar (glucose) was
produced.
 Both LDR and LIR, which occur
simultaneously, create the glucose
that plants need to survive.
  All the events in
photosynthesis in eukaryotic
organisms happen in the
chloroplast.
 2 Stages: LDR & LIR
 LDR: Happens in thylakoid.
LDR Products: ATP, NADPH,
Oxygen
 LIR: Happens in stroma.
LIR: Carbon fixation and
reduction of fixed carbon.
LIR (Main Product): Glucose

Trivia: Euglena (algae)

 These are organisms that are both
heterotrophic and photosynthetic.
 If food is present, it will consume it.
If food is not present, it will
photosynthesize to create food.

Importance of Photosynthesis
 The process of photosynthesis is
necessary for plants to make
sugar.
 It supplies organisms with the
oxygen they need, which is also
one of its products.
 Since plants are the producers in
the food web, photosynthesis is
important because plants supply
the energy for the consumers.