Solar Collectors and Application

Solar Collectors
Solar Collectors
Solar energy can be utilized directly by two technologies:
1. Solar Thermal and
2. Solar Photovoltaic
• Solar Thermal Systems provide thermal energy for various systems.In
cold climate regions, a large amount low grade energy is required for
heating of air for comfort and hot water for washing, clean and other
domestic and industrial needs.
• Various industrial surveys shows that about 24% of all industrial heat
is consumed for heating of fluids to a low temperature.
• Solar energy is best suited for low grade thermal applications.
• Even in high temperature heating applications a significant amount of
fuel can be saved by using solar energy for preheating (up to 180 oC)
Solar Collectors
o Absorbs solar energy, converts it into heat and then transfers it to heat transport
fluid.
o The heat transport fluid delivers this heat to thermal storage tank/boiler/heat
exchanger, etc. to be utilized in the subsequent stages of the system.
• Non-focus type collectors

utilize both beam and
diffuse radiation
• Focus type collectors utilize
beam radiation only, as
diffuse radiation cannot be
focussed.
Solar Collectors
The important features of a solar collector are:
1. Collector efficiency: The ratio of the energy actually absorbed (collected and
transferred to heat transport fluid) by the collector to the energy incident on the
collector.
2. Concentration ratio (CR): The ratio of the area of aperture of the system to the
area of the receiver.
3. Temperature range: The range of temperature to which the heat transport fluid is
heated by the collector
oIn flat plate collectors, no optical system is utilized to concentrate the solar radiation,
and hence the concentration ratio is only 1 and temperature range is less than 100 oC.
oLine focus collectors have CR up to 100 and temperature range of the order of 150-
300oC.
oConcentration ratio of the order of thousands and temperature range of 500-1500oC
can be obtained by using point focus collectors.
Flat Plate Collector
• It absorbs both beam and diffuse radiation
• It can function without the need for sun tracking.
• Therefore it can be properly secured on a rigid platform and thus becomes
mechanically stronger than those requiring flexibility for tracking purpose. As a
collector is installed outdoor it should be mechanically strong enough to withstand
atmospheric disturbances (rain, storm, etc.)
• It is simple in construction and requires little maintenance.
Constructional details
The basic elements

1) Transparent cover (one or two sheets) of (Plain or toughned)glass or plastic. The
thickness of 4 and 5 mm are commonly used The gap between them is around 1.5
to 3cm
• Air space between the cover and the absorber plate largely prevents loss of heat
from the plate by convection. Cover glass permits the passage of solar radiations
with smaller wave lengths but opaque to larger wavelength . As a result heat is
trapped in the air space between the cover and the absorber plate in a manner
similar to green house.
• The loss of solar radiation due to absorption in cover plate can be minimized by
using clear glass with low iron content..
2) Blackened absorber plate usually of copper, aluminum or steel, typically 1-2 mm.
3) Tubes (typically 1-2 cm diameter), channels or passages, in thermal contact with the
absorber plate. In some designs, the tubes form integral part of absorber plate.
4) Thermal insulation, typically 5-10 cm in thickness.
5) Tight container to enclose the above components.
Working
oAs solar radiation strikes on a specially treated absorber
plate, it is absorbed and raises its temperature.
oThis heat is transferred to heat transfer fluid circulating in the
tube (or channels) beneath the absorber plate and in contact
with it.
oThermal insulation prevents heat loss from the rear surface
of the collector.
oThe glass cover permits the entry of solar radiation as it is
transparent for incoming short wavelengths, but is largely
opaque to the longer infrared radiation reflected from the
absorber.
oAs a result heat remains trapped in the airspace between the
absorber plate and glass cover. The glass cover also prevents
heat loss due to convection by keeping air stagnant.
oThe glass cover may reflect some 15% of incoming solar
radiation, which can be reduced by applying antireflective
coating on the outer surface of the glass cover.
Flat plate collectors are of two different types
1) Liquid heating collectors
2) Air or gas heating collectors
Modified Flat Plate Collector
Modified Flat Plate Collector
oBy providing plane reflectors at the
edges of flat plate collector to reflect
additional radiation into the receiver,
the concentration of solar radiation can
be improved.
oThese mirrors are also called as
booster mirrors.
oThe concentration ratio of these
concentrators has a maximum value of
4.
oSuch a design (V-trough) is aligned in
East-West direction and requires
periodic tilt adjustment.
oDifferent optimum depth to base
width ratio and cone angles are possible
depending on the frequency of seasonal
tilt adjustment.
Compound Parabolic Concentrator
Compound Parabolic Concentrator
oConsists of two parabolic mirror
segments attached to a flat receiver.
oThe segments are oriented such that
the focus of one is located at the
bottom end point of the other in
contact with the receiver.
oIt has a large acceptance angle and
needs to be adjusted intermittently.
oRays in the central region of the
aperture reach the absorber directly
whereas, those near the edges
undergo one or more reflections
before reaching the observer.
oCR achieved from this collector is in
the range of 3 – 7.
Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator
Cylindrical Parabolic Concentrator
•Consists of a cylindrical parabolic trough reflector and a metal tube
receiver at its focal line.
•The receiver tube is blackened at the outside surface to increase
absorption.
•It is rotated about one axis to track the sun.
•The heat transfer fluid flows through the receiver tube, carrying the
thermal energy to the next stage of the system.
•This type may be oriented in any one of the three directions: East-
West, North-South or polar.
•The polar configuration intercepts more solar radiation per unit
area as compared other modes.
•CR achieved from this collector is in the range of 5 – 30.
Fixed Mirror Solar Concentrator
•Due to practical difficulty in manufacturing a
large mirror in a single piece in cylindrical
parabolic shape, long narrow mirror strips are
used in this concentrator.
•The concentrator consists of fixed mirror
strips arranged on a circular reference cylinder
with a tracking receiver tube .
•The receiver tube is made to rotate about the
centre of curvature of reflector module to
track the sun.
•The image width at the absorber is ideally the
same as the projected width of a mirror
element; CR achieved is approximately the
same as the number of mirror strips.
Linear Fresnel Lens Collector
•A Fresnel lens, which consists of fine, linear
grooves on the surface of refracting material
(generally optical quality plastic) on one side
and flat on the other side, is used.
•The angle of each groove is designed to
make the optical behaviour similar to a
spherical lens.
•The beam radiation which is incident
normally, converges on focal line where a
receiver tube is provided to absorb the
radiation.
•CR of 15 – 30 may be realized which yields
temperatures between 150 – 300 oC
Paraboloidal Dish Collector
When a parabola is rotated about its
optical axis, a paraboloidal surface is
produced.
The beam radiation is focussed at a
point in the paraboloid.
This requires two-axis tracking.
It can have CR ranging from 10 to
few thousands and can yield
temperature up to 3000 oC.
Paraboloidal Dish Collectors of 6 – 7
m in diameter are commercially
manufactured.
Hemispherical Bowl Mirror
Concentrator
•Consists of hemispherical fixed mirror, a
tracking absorber and supporting
structure
•All rays entering the hemisphere after
reflection cross the paraxial line at some
point between the focus and the mirror
surface.
•Therefore a linear absorber pivoted
about the center of curvature of the
hemisphere intercepts all reflected rays.
•The absorber is to be moved so that its Hemispherical Bowl
axis is always aligned with solar rays Mirror Concentrator
passing through the centre of the sphere.
•This requires two-axis tracking.
Circular Fresnel Lens Concentrator
•These lenses are generally used where high
flux is desired, such as with silicon solar cells
or with gallium arsenide solar cells as
receiver.
•It is divided into a number of thin circular
zones.
•The tilt of each zone is so adjusted that
optically, the lens approximates a thin
spherical lens.
•CR may be as high as 2000, but is less than
that obtained from a paraboloidal reflector.
Circular Fresnel Lens Concentrator
•In solar cell applications, tracking is required
to keep the small solar image centered on the
receiver.
Central Tower Receiver
•The receiver is located at the top of a tower.
•Beam radiation is reflected on it from a large
number of independently controlled, almost flat
mirrors, known as heliostats, spread over a large
area on the ground, surrounding the tower.
•Thousands of such heliostats track the sun to
direct the beam radiation on the receiver from
all sides.
•The heliostats, together act like a dilute
paraboloid of very big size.
•CR may be as high as 3,000.
• The absorbed energy can be extracted from

the receiver and delivered at a temperature
and pressure suitable for driving turbines for
power generation. Central Tower Receiver

 Thermal Systems
 Solar Thermal Systems
o Solar Water Heater
o Evacuated Tubular Collector
o Solar air collector
o Solar distillation
o Solar cooker
o Solar refrigeration and air conditioning
o Space heating
o Power generation cycles
 Thermal energy storage systems
o Solar pond
Solar Water Heater
•A tilted flat plate solar collector with water as heat transfer fluid is used .
•A thermally insulated hot water storage tank is mounted above the collector.
•The heated water of the collector rises up to the hot

water tank and replaces an equal quantity of cold
water, which enters the collector.
•The cycle repeats, resulting in all the water of the hot
water tank getting heated up.
•When hot water is taken out from hot water outlet,
the same is replaced by cold water from the cold water
make up tank, fixed above the hot water tank.
•The scheme is known as passive heating scheme, as water is circulated in the loop
naturally due to thermo-siphon action.
Collector cum storage type Solar Water
Heater
i o n
ad i at Transparent cover
r R
l a Water in shallow box
so
Insulation
Casing
Stand
Collector cum storage type solar water heater

Collector cum storage type Solar Water
Heater
• Small capacity domestic solar water heaters are also available with
simple design .
• Functions of collector and storage tank are combined in one unit.
• It consists of a closed shallow rectangular box 5 to 10 cm deep
made up of sheet metal.
• Box is contained in a housing which supports a glass cover and is
insulated around the bottom and sides.
• The box is filled with water in the morning , which heats up
through the day and is withdrawn for use in the evening.
• This is less costly than the natural circulation system.
• Less efficient and low temperature yield.
Industrial solar water heater
Vent
Hot water
for use Cold water make up water
T Storage
tank
rray
Controller T
or a
lect
Auxillary
Co l
Non return
Valve Heater
Pump
Industrial solar water
heating system Closed loop configuration
• Whenever large quantity of hot water is required,
natural circulation system is not suitable.
• Large flat plate collectors and forced circulation system
with pumps is used .
• The restriction of placing storage tank at higher level is
removed.
• Water from storage tank is pumped through a collector
array , where it is heated and then flows back into the
storage tank.
• Whenever hot water is withdrawn cold make-up water
takes its place.
• The pump is controlled by a on-off controller which
senses the temperature difference between the hot
water at the exit of the collector and a suitable location
inside the tank.
• The pump is switched on whenever temperature
difference exceeds a certain limit and off when it falls
below a certain value.
• Provision is also made for the auxiliary water heater.
• This type of water heater is suitable for factories ,
hotels, offices etc.
Feed water
Cold
Hot water
y
Water
arra
Tank tank
or
lect
Col
Industrial solar water heating system

Pump
Pump Open loop configuration
• Water flows from cold water tank through the
collectors to an insulated hot water storage tank from
where it is withdrawn for use.
• For controlling the temperature of water flow rate is
adjusted.
Solar Water Heater
Evacuated tube collector
•For higher temperatures, Evacuated
tube collectors are used.
•Evacuated tube collector is less
dependent up on ambient temperature
unlike flat plate collector and its
efficiency does not drop with ambient
temperature.
•Evacuated glass tubes are used instead
of copper in which case a separate cover
sheet and insulating box are not
required.
•Water flows through the tubes, absorbs
solar heat and is stored in a tank.
 This collector can reach high
temperatures up to 150oC.
 Comprises of two concentric glass tubes
fused in the ends.
 The air is evacuated from the gap
between the tubes.
 Solar radiation penetrates the outer clear glass and heat energy is absorbed by the inner coated
glass.
 The vacuum permits the radiation to enter through the outer tube.
 The absorbent coating on the inner tube converts short wave radiation into long wave radiation thus
preventing reflection of the radiation to the atmosphere.
 Since heat conduction can not take place in vacuum, heat loss is prevented.
 Hence, heat loss in Evacuated tube collector is less than 10% as compared with 40% for a flat plate
collector.
 Water flows through a third, innermost concentric feeder tube and hot water flows in the annulus
outside the feeder tube in contact with the absorber tube surface.
Solar air heater
Solar air heater
 Construction is similar to that of a liquid-flat plate collector except for the passages though
which the air flows.
 These passages have to be made larger in order to keep the pressure drop across the collector
within manageable limits.
Solar distillation
Solar distillation
 Potable or fresh water (water with less than 500 ppm salt content) is one of the fundamental
necessities of life for a man.
 Due to climate change, pollution and over consumption, at present more than 2,000 million
people have no regular access to adequate safe water.
 According to one estimate, about 79% of water available on earth is salty, 20% is brackish (less
salty water from wells) and only 1% is fresh.
 Therefore conversion of brackish or saline water to fresh water through distillation process
using solar energy is a good idea where plenty of saline water and sun are available.
 The use of solar energy for desalting sea water and brackish well water has been
demonstrated in several moderate sized pilot plants in the United States, Greece, Australia
and several other countries.
 The idea was applied in 1982 at Las Salinas, Chile, in a plant supplying drinking water for
animals working in nitrate mining and transport.
 The conversion device is known as Solar still.
Solar distillation
Solar distillation
 A simple basin type solar
still consists of a shallow
blackened basin filled with
saline or brackish water to
be distilled.
 The depth of water is kept about 5-10cm.

 It is covered with sloppy transparent roof.
 Solar radiation after passing through the roof is absorbed by the blackened surface of the basin and
thus increases the moisture content, which gets condensed on the cooler underside of the glass.
 The condensed water slips down the slope and is collected through the condensate channel
attached to the glass.
 The still is installed in an open area with its long axis facing East-West direction.
 The still can be fed with saline water either continuously or intermittently.
 The supply is generally kept at twice the rate at which the fresh water is produced, but may vary
depending on the initial salinity of input water.
 The output of a typical solar still in Indian climate varies from 5.3 litres/ m2day (in summer) to 0.9
litres/ m2day (in winter).
Drying
Cabinet dryer
Drying
Drying
• Food spoilages is roughly estimated to be around 40 to 50% of the total
production.
• In many developing countries food losses occur due to contamination
• Traditional use of solar energy is drying agricultural products.
• Drying process removes moisture and helps in the preservation of the
product.
• Traditional drying is done on open ground.
• Traditional drying is slow and insects and dust get mixed with the product.
• Solar dryer removes all these disadvantages
• Solar drying is much faster and in controlled manner we carry out .
• Better quality products can be produced.
Drying
Cabinet dryer
Drying
Cabinet dryer
• This type of drier is suitable for small scale application
• It consists of an enclosure with transparent cover.
• Material to be dried is placed on the perforated trays.
• Solar entering the enclosure is absorbed in the product itself and the
surrounding internal surfaces of the enclosure.
• Moisture present is removed from the product and heated .
• Suitable openings are provided at the bottom top to ensure a natural
circulation.
• Temperature range of 50 to 80 degree centigrade can be achived in 2 to 4
days of drying time.
• Some of the products which can be dried in such devices are dates,
apricots, chillies, grapes etc.
Drying
Forced circulation(Direct gain)
Drying
Forced circulation(Direct gain)
• For large scale drying , the passive devices are replaced by active device
with forced circulation .
• This type of drier is used for drying timber.
• Induced draught fan is used for circulating the air through the drier.
• Time required for drying can be reduced.
• Temperature can be controlled inside the enclosure.
Solar drier link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cgoyeo25igo
https://www.facebook.com/chatron.pt/videos/secagem-solar-solar-drying-
secador-solar-t%C3%BAnel-de-secagem-
solar/337700960902401/?__so__=permalink&__rv__=related_videos
Drying
Forced circulation(In Direct gain)
Drying
Forced circulation(In Direct gain)
• An indirect type of active drier is used when the solar radiation falling
directly on the product is not adequate or the temperature of the product
is to be controlled.
• In this type of drier air is heated separately in an array of solar air heaters
and then supplied to the chamber in which the products to be dried is
stored.
• This drier is suitable for drying products such as the tea and tobacco.
• In India several large scale systems for drying various kinds of crops and for
drying timber been set up .
Drying
Advantages:
1) Solar driers save the conventional fuels .
2) A substantial saving in drying time compared natural drying.
3) Products dried in an enclosed drier have higher quality.
4) Limited space required.
5) There is no risk of fire with solar drier.
6) There is no danger of contamination of the food product as solar energy is
clean.
7) Lower cost compared to mechanical driers.
8) It requires less technical skill in the installation.
Solar cooker
Solar cooker
 Thermal energy requirements for cooking purpose forms a major

share of the total energy consumed, especially in rural areas.
 Harnessing solar energy for cooking is an attractive and relevant
option.
 Basic designs of solar cookers:
1. Box type solar cooker
2. Dish type solar cooker
3. Community solar cooker
4. Advance solar cooker
Box type Solar cooker
 The external dimensions of a typical family size (4 dishes)

Box type Solar cooker are 60× 60 ×20 cm.
 This cooker is simple in construction and operation.
 An insulated box of blackened aluminum contains the
utensils with food material.
 The box receives direct radiation and also reflected
radiation from a reflector mirror fixed on inner side of the
box cover hinged to one side of the box.
 The angle of the reflector can be adjusted as required.
 A glass cover consisting of two layers of clear window glass
sheets serves as the box door.
 The glass cover traps heat due to the greenhouse effect.
 Maximum air temperature obtained inside the box
is around 140-160 oC.
 This is enough for cooking the boiling type food
slowly in about 2-3 hours.
 It is capable of cooking 2 kg of food and can save
3-4 LPG cylinder fuel in a year.
 Electrical back up is also provided in some designs
fro use during non-sunshine hours.
 Its cost varies from Rs. 1,500-2,500/- depending
on the type, size, quality and electrical back up
facility.
 It cannot be used for cooking items like chapattis
and purees.
Community solar Solar cooker
Community solar cooker
• It consists of a flat plate collector with booster mirros used for heating oil,
a pebble bed filled storage vessel, hot plates , interconnecting tubes and
a set of three valves.
• The unit works on thermosyphon principle and can operate in three
modes.
• In mode I solar energy is directly used for cooking.
• Valves A and B are open while the valve C is closed.
• Heated oil flows from the collector to the hot plates, gives up its heat for
cooking and returns to the bottom of the collector.
• In mode II solar energy is not nneded immediately for cooking is stored in
the pebble bed storage.
• Valve A abd B are closed and C is open .
• In mode III solar energy is not available and the stored energy is used for
cooking. All the three valves are kept open.
• It yields higher temperature than the box type .
• It can be used for cooking large variety of items.
• Cooking area can be at small distance from the collector and need not be
in sun.
• Cooking is also possible in the evening because of the inclusion of a heat
storage vessel.
• In another category of solar cookers we can use paraboloidal dish
concentrator can also be used.
• Temperature well above 2000C can be achieved in such cookers.
Solar refrigeration and air conditioning
• A flat plate collector is used to

supply heat to the generator and
water vapours are raised at a
temperature lower than 100 oC at
low pressure.
• The vapours are condensed in
condenser by cooling water
supplied from cooling tower.
• The condensed water is
evaporated by passing it through
the expansion valve and
maintaining low pressure in the
evaporator.
Cooling effect is produced here and heat is absorbed from the space to be cooled through heat
transport fluid.
The water vapours from the evaporator go to the absorber where it is absorbed in lithium bromide
solution.
In the absorber, the liberated heat due to absorption process is removed by cooling water from
the cooling tower.
The generator temperature is maintained between 75-100oC to avoid crystallization of lithium

bromide, which may lead to choking of the system.
Main advantages of lithium bromide-water cooling cycle:
1. The system is comparatively simpler
2. It works at comparatively higher COP
3. Less pumping power is required due to low pressure
4. The refrigerant i.e., water has high latent heat of vaporization
5. Lithium bromide absorbent is non volatile and therefore, avoids the need for
rectifying equipment which is necessary in ammonia-water cycle.
6. Water-lithium bromide solution is nontoxic.
7. Non-inflammable
Disadvantages
1. It can be used for air conditioning only (temperatures not lower than 5 oC)
2. lithium bromide-water solution is corrosive
3. The system works under high vacuum conditions.
4. It requires water cooled condenser
Space heating
Space heating with liquid flat plate collector
Space heating is used in cold countries where significant amount of
energy is required for this purpose.
1) Active methods ( Fair degree of comfort)

2) Passive methods ( Natural system)
Space heating
Space heating with liquid flat plate collector(Active)
Space heating
Space heating with liquid flat plate collector
• Water is heated in the solar collector A and stored in the storage tank
B.
• Heat energy is transferred to the air circulating in the house by means
of water- to- air heat exchanger
• Two pumps( C ) provide forced circulation between the collectors and
the tank, and between the tank and the heat exchanger.
• Provision is also made for an auxiliary heater .
Space heating
Space heating using air heater
Space heating
Space heating using air heater
• Air is heated in the collectors .
• Heat is stored in tank packed with the rock , gravel or pebbles.
• Air is circulated through the hot storage tank.
Space heating(Passive)
• A passive methods is one in which thermal energy flows

through a living space by natural means.
• In this method mechanical devices such as pump or blower not
used.
• This method developed by professor Trombe.
Winter ventilation
• The south facing wall is double glazed .
• Behind the glazing thick black concrete wall is constructed.
• Wall absorbs the sun’s radiation and act as a thermal storage.
• Vents ( A and B) can be kept open or closed, provided near the top and bottom of the
storage wall.
• During the day both the vents A and B are kept open.
• The air between inner glass and wall gets heated and floes into
the living space through the top vent.
• Cooler air from the room pulled out of the living space through
the bottom vent.
• Part of the energy transfer can also takes place by radiation
from the inner surface of the storage wall in to living space.
• During the night both the vents are closed and energy transfer
takes place only by radiation.
Summer ventilation :
• Summer ventilation can be done by using vents C and D near the top of the
glazing on the north facing wall.
• On a hot summer day vents B , C and D would kept open.
• Vent A would be kept closed.
• Heated air between the glazing and the wall flow out through the vent C ,
drawing the air from the living space to replace it.
• The air is pulled in from outside through the vent D
• The vent D should be located such that the air pulled in through the it comes
from a shaded and cool area.
• Overhanging roof provided prevents direct radiation from falling on the galzzing
during summer.
• Passive methods result in 100C temperature difference
• In active methods smaller temperature variations of 3 to 40C
Solar ponds
Solar ponds
•Solar ponds are large-scale energy collectors with integral heat

storage for supplying thermal energy.
•It can be used for various applications, such as process heating,
water desalination, refrigeration, drying and power generation.
Working Principle of Solar Pond
Solar ponds
•A solar pond has three zones.
•The top zone is the surface zone, or UCZ (Upper
Convective Zone), which is at atmospheric
temperature and has little salt content. (10 to 20cm)
•The bottom zone is very hot, 70°– 85° C, and is very
salty.
•It is this zone that collects and stores solar energy in
the form of heat, and is, therefore, known as the
storage zone or LCZ (Lower Convective Zone).
•Separating these two zones is the important gradient
zone or NCZ (Non-Convective Zone). (Insulator)
•Here the salt content increases as depth increases,
thereby creating a salinity or density gradient.
• If we consider a particular layer in this zone, water

of that layer cannot rise, as the layer of water
above has less salt content and is, therefore,
lighter.
• Similarly, the water from this layer cannot fall as
the water layer below has a higher salt content and
is, therefore, heavier.
• This gradient zone acts as a transparent insulator
permitting sunlight to reach the bottom zone but
also entrapping it there.
• The trapped (solar) energy is then withdrawn from
the pond in the form of hot brine from the storage
zone.
Applications of solar pond:
1. Heating and cooling of buildings
2. Production of power.
3. Industrial process heat.
4. Desalination .
5. Heating animal housing and drying crops on farms.
6. Heat fro biomass conversion.
Power generation
Solar thermal power cycles can be classified as
1) Low temperature cycles(1000C, Flat plate collector, Solar pond,
Solar chimneys)
2) Medium temperature cycles(Up to 4000C, Parabolic collector)
3) High temperature cycles (Above 4000C, Paraboloidal dish
collector).
Low temperature solar power generation
cycle(Flat plate collectors)
cycle
• The energy of the sun is collected by the water flowing through
the array of flat plate collectors.
• In order to maximize the temperature of water booster mirrors
are used.
• The hot water at temperature close to 100 degree centigrade is
stored in the well insulated storage tank.
• From storage tank it flows through the vapour generator
through which the working fluid also passed.
• The working fluid has a low boiling point .
• Vapour at 900C and a pressure of a few atmospheres leaves the
vapour generator.
cycle
• Vapour of working fluid runs the turbine as turbine in turn
connected to electric generator it generates electricity.
• Vapour leaving the generator condensed in the condenser .
• The condensed vapour of organic fluid such as methyl chloride
and toluene pumped back in to the vapour generator for
repletion of cycle.
• Efficiency is low .
• Temperature difference is around 55 0C only.
• The Rankine cycle efficiency is around 7 to 8 percent.
• The collector efficiency is around 25 % .
• Overall efficiency of only 2 % can be achieved.
cycle( solar chimney)
cycle( solar chimney)
• It consists of tall central chimney .
• Chimney is surrounded by a green house consisting of a
transparent cover supported a few meters above the ground by
a metal frame.
• Sunlight passing through the transparent cover causes the air
trapped in the green house to heat up.
• A convection system is set up in which hot air is drawn up
through the central chimney , turning a turbine located near
the base of the chimney.
• The hot air is continuously replenished by fresh air drawn in at
the periphery of the green house.
Medium temperature solar power
generation cycle
generation cycle
•Parabolic collector technology is used in the medium temperature
power generation cycle
• The collectors heat synthetic oil to a temperature of 4000C with a
collector efficiency of about 0.7 for beam radiation.
•The synthetic oil is used for generating super heated steam which
executes Rankine cycle with an efficiency of 38%.
•The plant generally produce electricity for about eight hours a day
and is coupled with natural gas for continuous operation.
•Heated oil in the collector first allowed to flow through the super
heater. In the super heater steam is converted in to superheated
steam.
•In the steam generator steam is generated by utilizing heat energy
present in the synthetic oil coming out of the steam super heater.
generation cycle
•Preheater rises the temperature of feed water.
•Part of the hot synthetic oil is circulated through the steam reheater.
•Superheated steam is expanded in the high pressure turbine. The
exhaust steam from HP turbine is reheated in the rehater and then
supplied in to the LP turbine.
•The steam coming out of the LP turbine is condensed in the
condenser.
•Turbine converts the heat energy in to mechanical energy.
•Generator coupled to the turbine generates electricity.
•Condensate is pumped back in to the preheater for repeating cycle.
High temperature solar power generation
cycle
cycle
• Two concepts re used in the high temperature solar power
generation cycle 1) parboloidal dish concept 2) Central tower
receiver concept.
• In paraboloidal dish concept fluid flowing through the receiver
at the focus heated and this heat is used to drive the prime
mover.
• Sterling engines have been favoured.
• Near Hyderabad one 20 KW power station is operating on this
principle.
• There is limitation in the size of the concentrator .
• The power we can generate in terms of KW only instead of MW.
cycle
• In central receiver power plants , solar radiation reflected from
arrays of large mirrors is concentrated on a receiver situated at
the top of a supporting tower.
• Fluid flowing through the receiver absorbs the concentrate
solar radiation and transports it to the ground where it is used
to operate a Rankine power cycle.
• In the above arrangement water is converted in to steam in the
receiver itself.
• Alternatively the receiver is used to heat a liquid metal or a
molten salt and this fluid is passed through the heat exchanger
in which the steam for power cycle is generated.
Solar Pond Electric Power Plant
Solar Pond Electric Power Plant
Principle of operation of solar cell
( Photovoltaic effect)
• Photovoltaic effect
Photovoltaic conversion:
• Photovolatalic energy conversion is a direct conversion
technology that produces electricity directly from sunlight
without the use of a working fluid such as steam or gas and a
mechanical cycles such as Rankine or Brayton.
• The basic unit of a photovoltaic system is the solar cell. Solar
cells are usually made up of silicon .
• A combination of solar cells designed to increase the electric
power out put is called a solar module or solar array.
• Solar cells or photovoltaic cells generate electricity when they
absorb light by means of the photovoltaic effect that is
conversion of light in to electricity.
• As photons are received , free electrical charges are generated
that can be collected on contacts applied to the surfaces of the
semiconductors.
• The theoretical efficiencies are in the order of 25%.
• Photovoltaic cells could be used in either small or large power
plants .
• The cost of energy storage and power conditioning equipments
result in power generation by large power stations
uneconomical .
• Solar cells can be used to operate irrigation pumps, navigational
signals, highway call systems, rail road crossing warnings etc.
• A photovoltaic system consists of i) Solar cell array ii) Load
leveler iii) Storage system iv) Tracking system.
• All solar cells are interconnected in certain series/ parallel
combinations to form modules.
• These modules are sealed to protect against the corrosion,
moisture, pollution and weathering.
• Solar PV system can produce an output only if sunlight is
present.
• If it is required to be used during non sunshine hours, a
suitable systems of storage batteries will be required
• Solar cell consists of combination of p-type and n-type
semiconductors.
• N- type semiconductor has excess number of electrons , where
as p-type semiconductor has deficiency of electrons or holes.
• The semiconductor with one side of the p-type and the other of
the n-type is called a p-n junction.
• At p-n junction after the photons are absorbed the free
electrons of the n-side will tend to flow to the p-side , and the
holes of p-side will tend to flow to the n region to compensate
for their respective deficiencies.
• Diffusion electrons and holes across the junction creates an
electric field flowing from the n region to the p- region .
• Electrical contacts are made with the two semiconductors
materials
• The contacts are connected through an external electrical
conductor , free electrons will flow from n-type material through
conductor to the p-type material.
• The flow of electrons through the external conductor constitutes
an electric current which will continue as long as more free
electrons and holes are being formed by solar radiation
• Most commonly used semiconductor material in the manufacture
of solar cells is Silicon and Gallium.
Thermal angry storage
Need of storage of thermal energy.
Solar energy is
a) Intermittent b) Variable c) unpredictable
Three different methods are used for storing thermal energy.
1) Sensible heat storage(No change of phase)
2) Latent heat storage(Phase changes)
3) Thermochemical storage(Chemical reaction)
Most commonly used methods are sensible and latent heat
methods.
Thermal energy storage
Sensible Heat storage:
Sensible heat storage involves no change in phase over the
temperature change in the storage system.
The basic equation governing the energy storage system operating
over a finite temperature difference is
Qs = mCp (T1-T2)
Where Qs = Total thermal energy capacity for a system
m = Mass of the storage medium in kg
Cp = Specific heat of storage system
T1, T2 = Temperature limits of storage medium
The ability to store thermal energy in a given container of

volume V is Qs / V =  Cp T
Where  is the density of the storage medium.
Materials which are generally used for this type energy storage i) Water ii) Rock, gravel or crushed
stone iii) Iron shot iv) Iron, red iron oxide or iron ore (magnetic) v) Concrete vi) Refractory materials
like magnesium oxide , Aluminum oxide and silicon oxide.
Sensible Heat storage:
The most easiest way to store thermal energy is by storing the water directly in well insulated
tank. Water is used for the application where temperature is less than 1000C
Water storage is having several advantages over the other methods
1) It is an inexpensive, easily available.
2) It has high thermal storage capacity.
3) Pumping cost is less
4) No other heat transferring fluid is required.
Rocks can also be used for storing heat. Rocks does have the following advantages over water.
1) Rock is more easily contained than water.
2) The system cost is low.
3) Much higher temperatures can be stored.
4) Heat transfer coefficients between solid and air is high.
5) The of storage material is low.
Rocks and refractory materials used for storing heat energy with temperature around 10000C
Latent heat storage:
• A typical latent heat storage arrangement is shown in fig in which , the storage material
is placed in long thin containers e.g cylinders, and the gas is passed through narrow
spaces between the tubes.
• The advantage is that this system is more compact than the sensible heat system
• In this method heat is stored in a material when it melts and extracted from the material
when it freezes .
Latent heat storage:
The material which is used for latent heat storage must satisfy the following criteria
1. Phase change must accompanied by high latent heat.
2. Phase change must be reversible.
3. The cost of materials and its containers must be reasonable .
4. It must have the capacity to store large quantity of heat.
5. Preparation of material must simple.
6. Must be harmless.
7. The material must have high thermal conductivity.
8. Containment of the material , transfer of heat into it and out of it must be easy.
The materials which are having the ability to store latent heat are Glauber’s salt ( Na2SO4.
10H20), Water, Mg(No3)2 6 H20, NaoH and salt eutectics are mostly used.

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Solar Collectors

• Non-focus type collectors

The basic elements

• The absorbed energy can be extracted from

Central Tower Receiver

•The heated water of the collector rises up to the hot

Collector cum storage type solar water heater

Industrial solar water heating system

 The depth of water is kept about 5-10cm.

 Thermal energy requirements for cooking purpose forms a major

 The external dimensions of a typical family size (4 dishes)

• A flat plate collector is used to

The generator temperature is maintained between 75-100oC to avoid crystallization of lithium

1) Active methods ( Fair degree of comfort)

• A passive methods is one in which thermal energy flows

•Solar ponds are large-scale energy collectors with integral heat

• If we consider a particular layer in this zone, water

The ability to store thermal energy in a given container of

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