Fluid Mechanics Main File Paf 18-9-2020

Fluid Mechanics
(Theory + Objective + Conventional)
[For GATE, UPSC-ESE, State Public Service Commission,

Recruitment tests by Public Sector Undertakings]
By
Mr. Praveen Kulkarni
KULKARNI’S ACADEMY PUBLICATION

16-11-1/1/2, 5th floor, Above Bantia Furnitures, Near Super Bazar Bus Stop,
Malakpet, Hyderabad, Telangana 500036
Phone: +91-9000770927, E-mail: kamehyderabad@gmail.com
Website: www.kulkarniacademy.com
KULKARNI’S ACADEMY PUBLICATION
16-11-1/1/2, 5th floor, Above Bantia Furnitures, Near Super Bazar Bus Stop,
Malakpet, Hyderabad, Telangana 500036
Phone: +91-9000770927, 7893190907
E-mail: kamehyderabad@gmail.com
Website: www.kulkarniacademy.com
 ALL RIGHTS STRICTLY RESERVED

Copyright 2020, by KULKARNI ACADEMY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. No part of this book may be reproduced, or
distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval
system without the prior information of KAME Publication, Hyderabad. Violates are liable to be legally prosecuted.
First Edition: 2020
Price: ₹350/-
Typesetting by: Kulkarni’s Academy Publication, Hyderabad

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I owe special thanks to two individuals who have influenced my thinking during the
preparation of this book- Pushpendra Jangid and Hrishikesh Kulkarni
I appreciate the help of Pushpendra Jangid, the backbone of this book who prepared
solutions in a simplified manner with neat explanations. I remain indebted to Hrishikesh
Kulkarni for editing the material.
Praveen Kulkarni Director,

Kulkarni’s Academy - Hyderabad
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
This book is designed for mechanical engineering students who are interested in
appearing for GATE, ESE and other PSU’s. The main emphasis is placed on the precise
and logical presentation of basic concepts and principles, which are essential for
better understanding of the subject. Since, this is an introductory book, care has
been taken to present questions in a gradual manner to instil confidence in the
minds of the students. Due effort has been made to keep fundamentals and
principles at a very simple level. Looking forward for constructive criticism and
suggestions, if any.
Praveen Kulkarni
ABOUT THE DIRECTOR
Praveen Kulkarni did his B.E. and subsequently M.E. (Production Engineering) from
Osmania University, Hyderabad. He has qualified GATE, IES (ESE) and other state
service examinations. He secured all India 39th and 14th rank in ESE 1999 and 2001
respectively. After joining Engineering Services in IOFS (Indian Ordnance Factory
Services) and MES (Military Engineer Services), quit due to his passion for teaching.
Mr. Praveen Kulkarni is regarded as one of the best teachers in India due to his
simplification of subjects. A great Motivator, student friendly and a humble person.
He is the recipient of National Merit scholarship (NMS) and Telugu Vignana
Paritoshakam (TVP). He handles Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, RAC, Heat
Transfer, IC Engines, Power Plant, Turbo machinery, Strength of Materials and
Machine Design with equal ease.
To
My beloved students
Past and Present
Table of Contents
Sr. Chapter Pages
1. Fluid Properties 1 to 16
2. Pressure Measurement (Manometry) 17 to 29
3. Buoyancy and Flotation 30 to 41
4. Hydrostatic Forces 42 to 52
5. Fluid Kinematics 53 to 77
6. Fluid Dynamics 78 to 96
7. Laminar Flow 97 to 113
8. Turbulent Flow 114 to 122
9. Flow Through Pipes 123 to 137
10. Boundary Layer Theory 138 to 157
11. Vortex Motion 158 to 165

1.1 Fluid 1.2 Fluid Properties
Fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing Any measurable characteristic is a property.

or deforming under the action of shear force. 1.2.1 Density/Mass density ():
[However small the shear force may be] This It is a defined as ratio of mass of fluid to its
definition of a fluid is also known as a classical volume. It actually represent the quantity of
definition of a fluid. matter present in a given volume. It’s unit is
kg/m3 and it dimensional formula is [ML3].
The density of water for all calculation purpose
is taken as 1000 kg/m3 (at 4C).
Density depends on temperature and pressure.
1.2.2 Specific weight /Weight density(w)

It is defined as the ratio of weight of the fluid to
As long as there is a shear force fluid flows or it’s volume, its unit is N/m3 and it’s dimensional
deform continuously. Ex: liquids, gases, vapour formula [ML2T2].
etc. Weight of the fluid
w
Difference between solids and fluids : Vol.
In case of solids under the action of shear force mg
w
there is a deformation and this deformation does V
not change with time. Therefore deformation  m
w = g  
(d) is important is solids when this shear force  V
is removed, solids will try to come back to the
original position.
In case of fluids the deformation is
continuous as long as there is a shear force and w = F(P, T, Location)
this deformation changes with time, therefore in
Note :
fluids rate of deformation (d/dt) is important 1. Specific weight of water
than deformation (d). After the removal of shear wH2o  g  1000  9.81 = 9810 N/m3
force fluid will never try come back to its original 2. Density is an absolute quantify where as specific
position. weight is not an absolute quantity because it
“For a static fluid, the shear force is zero.” varies from location to location.
Fluid Mechanics 2 Kulkarni’s Academy
1.2.3 Specific gravity (s.g.) Liquids are generally treated as incompressible
It is defined as the ratio of density of fluid to the and gases are treated as compressible.
density of standard fluid. As fluid is treated as incompressible fluid if there
In case of liquid the standard fluid is water and in is no variation of density with respect to
case of gases the standard fluid either hydrogen pressure.
or air at a given temperature and pressure. It is  d 
unitless and dimensionless.  i.e.,  0
 dp 
[M0L0T0]
(i) Isothermal compressibility of ideal gas: -
s.g of water is 1. If s.g. of liquid is less than 1 it PV = mRT
is lighter than water, if s.g. of liquid is greater
 P = RT { T = constant
than 1 it is heavier than water.
dP
Note:  RT
d
Though terms relative density and sp. gravity are
dP
used interchangeably, there a difference between K   RT P  RT
d
these two. “all specific gravities are relative
density but all relative density need not be KT = P
specific gravity”. Isothermal bulk modulus is equal to pressure.
1
1.2.4 Compressibility(): 
P
It is the measure of change of volume or change unit of compressibility: -
of density with respect to pressure on a given
m2
mass of fluid. Mathematically is defined as  or pascal 1
reciprocal of bulk modulus. N
1 (ii) Adiabatic bulk modulus of an ideal gas: -
i.e.,   { K = bulk modulus PV = C1
K

dP
K m
dV P    C1
 
V
P  P C

dV 
m  C1    1  C
  m
 V
dP P = C 
We know that dP
 C 1
Mass = density  volume d
V = mass = constant dP
K 
dV + Vd = 0 d
dV d  K  C 1
 
V  K =  C r
1 d K = P

 dP 1

If d = 0;  = 0 (incompressible fluid) P
Kulkarni’s Academy 3 Properties of Fluid
Note: dt = time
du
As  > 1 adiabatic bulk modulus is greater than velocity gradient =
isothermal bulk modulus. dy
dudt
tan d =
dy
if d is small tan d = d
dudt
dθ  ,
dy
dθ du

dt dy
Bulk modulus is not constant and it increases F
with increase in pressure because at higher  {A  constant
A
pressure the fluid offer’s more resistance for d d
further compression.  F  
dt dt
d 
 
dt d
dt
dp dp
k1  k2 
dv  dv
v v dθ dθ
is large is less (small)
dt dt
k2 > k1
Flow is easy Flow is not easy
1.3 Viscosity  is less, resistance  is more, resistance is
Need to define viscosity: is less. more.
Though the densities of water and oil almost   represents the internal resistance offered by
same, their flow behavior is not same and hence one layer of fluid to the adjacent layer and
a property is required to define to flow behavior hence  is known as coefficient of viscosity
and this property is known as viscosity. or absolute viscosity or dynamic viscosity or
simply viscosity.
Definition: Internal resistance offered by one
d   d  du
layer of fluid to the adjacent layer is known as   
viscosity. dy  dt dy
du

dy
d
Here is known as rate of angular deformation
dt
du
or rate of shear strain and is known as
dy
velocity gradient.
Variation of viscosity with temperature: 1.4 Classification of fluid
In case of liquids the intermolecular distance is
small and hence cohesive forces are large with
increase in temperature cohesive forces decrease
and the resistance of the flow is also decreases,
therefore “viscosity of a liquid decreases with
increase in temperature”.
In case of gases intermolecular distance is
large and hence cohesive forces are negligible
with increase in temperature molecular
disturbance increases and hence resistance to the
flow also increases. “Therefore viscosity of gas
increase with increase in temperature”.
1.4.1 Newtonian Fluid:

Fluid which obey Newton’s law of viscosity are
known as Newtonian fluid. According to
Newtons low of viscosity shear stress is directly
proportional to rate of shear strain that is
dθ du du
Unit of viscosity:   
du dt dy dy
 This equation is Valid for Newtonian fluid.
dy
N m 1
2
 . .
m s m
N s
 = pascal. sec. (SI unit)
m2
 In MKS system:
m
kg . 2 .s
N s s kg
  oil > water > air
m 2
m 2
ms
We know that
Dimensional formula of  = [M1L1T1]
dθ
 In cgs system: 
dt
kg gm dθ
1  1 poise  {  = constant
ms cm  sec dt
kg 103gm 10gm y=mx
 1  2   10poise
m-s 10 cm-sec cm.sec m =  = slope = constant
N S If slope   
1 2  10poise
m Examples of Newtonian fluid:
N S  Air, Water, petrol, diesel, kerosene, oil,
1poise  0.1 2  0.1 pascal-sec
m mercury, Gasoline etc.
Note: “as the app is decreasing with rate of

For a Newtonian fluid viscosity does not change deformation, these fluids is also known as shear
with rate of deformation. thinning fluid.
1.4.2 Non-Newtonian Fluids:

Fluids which do not obey Newton’ law of
viscosity are known as non – Newtonian fluid.
The general relationship between shear stress ()
 du 
and velocity gradient   is
 dy 
n
 du  Case-3: Bingham plastic fluid.
  A   B
 dy  B  0; n = 1
Case-1: B = 0; n > 1 Di-latent fluids (non – Ex: Toothpaste
colloidal) “Such fluids are comes under rheology”.
A fluid is said to be dilatant fluid for which the Note :
apparent (similar) viscosity increases with rate of In case of Bingham plastic fluid certain min.
deformation. shear stress is required for causing the flow of
n
 du  fluid below this shear stress there is no flow
  A   0
 dy  therefore it acts like solid, after that it behaves
n1 like a fluid. Such substances which behaves both
 du   du 
  A   .  fluids and solids are known as Rheological
 dy   dy  substances and study of these substances is
app
known as rheology.
 du  1.4.3 Ideal Fluid:
   app  
 dy  A fluid which is non – viscous and
incompressible is known as an ideal fluid.
Though there is no ideal fluid it is introduced for
bringing simplicity in the analysis.
Ex: Rice starch, sugar in water.

“As the app is increasing with deformation, these
fluids is also known as shear thickening fluid.
Case2: B =0; n < 1 pseudo plastic fluids
(colloidal)
For a pseudoplastic fluid apparent viscosity
decreases with rate of deformation.
Ex: Milk, blood, colloidal solution.
Remember: Unit of kinematic viscosity:
  H 2O at 20oC  1 CP  Centipoise kg-m
2
sec  m   M o L2T 1 
 1  102 poise kg s  
kg ms
 102 101  103 kg/m-s .
m.s
 Hg at 200C = 1.55 cp In CGS system:
  Water is 50 – 55 times more viscous than air. cm 2 cm 2
In cgs system the unit of  is and is
sec sec
1.5 Equation for a linear velocity profile: equal to stoke.
The velocity profile can be approximated as a 1cm2 4 m
2
1stoke   10
linear velocity profile if the gap between plates is sec sec
very small (narrow passages). Physical significance of :
Kinematic viscosity represent the ability of fluid
to resist momentum therefore it is a measure of
momentum diffusivity.
1.7 Surface Tension ():
Vdt
tan θ 
y
dudt
From triangle tan θ 
dy Consider the molecule a which is below the
Vdt dudt du V surface of liquid this molecule is surrounded by
   
y dy dy y various corresponding molecule and hence under
du V the influence of various cohesive forces it will be
   in equilibrium. Now consider molecule B which
dy y
is on the surface of liquid, this molecule is under
F
 the influence of net downward force because of
A
this there seems to be a layer form which can
AV
F resist small tensile this phenomenon is known as
y surface tension, it is a line force that is it acts
1.6 Kinematic viscosity (): normal to the line drawn on the surface and it lies
 in the plane of surface. As surface tension is
In fluid mechanics the termappears frequently
 basically due to unbalanced cohesive force and
and for convenience this term is known as with increase in temperature cohesive force is
kinematic viscosity. decrease therefore “surface tension decreases
 with increases in temperature, and at critical
 point surface tension is zero”.

Note: Note:
 This force is very small force and hence it is 1. In case of soap bubble there are two surfaces and
neglected in further fluid mechanics analysis. hence.
 The surface tension for water air interface at 20oC 8
P 
is 0.0706 N/m. d
 2
While washing cloths warm water is used 2. In case of liquid jet P 
because warm water reduces surface tension and d
help in cleaning. 3. The pressure force tries to separate the droplet
 Liquid drops assume spherical shape due to whereas surface tension force tries the contract
surface tension. the droplet. i.e., surface tension force tries to
minimise the surface area and hence droplets take
Dimension Formula: spherical shape because sphere has minimum
F N 1MLT 2 surface area for a given volume.
     M 1L0T 2 
L m L
1.8 Capillarity:
Pressure in liquid drop in excess of
atmospheric pressure: Capillarity is the effect of surface tension and it
is not a property.
(a) Wetting liquid
Adhesion is large
(b) Non – wetting liquid

cohesion is large
The rise or fall of a liquid when a small diameter

Fs FP tube is introduced in it is known as capillarity.
 {P  ; FP = PA
L A The capillary rise is due to adhesion. Ex: Water,
Fs  L and the capillary fall is due to cohesion Ex:
mercury, therefore capillarity is due to both
For equilibrium adhesion and cohesion.
Fs = FP
L = PA
 
  d   P  d 2 
4 
4
 P 
d
Expression far capillary rise/Fall in a glass Expression for capillary rise between two
tube: parallel plates:
Where t  distance between plates
[Weight of liquid = vertical component of Fs]

  weight
w. d 2h  F4 cos  w 
4  volume
Fs = 2b
Fs =   L
w  hbt = 2b cos
Fs =   d
2 cos 
Weight = w x volume h
wt

w. d 2h   cos  Note:
4
4 cos  When a liquid surface support another liquid of
h w  g density  b then rise in capillary is given as
wd
4 cos  4 cos 
or h h
gd (  b ) gd
Expression for capillary rise in the annulus of
two concentric tubes: Work done is stretching the surface:
Wt. of the fluid = vertical Component of surface
tension force (Fs)
 2
w.
4
 d0  d12  h    d0  di  cos  Work = Force  distance
=Lx
4 cos  2 cos 
 h 
w(d 0  di ) w(r0  ri ) Work =   (increase in surface area)
Note : P Practice Questions

The angle of contact between water and glass is
22o. 1.1 A fluid is one which can be defined as a
 The angle of contact between pure water and substance that
clean glass tube – 0o (A) Has the same shear stress at all points
 The angle of contact between mercury and (B) Can deform indefinitely under the action
glass is 130o. of the smallest shear force
 If height of capillary tube is insufficient for (C) Has the same shear stress in all
the possible rise the liquid will rise up to the directions
top and stops because for further rise as there (D) Is practically incompressible
are no glass molecules it stops at the top. 1.2 The equation of a state for a is liquid
 If the top of the capillary tube is closed then P = (3500 1/2 +2500) N/m 2 .
the capillary rise will decrease because the air The Bulk modulus of liquid at a pressure of
trapped at the top exert pressure in the 100kPa is
downward direction.
(A) 3500 N/m 2 (B) 2500 N/m 2
1.9 Vapour Pressure:
(C) 48750 N/m 2 (D) 6250 N/m 2
1.3 A liquid compressed in a cylinder has a
volume of 0.04 m 3 at 50 kg/cm 2 and a
volume of 0.039 m3 at 150 kg/cm 2 . The bulk
modulus of liquid is
(A) 400 kg/cm 2 (B) 4000 kg/cm 2
Let us consider a closed container with liquid (C) 40 106 kg/cm 2 (D) 40  105kg/cm 2
partially filled in it the surface molecules due to
1.4 The saturation vapour pressure of three
additional energy overcome cohesive force of
fluid below the surface this process occurs until liquids at 200 C is as given below
the space above the liquid is saturated. Under Methyl Alcohol 12,500Pa
equilibrium conditions the number of molecules Ethyl Alcohol 5900Pa
leaving the surfaces is equal to number of Benzene 10,000Pa
molecules joining the surface under these Select the correct statement from the
conditions the pressure exerted by vapour on the following
surface of liquid is known as vapour pressure.
(A) Benzene vaporizes faster than methyl
Vapour pressure increases with increase in
alcohol at the same temperature
temperature because at higher temperatures the
(B) Methyl alcohol vaporizes faster than
molecular activity is high.
ethyl alcohol at the same temperature
Note: (C) Ethyl alcohol vaporizes faster than
Highly volatile liquid (Ex: petrol) have more benzene at the same temperature
vapour pressure, mercury has least vapour (D) Benzene vaporizes faster than both
pressure and because of this it is used in methyl and ethyl alcohols at the same
manometers. temperature
1.5 Kinematic viscosity of air at 20 C is 0 1.10 A fluid obeying the constitutive equation
1.6 105 m2 /s , its kinematic viscosity at  du 
0
  0  K   is held between two
70 C will be approximately  dy 
(A) 2.2 105 m2 /s (B) 1.6 105 m2 /s parallel plates a distance 'd' apart. If the stress
(C) 1.2 105 m2 /s (D) 105 m2 /s applied to the top plate is 30 , then the
1.6 With increase in temperature, while keeping velocity with which the top plate moves
the pressure constant, the dynamic viscosity relative to the bottom plate would be
 , and the kinematic viscosity  , behave in
   
2 2
the following manner for gases. (A) 2  0  d (B) 4  0  d

K K
(A) Both  &  increases at the same rate
   
2 2
(B) Both  &  decreases at the same rate (C) 3  0  d (D) 9  0  d
K K
(C)  Increases, while  increases faster
1.11 Consider a fluid of viscosity  between two
(D)  decreases, while  increases faster
circular parallel plates of radii R separated by
1.7 A 20cm Cubical box slides on oil (mass
a distance h. The upper plate is rotated at an
density = 800 kg/m 3 ), over a large plane angular velocity  . Whereas the bottom plate
surface with a steady state velocity of 0.4m/s is held stationary. The velocity profile
.The plane surface is inclined at an angle of between the two plates is linear. The torque
300 with the horizontal plane. The oil film experienced by the bottom plate is
between the block and the plane surface is (A)   R 4 / 2h (B)   R 4 / 4h
0.4mm thick. The weight of the box is 64 N .
The kinematic viscosity of the oil is (C)   2 R 3 / 3h (D)   R 3 / h
(A) 0.8Pa.s (B) 0.001m 2 /s 1.12 A journal bearing has a shaft diameter of
40mm and length 40mm .The shaft is
(C) 1.6Pa.s (D) 0.002 m 2 /s
rotating at 20rad/sec and the viscosity of
1.8 Shear stress in the Newtonian fluid is
lubricant is 20mPa-S . The clearance is
proportional to
0.02mm .The loss of torque due to the
(A) Pressure
viscosity of lubricant is approximately
(B) Strain
(C) Strain Rate (A) 0.04 Nm (B) 0.252 Nm
(D) The inverse of the viscosity (C) 0.4 Nm (D) 0.652 Nm
1.9 A Bingham fluid of viscosity   10Pa s, and
1.13 Two infinite parallel horizontal plates are
yield stress 0  10 k Pa , is sheared between separated by a small gap ( d  20mm ) as
flat parallel plates separated by a distance shown in figure. The bottom plate is fixed
103 m . The top plate is moving with a and the gap between the plates is filled with
velocity of 1 m/s. The shear stress on the plate oil having density of 890 kg/m 3 and
is
kinematic viscosity of 0.00033m 2 /s . A shear
(A) 10kPa (B) 20kPa
flow is induced by moving the upper plate
(C) 30kPa (D) 40kPa with a velocity of 5m/s .
Assume, linear velocity profile between the (R) Property which explains rise of sap in a
plates and the oil to be a Newtonian fluid. The tree
shear stress ( N/m2 ) at the upper plate is____ (S) Property which explains the flow of jet
of oil in a unbroken stream
List - II
1) Viscosity
2) Surface Tension
3) Compressibility
4) Vapour pressure
1.14 Match the items between the two groups.
Choose the correct matching 5) Capillarity
Group - I P Q R S
(P) Ideal fluid (A) 1 2 4 5
(Q) Dilatant fluid (B) 2 4 5 1
(R) Newtonian Fluid (C) 4 2 5 1
(S) Pseudo Plastic Fluid (D) 1 2 3 4
Group - II 1.16 Match list I with list II and select the correct
1) Is the one for which shear stress is answer using codes given below the list
linearly proportional to the rate of
List - I List - II
deformation
(A) Specific Weight 1) L/T2
2) Is the one for which there is no resistance
to shear (B) Density 2) F/L3
3) Is the one for which apparent viscosity (C) Shear Stress 3) F/L2
increases with increasing deformation (D) Viscosity 4) FT/L2
rate 5) FT2/L4
4) Is the one for which the apparent A B C D
viscosity decreases with the increasing
(A) 4 4 1 2
deformation rate.
(B) 4 3 2 5
(A) P-2, Q-3, R-1, S-4
(B) P-2, Q-4, R-1, S-3 (C) 4 3 5 2
(C) P-3, Q-1, R-4, S-2 (D) 2 5 3 4
(D) P-4, Q-3, R-1, S-2 1.17 A piston of 60mm diameter moves inside
1.15 Match List - I (Description) with List - II cylinder of 60.1mm diameter. The
(Property of fluid) and select the correct percentage decrease in force necessary to
answer using codes given below move the piston when the lubricant warms up
List - I from 00 C to 1200 C . (00 C  0.0182 NS/ m 2 )
(P) Property which explains the spherical
(1200 C  0.00206 NS/ m 2 )
shape of the liquid drop
(Q) Property which explain the phenomenon (A) 11.32 (B) 88.68
of cavitation in a fluid flow (C) 66.67 (D) 33.33
1.18 A skater weighing 800 N skates at a speed of
15m/s on ice at 00 C . The average skating
area supporting him is 10cm 2 and the
coefficient of friction between skates and ice
is 0.02, if there is actually a thin film of water
between skates and ice, then its thickness is
(  103 N  s/ m 2 )
(A) 9.375 104 m (B) 9.375 105 m
(C) 9.375 106 m (D) 9.375 107 m
1.19 Consider a soap film bubble of diameter D. If
1.23 A spherical water drop of radius 'R' splits up
the external pressure is P0 and the surface
in air into 'n' smaller drops of equal size the
tension of the soap film is  , the expression work required in splitting up the drop
for the pressure inside the bubble is
(   Surface tension of water) is
2
(A) P0 (B) P0  (A) 4r 2 n
D
4 8  13 
(C) P0  (D) P0  (B) 4  R  n  1
2
D D  
1.20 A small drop of water at 200 C in contact with 1
air has a diameter of 0.05mm . If the pressure (C) 4  r R 2 n 3

within the droplet is 0.6kPa higher that of  2 
the atmosphere, the surface tension is (D) 4   R 2  n 3  1
 
(A) 7.5 103 N/m (B) 7.5 102 N/m
A Answer Key
(C) 7.5 101 N/m (D) 7.5 10N/m
1.21 If the diameter of tube is 1mm then the
1.1 B 1.2 C 1.3 B
capillary rise is 3cm . What will be the
capillary rise when diameter changes to 1.4 B 1.5 A 1.6 C
0.2 mm ?
(A) 3cm (B) 0.6 cm 1.7 B 1.8 C 1.9 B
(C) 15cm (D) 7.5cm
1.22 An open glass capillary tube of 2mm bore is 1.10 B 1.11 A 1.12 A
lowered into a cistern containing mercury
(density = 13600 kg/m3 ) as shown in the 1.13 73.425 1.14 A 1.15 B
figure. Given that the contact angle between
1.16 D 1.17 B 1.18 D
mercury and glass = 1400 , surface tension
coefficient = 0.484N/m and gravitational
1.19 D 1.20 A 1.21 C
2
acceleration 9.81m/s , the depression of
mercury in the capillary tube below the free 1.22 5.558 1.23 B
surface in the cistern, in mm, is______
E Explanation 1.4 (B)
1.1 (B) 1.5 (A)

With increase in temperature, kinematic
1.2 (C)
viscosity of air increases. So, kinematic
Given data : viscosity of air at 70C is more than
1
2500 N 1.6  10-5 m2/s.
P  3500  2
m2 Hence, the correct option is (A).
P = 100 kPa
We know that 1.6 (C)
dP 1.7 (B)
Bulk modulus K  
d
1
Given data :
P  3500  2500
2
oil = 800 kg/m3
1
dP 1  1750 v = 0.4 m/s
 3500   2

d 2 1
 = 300
 2
1
1750
K  . 1
 1750 2
2
 P  2500 
 1750.  
 3500 
1750(100 103  2500)
K
3500 AV
F  w sin 
K = 48750 N/m2 y
Hence, the correct option is (C).
 (20  20 104 )  0.4
1.3 (B)   64  sin 30
0.4 103
Given data : N s
V1 = 0.04 m3    0.8
m2
P1 = 50 kg/cm2
We know that kinematic viscosity
V2 = 0.039 m3
 0.8
P2 = 150 kg/cm2   0.001 m2 /s
 800
We know that
dP Hence, the correct option is (B).
Bulk modulus (K) =
 dV  1.8 (C)
 
 V 
d
150  50 100 From Newton’s law of viscosity   .
k  dt
 0.039  0.04  0.025
  Shear stress is directly proportional to rate of
 0.04 
deformation or stain rate.
 4000 kg/cm 2
Hence, the correct option is (B).
1.9 (B)
n
 du 
  A   B
 dy 
For Bingham plastic fluid n = 1; B  0
 du 
  A   B
 dy 
 1   du V
  10   3   10 103 pascal  
 10   dy y
  10 103  10 103 pascal
  20 103 pascal
Torque dT = dF  r
 = 20 kPa
Hence, the correct option is (B). u. 2rdr  r .r
dF 
1.10 (B) h
R
u  2rdr  r r R 4
du T  
  0  k 0
h 2h
dy
Hence, the correct option is (A).
1.12 (A)
du
30  0  k
dy
 du 
 2 0   k2  
2
AV
 dy  F
h
02 V  dA
du  4 .dy dF 
k2 h
  Torque = dF  r
2
u  4  0  .d
k    r dl   r
T
Hence, the correct option is (B). h
20 102   20 103  20 
1.11 (A)
AV 
  40  40 10   20 10
6 2
F 0.02 102
h
T = 0.0402 N -m
u  2rdr  r
dF  Hence, the correct option is (A).
h
1.13 73.425 F1  F2
Percentage decrease in force = 100
F1
Given :
d = 20  103 m  k1  k2 
   100
oil = 890 kg/m2  k1 
 = 0.00033 m2/s 0.0182  0.00206
 100
v = 5m/s 0.0182
V (.)V  88.68%
 
y y Hence, the correct option is (B).
(0.00033  890)  5 1.18 (D)
  73.425pascal
20 103 Given data :
Hence, the correct answer is 73.425. W = 800 N
1.14 (A) V = 15 m/s
A = 10 cm2
1.15 (B)
(Friction coefficient) = 0.02
1.16 (D) (viscosity) = 103 Ns/m2
weight F
Specific weight = 
volume L3
mass
density 
volume
F /a F FT 2
 3   4
L L 3 L
2
.L
T
N = weight of skater = 800 N
Force F
Shear stress =  2 Fs = 0.02  800 N
area L
 'VA
 F FT Fs 
Viscosity =   2 y
 du  2 T 
L
L
 dy  L  L  103 15 10 103
    0.02  800 
y
Hence, the correct option is (D).
y = 9.375  107 m
1.17 (B)
0o C  0.0182 Ns / m 2
1.19 (D)
120o C  0.00206 Ns / m 2
Soap bubble
AV 8
F P  Pi  P0 
y D
F 8
Pi  P0 
F1 = k 1; F2 = k2 D
1.20 (A)
4
P 
D
4
0.6 103 
0.05 103
  7.5 103 N/m
1.21 (C)
We know that
4 cos 
h
gd
1
h
d
hd = constant
h1d1 = h2d2
3cm  1 mm = h2  0.2 mm
h2 = 15 cm
1.22 5.558
4 cos 
h
gd
4  0.484  cos140
h  5.558 103 m
13600  9.81 2 10 3
=  5.558 mm
Note : ve sign shows depression of mercury in the
capillary tube.
Hence, the correct answer is – 5.558.
1.23 (B)
Work done =   increase in surface area
Work =   [4 r2 n  4R2]

= 4R2[n-2/3. n  1]
Work = 4R2(n1/3  1)
NOTES
2.1 Pressure A
1
It is defined as the external normal force exerted a
per unit area. The area can be real or imaginary. A W

The unit of pressure is N/m2 or Pascal. a F
“Pressure is a representative of number of
W
collisions per second.” 1
F
Pressure is compressive in nature.
2.1.1 Mohr’s circle for a static fluid: W>F
For a static fluid there is no shear stress and there As W > F that is by applying small force large
are only normal forces (pressure) therefore Mohr weight can be raised this does not mean the
circle is a point as shown in Fig. energy conservation is violated because smaller
force moves through a larger distance whereas
larger force move through smaller distance.
Note:
Pascal’s law can be applied for flowing fluids. If
the shear force is zero. This is possible only if the
fluid is ideal.
2.2 Pascal’s law:
According to Pascal’s law pressure at any point 2.3 Atmospheric Pressure (Patm.):
in a static fluid is equal in all directions.
The pressure exerted by environmental mass is
Conversely if pressure is applied in static fluid it
known as atmospheric pressure.
is transmitted equally in all direction.
Applications:  The atmospheric pressure is around 1.01325 bar.
Hydraulic lift, hydraulic brake etc. 2.4 Gauge Pressure (Pgauge):
The pressure measured with respect to

atmospheric pressure, is known as gauge
pressure.
2.5 Absolute Pressure (Pabs.):
The pressure measured with respect to zero

pressure is known as absolute pressure.
Note:
 If h is taken in upward direction as the pressure
𝑑𝑃
decreases with height = −𝑤
𝑑ℎ
 For a static fluid forces acting on static fluid are

pressure and gravity forces.
 At free surface all the other forces except
Pabs. = Patm. + Pgauge atmospheric pressure force is zero.
2.6 Vacuum Pressure: 2.7.1 Pressure at any depth h:
The pressure less than atmospheric pressure is Assumption:
known as vacuum pressure.
Density of fluid is constant.
Pvacuum
Patm.
Pabs..
Vacuum pressure = Patm. Pabs.
Note:
 There can be positive gauge or negative gauge
pressure but there cannot be negative absolute At free surface h = 0
pressure.
 While calculating absolute pressure local P = Patm
atmospheric pressure must be taken into account. dP
w
2.7 Hydrostatic Law: dh
dP = wdh
P = wh + c
At h = 0 ; P = Patm
Then Patm = c
Pabs. = wh + Patm
For gauge pressure Patm = 0
Pgauge = wh = gh
Weight = (Specific weight  Volume)  P = gh is based on the assumption that the
PdA + gdAdh = (P +dP)dA density is constant.
dP  Sometime pressure is expressed in height
  g  w  hydrostatic law
dh column because  and g are almost constant
“hydrostatic law represents or gives variation of and pressure varies directly with h, therefore
pressure in the vertical direction.” it is expressed in height column.
Kulkarni’s Academy 19 Pressure Measurement
2.8 Pressure measurement device: s1h1 = s2h2
2.8.1 Barometer: where, s is specific gravity.
Barometer is used for measuring atmospheric Let us assume both are gases.
pressure. 1h1  2 h2

 air  air
s1h1 = s2h2
2.8.3 Piezometer:
Piezometer is a device which is open at both the
end with one end connected to a point where is
the pressure is to be calculated and another end is
open to atmosphere.
0 + gh = Patm
Patm = gh
From scale we measure height h = 0.76 m
Patm = 13.6  103 9.81  0.76
= 1.01396 105 N/m2
1 bar = 105 N/m2
Patm = 1.01396 bar
Note: Piezometer are not suitable for measuring.
If water is used instead of mercury the  Very high pressures
corresponding height will be 10.3m of water as  Gas pressures
this height is very large therefore “mercury is  Piezometers are suitable for measuring
used in barometers because of its higher density”. moderate liquid pressure.
2.8.2 Conversion of 1 fluid column into
Note:
another fluid column:
Piezometers are also known as simple
manometers.
2.8.4 Manometers:
Manometers are used for measuring pressure and
are based on balancing of liquid column.
P1=P2
1gh1 = 2gh2
1h1 = 2h2 Generalised equation.
Let us assume both are liquids.
1h1 2 h2

 H 2o  H 2o
1. Simple U-tube manometers:
P Practice Questions
2.1 In a static fluid, the pressure at a point is
(A) Equal to the weight of the fluid above
(B) Equal in all directions
(C) Equal in all directions only if its
viscosity is zero
(D) Always directed downwards
2.2 Three containers are filled with water upto
(a) Jumping of fluid technique
the same height as shown. The pressure at the
P  gy  m gx  0 bottom of the containers are denoted asP1, P2
and P3. Which one of the following
P  m gx  gy relationships is true?
Where, P gauge pressure
(A) P  P  P (B) P2  P1  P3
3 2 1
(C) P  P  P (D) P1  P2  P3
1 2 3
2.3 The pressure gauges G1 and G2 installed on
the system show pressures of PG1 = 5 and
PG2 = 1 bar.
(b) Datum line technique: The value of unknown pressure P is
PA = PB
 P + gy = PA
0 + mgx = PB
PA = PB
 P + gy = mgx
P = mgxgy (A) 1.01 bar (B) 2.01 bar
(C) 5 bar (D) 7.01 bar
2.4 A diver descends 200 m in a sea (where the
density of sea water is 1050kg/m3) to as
unken ship wherein a container is found with
a pressure gauge reading of 225 kPa .
Taking the pressure at the surface of the sea
to be atmospheric (Patm =100kPa), the
absolute pressure in the container is (g = 10
m/s2)
(A) 225 kPa (B) 325 kPa
(C) 2325 kPa (D) 2425 kPa
2.5 Choose the correct combination of true
statements from the following:
For a fluid at rest in equilibrium.
P. The pressure must be the same over any
horizontal plane
Q. The density must be the same over any (A) 3.573kPa (B) 4.573kPa
horizontal plane (C) 6.573kPa (D) 7.573kPa
R. the shear stress must have the same non- 2.9 Pressures have been observed at four
zero value over any horizontal plane different points in different units of
dP measurement as follows
S.  g
dz (1) 150 kPa
(A) P, Q, R (B) Q, R, S (2) 1800 milli bar
(C) P, R, S (D) P, Q, S (3) 20 m of water
2.6 An open tank contains water to a depth of 2m (4) 1240 mm of mercury
and oil over it to a depth of 1m. If the specific
Then the points arranged in descending order
gravity of oil is 0.8, then the pressure
of pressure are
intensity at the interface of the two fluid
layers will be (A) 1,2,3, and 4 (B) 3, 2, 1 and 4
(A) 9750 N/m2 (B) 8720N/m2 (C) 3, 2, 4 and 1 (D) 2, 1, 4 and 3

(C) 9347 N/m2 (D) 7848N/m2 2.10 The pressure at the base of the mountain is
750 mm of mercury and at the top, the
2.7 A manometer measures the pressure
pressure is600 mm of mercury. If the density
differential between two locations of a pipe
carrying water. If the manometric liquid is of air is 1kg/m3 , then the height of mountain
mercury (S = 13.6) and the manometer is approximately
showed a level difference of 20cm , then the (A) 3 km (B) 2 km
pressure head difference of water between (C) 5 km (D) 7 km
the two tappings will be 2.11 When can a piezometer be not used for
(A) 1.26 m (B) 2.72 m pressure measurement in pipes?
(C) 1.36 m (D) 2.52 m (A) The pressure difference is low
2.8 The tank shown in the figure is closed at top (B) The velocity is high
and contains air at a pressure PA. The value
(C) The fluid in pipe is a gas
of PA for the manometer reading shown will
be (D) The fluid in the pipe is highly viscous
2.12 Multi U- tube manometers with different 2.16 The standard atmospheric pressure is 762
fluids are used to measure mm of mercury. At a specific location, the
(A) Low pressures barometer reads 700 mm of mercury. At this
(B) Medium pressures place, what does an absolute pressure of 380
mm of mercury corresponds to
(C) High pressures
(A) 320 mm of mercury vacuum
(D) Very low pressure
(B) 382 mm of mercury vacuum
2.13 In order to increase sensitivity of U-tube (C) 62 mm of mercury vacuum
manometer, one leg is usually inclined byan
(D) 700 mm of mercury vacuum
angle  . What is the sensitivity of inclined
2.17 The force F needed to support the liquid of
tube compared to sensitivity of Utube
density d and the vessel on top of figure is
1
(A) sin  (B)
sin 
1
(C) (D) tan
cos 
2.14 Which one of the following statements is
NOT CORRECT
(A) A gauge always measures pressure
above the surrounding atmospheric
pressure
(B) At a point in a static fluid, pressure is (A) gd [ha  ( H  h) A]
equal in all directions (B) gdHA
(C) Typical actual variation of pressure with (C) gdHa
elevation in atmosphere is more
(D) gd (H  h) A
adiabatic than isothermal
(D) Vacuum pressure at a point is always 2.18 Refer to figure, the absolute pressure of gas
measured above absolute zero pressure A in the bulb is
2.15 Three immiscible liquids of densities , 2
and 3 are kept in a jar as shown in figure.
Then the ratio H/h is
(A) 771.2mmHg
(B) 752.65mmHg
(A) 9 (B) 3.5 (C) 767.35mmHg
(C) 3 (D) 2.5 (D) 748.8mmHg
2.19 In given figure, if the pressure of gas in bulb Assuming   300 and the manometer fluid as
A is 50cmHg vacuum and oil with specific gravity of 0.86, the pressure
Patm  76cm of Hg , then height of column H at A is
is equal to
(A) 43 mm water (vacuum)

(A) 26 cm (B) 50 cm (B) 43 mm water
(C) 76 cm (D) 126 cm (C) 86 mm water
2.20 Two pipelines, one carrying oil (mass density (D) 100mm water
900 kg/m 3 ) and the other water, are 2.22 A differential U-tube manometer with
connected to a manometer as shown in the mercury as the manometric fluid is used to
figure. By what amount the pressure in the measure the pressure difference between two
water pipe should be increased so that the sections P and Q in a horizontal pipe carrying
mercury levels in both the limbs of the water at steady state as shown in the figure.
manometer become equal? If the difference in mercury levels in the two
limbs of the manometer is 0.75m , the
(mass density of mercury = 13,500 kg/m 3
difference in pressure ( kPa )between sections
and g  9.81m/s 2 )
P and Q is
(A) 49.275 (B) 94.275

(A) 24.7kPa (B) 26.5kPa (C) 9.4275 (D) 492.75
(C) 26.7kPa (D) 28.9kPa 2.23 A U-tube manometer, as shown in figure has
2.21 In the inclined manometer shown in the water as a manometric fluid. When an
figure, the reservoir is large. Its surface may unknown pressure 'P' acts at 5mm diameter
be assumed to remain at a fix edelevation. A limb, the water rises in the limb by 100 mm
is connected to a gas pipe line and the from initial level; if the other limb is open to
deflection noted on the inclined glass tube is atmospheric (pressure Pa), the pressure
100 mm. differential (P - Pa) is
2.27 Which one of the following figures correctly
represents the Mohr’s circle for a static fluid
(hydrostatic condition)
(A)
(B)
(A) 1225 N/m 2 (B) 980 N/m 2
(C) 1250 N/m 2 (D) 1000 N/m 2 s (C)
2.24 A manometer is made of a tube of uniform

bore of 0.5cm 2 cross-sectional area, with one
limb vertical and the other limb in clinedat
300 to the horizontal. Both of its limbs are (D)
open to atmosphere and initially, it is partly
filled with a liquid of specific gravity1.25. If
an additional volume of 7.5cm 3 of water is
added to inclined tube, calculate the rise of 2.28 5m deep vertical cylindrical tank, water is
the liquid in vertical tube from initial level? filled up to a level of 3m from the bottom
(A) 4 cm (B) 7.5 cm and the remaining space is filled with oil of
(C) 12 cm (D) 15 cm specific gravity 0.88. Assume density of
2.25 Which property of mercury is the main water as 1000 kg/m3 and acceleration due to
reason for its use in barometers? gravity to be 10 m/s 2 . The gauge pressure(in
(A) High density kN/m2 , rounded off to the first decimal
(B) Negligible capillary effect place) at a depth of 2.5m from the top of the
(C) Low vapour pressure tank will be__
(D) Low compressibility 2.29 The figure below shows the pressure
2.26 Atmospheric pressure at a place is equal to measured in a well at different depths. AB is
10cm of water. A liquid has a specific weight gas cap; B is gas oil contact and C is water -
of 12kN/m3. The absolute pressure at a point oil contact. Density of gas in cap is 2kg/m 3 ,
2m below the free surface of liquid in kPa oil density is 800 kg/m 3 and water density is
is 1000 kg/m3 . The difference between pressure
(A) 2.4 (B) 12.4 at point D and point B (PD-PB) is ______
(C) 24 (D) 122.1 105N/m2. (Take g=9.81m/s2)
A Answer Key
2.1 C 2.2 D 2.3 D
2.4 D 2.5 D 2.6 D
2.7 D 2.8 A 2.9 C
2.10 B 2.11 C 2.12 C

2.30 Consider the density and altitude at the base 2.13 B 2.14 A 2.15 C
of an isothermal layer in the standard
atmosphere to be 1 and h1 respectively. The 2.16 A 2.17 B 2.18 A
density variation with altitude (  versus h) in 2.19 B 2.20 A 2.21 B
that layer is governed by (R = gas constant; T
2.22 B 2.23 A 2.24 A
= temperature; g = acceleration due to
gravity) 2.25 A 2.26 D 2.27 b
 g 
  ( hh1 )  
g
( h1 h ) 2.28 22.6 2.29 7.84 2.30 A
(A)  e  RT  (B)  e RT
1 1
2.31 A
 
RT RT
 ( hh1 )  ( h1 h )
(C) e g (D) e g
1 1 E Explanation
2.31 Which of the following pressure units

2.1 (C)
represent the LEAST pressure
(A) millibar 2.2 (D)
(B) mm of mercury As height is same in all containers, so,

pressure is same.
(C) N/mm2
(D) kg-f/cm2
2.3 (D)
P = P1 + PG1
P = S + 2.01 = 7.01 bar
2.4 (D) 2.8 (A)
PA + oil gh + water gh  m. gh = 0
PA + 750  9.81  1.5 + 1000  9.81 
0.6  13600  9.81  0.1 = 0
PA = (13600  0.1  1000  0.6  750 
1.5)  9.81
PA =  35800.65 Pa =  3.58 kPa.
2.9 (C)
P = gh
 1050  10  200 = 2100 kPa (1) 150 kPa = 15  104 Pascal
(2) 1800 milli bar = 1800  103 bar
Pabs = Pguage + Plocal atm
= 18  104 Pascal
 225 + (100 + 2100)  2425 kPa.
(3) 20 m of water = 1000  10  20
= 20  104 Pascal
2.5 (D) (4) 1240 mm of mercury = 13600  9.81 
1.240 = 16.54  104 Pascal
2.6 (D)
Descending order of pressure is 3 – 2 – 4 – 1.
2.10 (B)
air hair= hg hhg
150
hair  13600  m
1000
Pinterface = oil  g  h = 2040 m = 2.04 km
= 900  9.81  1
 7848 N/m2 2.11 (C)
Hence, the correct option is (D). Piezometers are not suitable for measuring
gas pressures.
2.7 (D) Hence, the correct option is (C).
2.12 (C)
Multi – u tube manometer with different
fluids are used to measure high pressure.
2.13 (B)
P1 + H + 0.2  0.2  13.6  H = P2

P1  P2  2.72  0.2
 2.52m of water head
 1  2.19 (B)
l  x 
 sin  
1
is the sensitivity of inclined u – tube.
sin 
2.14 (A)
2.15 (C)
 g(3h) + 2g(1.5h)  3g(H – h) = 0
 g(3h) + 2g(1.5h) + 3gh  3gh = 0
gh = 3H
 PA abs  H  Patm  PB abs  76  50
H
3 H  Patm   PA abs = 26 cm
h
Hence, the correct option is (C). H = 76 – 26
2.16 (A) H = 50 cm
2.20 (A)
Poil + 900  9.81  3  13500 9.81  0.2 

1000  9.81  1.5 = Pwater
Pvacuum  Plocal atm  Pabs
 P0  Pw = 14715 Pascal …. (1)
 700 – 380
 320mm of Hg vacuum
2.17 (B)
Force  Pressure  Area
 dgHA
2.18 (A)
 2 
 PA  g (0.17)  13600  9.81  
 100 
 P0 + 900  9.81  2.9  1000  9.81  1.6
 5 
1000  9.81  
 100  = Pw+P
= 101325 Pascal  P0 + 9908.1 = Pw + P
 PA  101325 = 13600  9.81  0.02 +
1000  9.81  0.05  1000  9.81  0.17  P0  Pw + 9908.1 = P
 PA = 1598.22 + 101325 pascal  14715 + 9908.1 = P
 102923.22 pascal
760 102923.22  P = 24623.1 Pascal = 24.62 kPa
  771.98 mmof Hg
101325 Hence, the correct option is (A).
2.21 (B) 25 100
h   25mm
100
125
Pa – 1000  9.81  P
1000
 P – Pa =  1226 N/m2
2.24 (A)
PA  50 = 0
PA = 50 mm of oil
sw hw = s0h0
hw = 0.86  50
hw = 43 mm of water (+)
2.22 (B)
After adding 7.5 cm3 of water to inclined tube
7.5
y1  y2   15cm
0.5
Let, y1+y2 = h = 15 cm …. (1)
h2 = y1 …. (2)
y1 = 2h1 …. (3)
Patm  1250  g  (h1  h2 )
 PP - H2O gH-Hg  0.75 + 7.5
 1000  g   Patm
H2O  g  (0.75 + H) = PQ 100
 PP – PQ = 13600  9.81  0.75 – 1000  h  7.5
1250  g   2  h2   1000  g 
9.81  0.75 2  100
 92704.5 Pa  h2 = 0.04 m
 92.7 kPa  h2 = 4 cm
Hence, the correct option is (B). Hence, the correct option is (A).
2.23 (A) 2.25 (A)
2.26 (D)
Patm = 10 m of water
= gh
= 1000  9.81  10 = 98.1 kPa
By using volume conservation

A  h = a  h
D2  h = d2h
Pabsolute = Patm + wh  804616.2 N/m2
= 98.1 + 12  2 PB = air  9.81  1010
= 122.1 kPa  2  9.81  1010
 19816.2 N/m2
2.27 (B)
PDPB = 804616.2 – 19816.2
For a static fluid there is no shear stress and  784800 N/m2
there are only normal forces (pressure)
therefore Mohr circle is a point.  7.84  105 N/m2
Hence, the correct option is (B). Hence, the correct answer is 7.84.
2.28 22.6 2.30 (A)
dP = gdh
P = RT (From ideal gas equation)
dP = RT. d (T = C; isothermal atmosphere)
Given :   dRT   gdh
g = 10 m/s2

d
h
h = 2.5 m (from the top)
Pgauge = ?
   h dh
1 1
 Pgauge  oil  g  2  water  g  0.5  g

 n     h  h1 
 880  10  2 + 1000  10  1.5 
 1 RT
 22.6 kN/m2
 g
  hh1 
Hence, the correct answer is 22.6.   e RT
1
2.29 7.84
Given
2.31 (A)
air = 2 kg/m3
oil = 800 kg/m3  Millibar = 103 bar = 102pascal
water = 1000 kg/m3  1 mm of Hg = 1 torr = 138.32 pascal
PD  PB = ? N
  106 pascal
PD  air  g  1010  oil  g  50 
2
mm
w  g  40 kg.f
 2
 9.81104 pascal
cm
 2  9.81  1010 + 800  9.81  50 +
1000  9.81  40
NOTES
3.1 Archimedes Principle: Note:
When a body is submerged either partially or [1] When a homogeneous body is completely
completely the net vertical upward force exerted submerged, in a fluid then the centre of gravity
by the fluid on the body is known as buoyancy (c.g.) of the body and centre of buoyancy is
force [Fb] and this buoyancy force is equal to coincide.
weight of the fluid displaced and this is known as
[2] For a floating homogeneous body centre of
Archimedes principle.
buoyancy is below the centre of gravity.
[3] For a non-homogeneous body (heterogeneous)
centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity may not
coincide even if it completely submerged.
3.3 Principle of Floatation:
For a floating body to be in equilibrium weight

of the body must be equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced and line of action of these two
Vfd = Volume of the body submerged forces must be same.
= (x2 – x1)A
Net vertical upward force exerted by fluid on the
body = f gx2A - f gx1A
FvNet = f g(x2 x1)A
FvNet = fgVfd
FvNet = weight of the fluid displaced
FBuoyancy = WtFd
Note:
Buoyancy is basically due to pressure difference.
3.2 Centre of Buoyancy (B):

It is the point from which the buoyancy force is
suppose to be acting and this buoyancy force will Wbody = FB
act at the centroid of the displaced volume.
FB = Weight of displaced fluid (Wfd)
Therefore, centre of buoyancy will lie at the
centroid of the displaced volume. Wbody = Weight of displaced fluid
Kulkarni’s Academy 31 Buoyancy & Floatation
3.4 Type’s of Equilibrium:
[1] Stable equilibrium
[2] Unstable equilibrium
[3] Neutral equilibrium
Stability conditions for completely [3] A floating body will be in neutral equilibrium
submerged bodies: when G & M coincide.
3.5 Metacentre (M):
It is the point of intersection of normal axis of the

body with the new axis of line of buoyancy force.
When a body is tilted. i.e. it is the point about
which the body is suppose to be oscillating.
[1] A completely submerged body will be in Metacentric height (GM):

stable equilibrium when centre of buoyancy
(B) is above the centre of gravity (G).
[2] A completely submerged body will be in

unstable equilibrium when the centre of
buoyancy (B) is below the centre of gravity
(G).
[3] A completely submerged body will be in

neutral equilibrium when centre of gravity
(G) and centre of buoyancy (B) is coincide.
Stability conditions for partially submerged

The distance between centre of gravity (G) and
or floating bodies:
Metacentre (M) measured along normal axis is
[1] A floating body will be in stable equilibrium known as Metacentric height.
when Metacentre (M) is above the centre of
gravity (G).  For stable equilibrium GM > 0 or positive
[2] A floating body will be in unstable  Unstable equilibrium GM < 0 or Negative

equilibrium when Metacentre (M) is below
the centre of gravity (G).  Neutral equilibrium GM = 0
3.6 Mathematical condition for stable “Oscillation about longitudinal axis are known as
equilibrium:
rolling and oscillations about transverse axis is
known as pitching.”
[BMrolling< BMpitching]
For more stable equilibrium condition BM or
If rolling is taken care of then pitching is
GM must be as large as possible.
automatically taken care of.
I
BM  3.7 Time Period of Oscillation:
VFd
BM is known as Metacentric radius. k g2

T  2
g (GM )
GM T i.e. more oscillation
kg – least radius of gyration I  Ak g2
I
kg 
A
For more stable equilibrium condition

Metacentric height GM must be larger but larger
GM results in smaller time period of oscillations.
i.e., more number of oscillations in a given time
I LL therefore passengers are not comfortable under
BM L 
VFd such conditions, therefore for passenger ships
metacentric height is not very high.
I tt b3 b 3
BM t  I LL  ; Itt In case of war ship stability is important than
VFd 12 12
comfort therefore GM for war ships is larger than
Itt > ILL that of passenger ship.
BMt> BML
Note :
From design point of view least BM is calculated
that is BM about longitudinal axis is calculated.  Metacentric height for passenger ship is 0.3 m to
1.2 m.
As BMt> BML the body will be more stable when
it oscillates about transverse axis compare to  Metacentric height for war ship is 1.0 m to 1.5 m.
oscillation about longitudinal axis.
3.8 Weight loss due to buoyancy: Example 1
A plastic boat with a steel ball floating in
water containing if steel ball is thrown in
water container then what will happen to the
level of water.
Sol. Concept:
 If the displaced volume of the fluid is more,
the level will rise.
 If the displaced volume of the fluid is less the
level falls.
 If the displaced volume of the fluid is same,
the level will remain same.
Weight loss
= T – T1
 W – W + FB
= FB
Case: 1 Case: 2
Weight loss = buoyancy force
In case 1
Note: Wbody = WFd
 As the density of air is very small buoyancy  Mbody g = F g VFd1
effect is negligible in air therefore the correct  (Msb + Mpb) = F VFd,1 …. (1)
weight of the body is obtained when it is In case 2
submerged in air. WPb = WFd
 Dead body floats on water because after the death MPb g = F g VFd, pb
due to biological activities gases are released  Mpb = F VFd, pb …. (2)
specially methane (CH4) hence the density of the Wsb> FB
body decreases & due to buoyancy force dead
Msb.g >F gVFd,sb
body floats.
Msb>FVFd,sb …. (3)
VFd2 = VFd,pb + VFd,sb
Add (2) + (3)
Msb + Mpb = F(VFd,sb + VFd,pb)
From equation 1:
F vFd,1>F[VFd,sb+VFd,sb]
VFd,1> VFd.2
VFd2< VFd1
Level fall.
Example 2 In case 2
An ice block float on water, if complete ice Wwater = WFd
melt then show that level of water remains
mwg = F g VFdice
same.
Sol.  mw = F VFd, ice …. (a)
Wiron > FB
m2g >Fg VFd, iron …. (b)
m2>F VFd, iron
VFd2 = VFd, ice + VFd, iron
Wice = WFd ice water Add equation (a) & (b)
 mice g = FgVFd m = V  (m1 + m2) >F VFd2
Mice = FVFd …. (1) VFd1F>FVFd2
m  VFd1> VFd2
v
F Level will go down.
m Note:
vFd 
F
 A ship enters from sea water to river water, ship
Level is same because displaced volume of will go down and level of river rises.
fluid is same.
Example 3
If inside the ice, there is a piece of metal or
iron nail, then what will happen to the level
of water.
Sol.
Case: 1 Case: 2
In case 1
Wice block = WFd
mice block g =FgVFd
 (m1 + m2) = vFd1.F ….(1)
3.5 The following terms relate to floating bodies:
Centre of gravity - G; Metacentre - M;
3.1 Force of buoyancy on a floating body equals Weight of floating body - W; Buoyant force
(A) Total pressure on the vertical projection - FB.
of the body Match List-I which List-II and select the
correct answer
(B) Total pressure on the horizontal
List-I
projection of the body
(A) G is above M
(C) Weight of liquid equal to the volume of (B) G and M coincide
the body (C) G is below M
(D) Weight of the liquid equal to the (D) FB  W
immersed volume of the body
List-II
3.2 When a ship moving on seawater enters a 1) Stable equilibrium
river, it is expected to 2) Unstable equilibrium
(A) Rise a little 3) Floating body
4) Neutral equilibrium
(B) Sink a little
A B C D
(C) Maintain the same level of draft (A) 1 3 2 4
(D) Rise or fall depending on whether it is (B) 3 1 4 2
made of wood or steel (C) 2 4 1 3
(D) 2 3 4 1
3.3 In an ice berg, 15% of the volume projects
3.6 Match List I with List II and select the
above the sea surface. If the specific weight
correct answer
of sea water is 10.5 kN/ m 3 , the specific
List-I
weight of ice berg in kN/m3 is (A) Stable equilibrium
(A) 12.52 (B) 9.81 (B) Stable equilibrium
(C) Unstable equilibrium
(C) 8.93 (D) 7.83
(D) Unstable equilibrium
3.4 A metallic cube of side 10cm , density List-II
6.8 gm/cm 3 is floating in liquid mercury 1) Below G of a floating body
(density  13.69gm/cm 3 ) with 5 cm height of 2) M above G of a submerged body
cube exposed above the mercury level. Water 3) B above G of a floating body
(density  1gm/cm 3 ) is filled over to 4) M below G of a submerged body
submerge cube fully. The new height of cube A B C D
exposed above mercury level is (A) 2 1 4 3
(B) 4 3 2 1
(A) 4.6 cm (B) 5.4cm
(C) 2 3 4 1
(C) 5.0 cm (D) 5.8 cm (D) 2 3 1 4
3.7 A body weighs 100N in air and 80 N in water.
The density of the body is
(A) 4000 kg/m 3 (B) 5000 kg/m3
(C) 8000 kg/m3 (D) 7000 kg/m3

3.8 A body weighs 30 N in a liquid of density
800 kg/m 3 and 15 N in a liquid of density
1200 kg/m3 . The volume of body is
(A) 3.82 103 m3 (B) 2.82 103 m3

(C) 5.76 103 m3 (D) 8.98 103 m3 3.13 The tension in the wire is
3.9 The weight of a sphere is 100 N. If it floats in (A) 1962 N (B) 981N
water just fully submerged, the diameter of (C) 491N (D) 768N
sphere is 3.14 The volume of the buoy that is submerged is
(A) 112 mm (B) 213 mm (A) 0.1m 3 (B) 0.6 m 3
(C) 269 mm (D) 315 mm
(C) 0.8 m 3 (D) 0.2 m 3
3.10 The metacentric height for a floating
3.15 A spherical balloon of diameter 15m is
spherical ball of radius R and depth of
supposed to lift a load of 3000 N . The lifting
immersion also equal to R is
of load is achieved by heating the air inside
(A) R (B) 1  R2 the balloon. Assume, air to be an ideal gas
6R and atmospheric pressure either outside or
(C) (D) 0 inside the balloon. The value of acceleration
5
due to gravity is 9.81m/s 2 and the values of
3.11 The least radius of gyration of ship is 9 m and
temperature and density of atmospheric air
the meta centric height is 750 mm. The time
period oscillation of the ship is are 150 C and 1.2 kg/m3 , respectively. In order
to lift the specified load, the air in side the
(A) 42.41 S (B) 75.4 S
balloon should be heated to a temperature (
(C) 20.85 S (D) 85 S 0
C ) of___
3.12 A solid cylinder (density  600 kg/m ) of3
3.16 A container of square cross section is
length L and diameter D floats in water under partially filled with a liquid of density 1 .The
neutral equilibrium conditions with its axis cylinder is intended to float in another liquid
vertical. Then L/D is of density  2 as shown in the figure. The
Linked Answer Questions (3.13 to 3.14) distance between metacentre and centre of
I
A metallic sphere of volume Vm  0.1m3 ¸ buoyancy is where I and Vsub are area
Vsub
density 20000 kg/m3 and fully submerged in
moment of inertia of the cross-section and
water is attached by a flexible wire to a buoy submerged volume respectively. Neglect the
of volume VB  1m3 and density = 100 kg/m 3 weight of the container.
Which one of the following is the correct 3.18 A homogenous right circular cylinder of
condition for stability? length L, radius R and specific gravity SG is
floating in water with its axis vertical. If
SG  0.8 , then the minimum value of R/L
above which the body will always be stable is
(A) 0.16
(B) 0.36
(C) 0.56
(D) Cannot predict due to insufficient data
3.19 During floods, water entered an office having
 b h   wooden tables. The position of tables, if
(A) 2  1  1   0
61 h b  2  floating, will be
2 b h  1  (A) Legs upwards

(B)  1    0
61 h b  2  (B) Legs on sides
(C) Legs downwards
2 b h  1 
(C)  1    0
61 h b  2  (D) Any position
2 b h  1 
(D)  1    0
61 h b  2 
3.17 A rectangular boat 6 m wide and 15 m

long(dimension perpendicular to the plane of
the figure) has a draught of 2M. The side
view of the boat is as shown in the figure. The
centre of gravity G of the boat is at the free
surface level. The metacentric height of the
boat in m
(A) –1.0 (B) 0.5

(C) 1.5 (D) 2.0
A Answer Key 3.4 (B)
Given data :
3.1 D 3.2 B 3.3 C
Side of metallic cube = 10 cm
3.4 B 3.5 C 3.6 C Density of metallic cube = 6.8 gm/cm3
3.7 B 3.8 A 3.9 D mercury = 13.69 gm/cm3
3.10 D 3.11 C 3.12 B
3.13 B 3.14 D 3.15 63.5
3.16 A 3.17 B 3.18 C
3.19 A
E Explanation
By using principle of floatation
3.1 (D) Weight of the body = Buoyancy force
Wbody = (FB)water + (FB)Mercury
3.2 (B)  6.8  10  10  10 = 1  10  10  x +
As the density of sea water is more (1050 13.69  10  10  (10 – x)
kg/m3). The buoyancy effects are more. If  x = 5.4 cm
ship enters from sea water to river water, as Hence, the correct option is (B).
the density of river water is less, buoyancy
3.5 (C)
forces are les therefore ship will sink a little,
as ship sinks, more volume of the fluid 3.6 (C)
displaced therefore level rises.
3.7 (B)
Body weight in air (W) = 100 N
3.3 (C) W = mg = 100
Given that 100
m …. (1)
Wsea water= 10.5 kN/m3 g
VFd = 0.85 V Body weight in water (Ww) = 80 N
(let V is the volume of the body) Buoyancy force (FB) = 100 – 80 = 20 N
FB = FgVFd = 20
20
VFd 
1000  g
For fully submerged body volume of fluid
displaced is equal to volume of the body.
20
V …. (2)
By using principle of floatation 1000  g
Wbody = WFd From equation (1) & (2)
b g Vbody = F gVFd 100
WbV = WF(0.85 V) m g
   5000 kg/m 3
Wb = 10.5  0.85 = 8.93 kN/m3. V 20
Hence, the correct option is (C). 1000  g
Alternate method: 3.10 (D)
Weight in air
Specific gravity of body =
Weight loss
100 100
 s.g.body   5
(100  80) 20
Then density = 5  1000 = 5000 kg/m3
3.8 (A)
3.11 (C)
K g2
T  2
g (GM )
92
 2  20.847.sec
9.81 0.750 
3.12 (B)
1 = 800 kg/m3 2 = 1200 kg/m3

Case – 1 Case – 2
Let actual weight of body (in air) is W
then in case – 1
W – 30 = 1gVFd …. (1)
In case – 2
W – 15 = 2gVFd …. (2)
VFd = volume of body (V)
Equation (2) – equation (1)
15 = (2  1) g  V
15 Given that
 V  9.81  3.82 103 m3
400 SC = 600 kg/m3
Hence, the correct option is (A). By using principle of floatation
Wcylinder = WFd
3.9 (D)
cy.Vcy = FVFd
Weight of sphere = Buoyancy force
 
W = F gVFd 600  D2 L  1000  D2h
4 4

100  1000  9.81 d 3 3L
6 h
5
 d = 269.46 mm
L h L 3L
Hence, the correct option is (D). BG    
2 2 2 10
L 3.14 (D)
BG 
5
 T + WB = FB
 4
I
D
5D 2  981 + BgVB = FgVFd
BM   64 
VFd  D 2  5L 48L  981 + 100  9.81  1 = 1000  9.81  VFd
4 5 VFd = Volume of buoy submerged = 0.2 m3
Under neutral equilibrium conditions Hence, the correct option is (D).
BM = BG 3.15 (63.5)
2
5D L
  Let after heating the density of air inside the
48L 5 balloon is b2 & b1  1.2 kg/m3,
25 L2
 4 4  15 
3
48 D 2 V  r 3    
3 3 2
L 25 5
Then  
D 16  3 4 3 V  1767.145 m3
Hence, the correct option is (B). For lifting
3.13 (B) Total downward force = Buoyancy force
Given that Wb + 3000 = FB
Vm = 0.1 m3 V b 2·g  300 = V air·g
 = 2000 kg/m3
VB= 1 m3 2
B = 100 kg/m3
3000N FB
V .g (air  b2 )  3000
(V = 1767.145 m3)
b2  1.027 kg/m 3
P = RT
For constant pressure
  1T1 = 2T2
T + FB = Weight of metallic sphere (Wms) 1
T2 = ·T1
2
T + FgVFd = mgVms
T+1000gVFd = 2000  g  Vms {Vms=VFd 1.2
T2 =  288
T = (2000  g – 1000  g)Vms 1.027
T2 = 336.51
T = 1000  g  0.1
T = 981 N T2  63.5°C
Hence, the correct option is (B). Hence, the correct answer is 63.5.
3.16 (A) 15  63
I
BM   12  1.5 m
V 15  6  2
Metacentric height
GM = BM – BG = 1.5 – 1.0 = 0.5m
3.18 (C)
By using principle of floatation

Weight of container = FB
 1gb2h = 2gb2x

 x 1h
2
h x h  h
BG     1 .
2 2 2 2 2
h  1 
 1  
2  2  Given data :
s.g of cylinder = 0.8
b4
12  b 2
2
I By using principal Wbody = FB
BM  
VFd b 2 . 1 h 121h bgVb = FgvFd
2 0.8  R2L = R2h
For stable equilibrium h = 0.8L
GM > 0 L h L 0.8L
BM > GB or BM  BG > 0 BG    
2 2 2 2
b22 h  1  BG = 0.1L
  1    0
121h 2  2  R 2
Divided by b I 4 R2
BM   
2 b h  1  VFd R 2 (0.8L) 3.2 L
 .  1    0
61 h b  2  Body will always be stable equilibrium is
Hence, the correct option is (A). GM  0
3.17 (B) BM – BG  0
Given data : L = 15 m, Width (b) = 6m R2
 0.1L  0
BG = 2 – 1 = 1 m 3.2 L
R2
 3.2  0.1
L
R
 0.5656
L
3.19 (A)
NOTES
4.1 Hydrostatic forces on plane surfaces: IGG is the MOI about centroidal axis which is
parallel to OO.
(a) Inclined surface:
Taking a small elemental area dA we can  = angle made by the surface with respect to free
calculate the force on this small element and total surface
force can be calculated by integrating therefore
xcp  x  IGG sin 
2
total hydrostatic force.

Ax
F=wA x
Note:
w = sp. Weight of fluid
The centre of pressure is below the centre of
A = area of surface gravity because pressure increases with depth.
x = vertical distance of c.g. from the Case – 2: Plane vertical surface:
free surface.
Put  = 90o in case (1).
Centre of pressure:
 It is the point through which total hydrostatic
force is suppose to be acting.
 From principle of moments the centre of
pressure can be calculated.
x cp  x  I GG sin 
2
Ax
Case:1 Plane inclined surface
Kulkarni’s Academy 43 Hydrostatic Force
F  wA x dF = PdA
I GG 2  dF = gxdA
xcp  x  sin 90
Ax
IGG
xcp  x 
Ax
Case  3: Plane horizontal surface
Put  = 00 in case (1)
dFH = dFsin
dFH = gx dA sin θ
Vertical projection area
P  g x  The horizontal component of force on curved

surface is equal to hydrostatic force on
F  g xA vertical projection area and this force acts at
the centre of pressure of corresponding area.
F  wA x
 = 0
xcp  x
S.No. Case Force Centre of
pressure
1 Inclined wAx IG
x sin 2 θ
Ax
2 Vertical wAx IG
x
Ax
3 Horizontal wAx x Volume = xdAcos
dFv = dFcos
4.2 Hydrostatic force on curve surfaces:
dFv  g xdA cos 
vol
dFv = g x Volume.
dFv = weight of fluid
 The vertical component of force on the curve
surface is equal to weight of the liquid
contained by the curved surface taken upto
free surface.
 This weight will act from the centre of gravity
of the corresponding weight.
4.1 The centre of pressure of a liquid on a plane
surface immersed vertically in a static body
of liquid, always lies below the centroid of
the surface area, because
(A) In liquids the pressure acting is same in
all directions
Special cases:
(B) There is no shear stress in liquids at rest
(1)
(C) The liquid pressure is constant over
depth
(D) The liquid pressure increases linearly
with depth
4.2 A plate of rectangular shape having the
dimensions of 0.4m  0.6m is immersed in
water with its longer side vertical. The total
hydrostatic thrust on one side of the plate is
estimated as 18.3kN . All other conditions
FH  FH
1 2 remaining the same, the plate is turned
F through 900 such that its longer side remains
FH
net H1  FH 2  0
vertical.
What would be the total force on one face of
the plate?
(A) 9.15kN (B) 18.3kN
(C) 36.6kN (D) 12.2kN
4.3 The force on the door submerged in a liquid
of density  (See figure) is
g
(A) 2 g (B)
2
(2) g 2
(C) (D)
2 2 g
4.4 A circular plate 1.5 m diameter is submerged
in water with its greatest and least depths
below the surface being 2m and 0.7m (R)
respectively. What is the total pressure
(approximately) on one face of the plate?
(A) 12kN (B) 16kN
(C) 24kN (D) None of these
4.5 The point of application of a horizontal force
on curved surface submerged in liquid is (S)
IG I G  Ah 2
(A) h (B)
Ah Ah
List II
Ah I
(C) h (D) G  hA (Depth of centre of Pressure)
IG h
d d
4.6 A vertical dock gate 2 metre wide remains in 1. 5 2. 3
8 4
position due to horizontal force of water on
d d
one side. The gate weighs 800kg and just 3. 4. 2
2 3
starts sliding down when the depth of water
upto the bottom of the gate decreases to 4 (A) P-1, Q-2, R-3, S-4
metres. Then the coefficient of friction (B) P-4, Q-2, R-3, S-1
between dock gate and dock wall will be (C) P-4, Q-3, R-1, S-2
(A) 0.5 (B) 0.2 (D) P-1, Q-2, R-4, S-3
(C) 0.05 (D) 0.02 4.8 The figure below show a hydraulic gate PQR
4.7 Math List I with List II and select the correct whose weight is negligibly small compared
answer to the hydrostatic forces. The gate opens
List -I when h exceeds
(Type of Vertical Surface)
(P)
(Q)
(A) 1.414 b (B) 0.500 b
(C) 2.732 b (D) 1.732 b
4.9 A vertical gate 6m x 6m holds water on one 4.13 The vertical force on a submerged curved
side with the free surface at its top. The surface is equal to the
moment about the bottom edge of the gate of (A) Force on the vertical projection of the
the water force will be (  w is the specific curved surface
weight of water) (B) Force on the horizontal projection of the
(A) 18  w (B) 36  w curve surface
(C) Weight of the liquid vertically above the
(C) 72  w (D) 216  w curved surface
4.10 A container having a square cross-section has (D) Product of the pressure at the centroid
water filled up to a height of 0.6m . The net and the area of the curved surface
force on one side and the location of the 4.14 The horizontal and vertical hydrostatic forces
centre of pressure from the bottom are given Fxand Fy on the semi-circular gate, having a
respectively by width w into the plane of figure,
(A) 264.5Nand0.1m Are
(B) 600.5 Nand0.4m
(C) 1058.4Nand0.3m
(D) 529.2 Nand0.2m
4.11 A rectangular tank with length, width and height
in the ratio 2 :1: 2 is filled completely with
water. The ratio of hydrostatic force at the
bottom to that on any LARGER vertical (A) Fx  ghrw and Fy  0
surface is
(B) Fx  2ghrw and Fy  0
(A) 1/2 (B) 1
(C) Fx  2ghrw and Fy  gwr 2 / 2
(C) 2 (D) 4
4.12 Choose the correct statements about (D) Fx  2ghrw and Fy   rgwr 2 / 2
horizontal component of resultant hydrostatic 4.15 A dam is having a curved surface as shown in
pressure on a curved submerged surface the figure. The height of the water retained by
(A) It is equal to the product of pressure at the dam is 20m , density of water is
the centroid and the curved area 1000 kg/m3 .Assuming g as 9.81m/s 2 , the
(B) It is equal to the weight of the liquid horizontal force acting on the dam per unit
above the curved surface acting at length is
0.5depth of the surface
(C) It is equal to the projected area of the
surface on a vertical plane multiplied by
the pressure at the centre of gravity of
area
(D) It is equal to the weight of the liquid
above the curved surface multiplied by
the projected area on a vertical plane.
(A) 1.962 102 N (B) 2 105 N 4.19 Find the vertical hydrostatic force, f z ' on the
(C) 1.962 106 N (D) 3.924 106 N surface P-Q due to the water in the tank.
4.16 Choose the correct combination of true Note, f z is the fore per unit width along y.
statements from the following: The surface P - Q is shaped like a quarter-
cylinder of radius R. The atmospheric
P. For a horizontal plane surface in a liquid
at rest, the centre of pressure is at the pressure is  0
centroid of the surface
Q. For an inclined plane surface submerged
in a liquid at rest, the centre of pressure
is always lower than the centroid of the
surface.
R. The horizontal component of the force
exerted on a curved surface in a liquid at
rest acts at the centroid of the curved
surface.
(A) P, Q (B) Q, R
  
(C) P, R (D) P, Q, R (A) w g  R 2  R 2 
4.17 A circular cylinder of diameter 2m and span-  4 
wise length 3m placed in a tank of water   
(B) P0 R  w g  R 2  R 2 
divides it in two parts as shown in figure. The  4 
net vertical force on the cylinder due to the
fluid is ( g  10 m/ s 2 )  
(C) w g  R 2 
4 
 
(D) P0 R  w g  R 2 
4 
4.20 In which one of the following arrangement
would the vertical force on the cylinder due
(A) 9428N (B) 47124 N
to water be the maximum
(C) 70686 N (D) 23562 N
4.18 A cylindrical gate rests on the crest of a (A)
spillway and water stands up to the top of the
gate. Diameter of the gate is 1m . The vertical
component of the pressure force per meter
length of the gate is
 
(A) gkN (B) gkN
8 4
(B)

(C) gkN (D) gkN
2
A Answer Key
4.1 D 4.2 B 4.3 C

(C)
4.4 C 4.5 B 4.6 C
4.7 B 4.8 D 4.9 D
4.10 B 4.11 B 4.12 C

(D)
4.13 C 4.14 D 4.15 C
4.21 Assertion (A): For a vertically immersed 4.16 A 4.17 C 4.18 A

surface, the depth of the centre of pressure is
independent of the density of the liquid. 4.19 A 4.20 D 4.21 C
Reason (R): Centre of pressure lies above the

E Explanation
centroid of area of the immersed surface.
(A) Both A and R are individually true and 4.1 (D)

R is the correct explanation of A
4.2 (B)
(B) Both A and R are individually true but R
is not the correct explanation of A 4.3 (C)
(C) A is true but R is false
(D) A is false but R is true
4.22 A semi-circular gate of radius 1 m is placed

at the bottom of a water reservoir as shown in
figure. The hydrostatic force per unit width of
the cylindrical gate in y-direction is_____
kN . The gravitational acceleration g
 9.8 m/s 2 and density of water  1000 kg/m 3 .
F  gAx
1
F  g (1). sin 45o
2
g
F
2 2
4.4 (C) Weight = Frictional force

800  9.81 = F
800  9.81 =   [10009.81 (42) 2)
 = 0.05
4.7 (B)
P – 4, Q – 2, R – 3, S – 1.
(P)
1.3
x  0.7   1.35m
2
F  g xA
 I cg
 1000 10 1.35  (1.5)2 {g = 10 m/s2 X cp  x 
4 Ax
3
 23856.46 N 
d

bd 12
2 bd  d 2 
 23.8 kN (24 kN approx.)
d d 4d
Hence, the correct option is (C).   
2 6 6
4.5 (B)
2d
X cp 
The point of application of horizontal force 3
on curve surface, at the centre of pressure of (Q)
corresponding area.
4.6 (C)
I cg
X cp  x 
Ax
3
2d bd 36
 
3  bd  2d 
  
 2  3 
2d d 9d
  
F  wAx 3 12 12
3d
F = 1000  9.81  (4  2)  2 X cp 
4
(R)
P
h
G
Fpq CP
Q
I cg FPQ  wAx
X cp  x 
Ax
h w2

d


bd 36
3
 w h  
2 2
3  bd  d
  3
 2 
d
X cp 
2
(S)
FQR  wAx
FQR  wAx
I cg
X cp  x  =wbh
Ax
d 64
4
d
 
2  2 d
 d  2
4 
5d
X cp 
8
h b
4.8 (D) FPQ   FQR 
3 2
wh2 h b
   wbh 
2 3 2
h2
 b2
3
h  3b  1.732b
4.9 (D) F  w A x
 w  2  2 = 4 w .N (bottom)
Any larger
FLVS  w  2  2 1
=4w
FB 4w
 1
Fvs 4w
2h 2  6
X cp    4m 4.12 (C)
3 3
 Moment = F  2 4.13 (C)
F  w A x
4.14 (D)
 w  6  6  3 = 108 w
Moment = 2  108 w = 216 w
4.10 (B)
FH  w  (2r  b) h
 2gr b h 2w

w
= 2ghrw.
2  0.6 Fy = weight = gv
X cp   0.4m from free surface
3 r 2
Hence, the correct option is (B). = g  w
2
4.11 (B)
g r 2 w
L:W:H =
2
2:1:2
4.15 (C)
FH  g xA 4.19 (A)
 1000  9.81  10  (201)
= 1.962106 N
4.16 (A)
4.17 (C)
 R 2 2
  4  R  g 1  P0  R 1
 
FV = .g.V
  
3  p0 R  Pw g  R 2   R 2 
= 1000 10  (1) 2  3  4 
4
= 70685.83 N Hence, the correct option is (A).
Hence, the correct option is (C). 4.20 (D)
4.18 (A)
F  Vol. Fv = gv
FV = .g.V
4.21 (C)
 1
= g  (1) 2  1
4 2

 g 103 N
8

= g kN
8
NOTES
Introduction: dV
0
Kinematics deals with motion of fluid without d space atgiven time
any reference to cause of the motion i.e. force.
Space means (x, y, z)
The fluid flow is analyzed by using
(3) Laminar & Turbulent flow:
(1) Lagrangian Technique In laminar flow fluid particles move in the farm
(2) Eulerian Technique of layer with one layer sliding over other, laminar
In Lagrangian technique single fluid particle is flow generally occurs at low velocity.
taken and the behaviour of this particle is Ex: Flow of blood through veins, flow through
analyzed at different instant of time. narrow passage.
In Eulerian technique certain section is taken In turbulent flow fluid particles move in highly
and the fluid flow is analyzed at that section. Due disorganized manner leading to rapid mixing of
to its simplicity Eulerian technique is mostly particle, turbulent flow generally occurs at high
used in fluid flow behaviour. velocity.
Different types of fluid flows: Ex. Floods, flow of water in rivers, flow of
(1) Steady & unsteady flow: exhaust gases from chimney.
A flow is said to be steady flow when fluid (4) Rotational and irrotational flow:
properties do not change with respect to time at A flow is said to be rotational when fluid
any given section. Otherwise the flow is particles rotates about their own mass centre
unsteady. otherwise the flow is irrotational.
For steady flow Rotation is possible when there is a tangential
force these tangential forces are associated with
dv
 0; viscous fluids, therefore real fluid flows are
dt given sec tion
generally rotational flows and ideal fluid flows
d are irrotational flows.
0
dt given sec tion (5) Internal and external flows:
(2) Uniform & non uniform flow: When the fluid flows through confined passages
A flow is said to be uniform when fluid (Ex: fluid flow through pipe, ducts) then the flow
properties (specially velocity) do not change with is known as internal flow.
respect to space at any given instant of time. When the fluid flows through unconfined
Otherwise the flow is non-uniform. passages (Flow of fluid over aircraft wing) then
For uniform flow. the flow is known as external flow.
Note: Equation of stream line:
Flow can also be categorized into 1–D, 2–D, 3–D.

 When fluid properties vary in 1– direction, it
is a 1–D flow.
 When fluid properties vary in 2–directions, the
flow is 2–D dimensional.
 When fluid properties vary in 3–directions, the
V  uiˆ  vˆj  wkˆ
flow is 3–D dimensional flow.
 Flow can never be one dimensional because of V  u 2  v 2  w2
viscosity. Flow of fluid through a pipe can be In 2– D
approximated as 1–D flow. If average velocities V  uiˆ  vˆj
are taken into consideration.
Stream line:
It is an imaginary line or curve drawn a space also
such that a tangent drawn to any point gives
distance dx
velocity vector. Stream line gives the direction of velocity    u (in x  dirn);
flow as there is no component of velocity in time dt
dx
perpendicular direction there is no flow across dt 
the steam line, there is flow always along a u
stream line. dy
In y-dirn v 
dt
Stream line gives instantaneous snapshot of flow
dy
pattern, it has no time history. dt 
v
 No two stream lines can intersect, a single
dx dy
stream line can never intersect because   (equation of stream line in 2-D)
u v
velocity is unique at any given instant of time
Similarly
at a particular point.
dx dy dz
  equation of stream line in 3-D.
u v w
Path line:
It is the locus of single fluid particle at different
instants of time it follows Lagrangian approach.
A path line can intersect itself.
Kulkarni’s Academy 55 Fluid Kinematics
Streak line: Steady flow:
It is the locus of different fluid particles passing Wind direction is not changing, and wind is
through the fixed point. flowing from north to south.
Experiment:
Unsteady flow:
Let us consider a wind is flowing 11:00 am to
11:30 am from north to south. And 11:30 am to
12:00 noon from east to west.
In steady flow stream line, path line and streak
lines are identical.
Note:
Stream line can intersect at stagnation point.
Wind flow direction
Conservation of mass (continuity
11:00am–11:30 amNorth (N) to south (S)
equation:
11:30am12:00 NoonEast(E) to west (W)
Generalised continuity equation:

   
 ( u)  ( v)  (  w)  0
t x y z
This is 3–D generalized continuity equation.
Every fluid flow must satisfy mass conservation
or continuity equation. If the fluid flow does not
satisfy continuity equation then that flow is not
possible.
“This equation is applicable for any type of fluid
All three lines (Stream line, path & streak line)
flow.”
are different for unsteady flow.
Case-1: Steady flow 
m  AV

0 Where V is velocity
t
For steady flow
    
( u)  ( v)  (  w)  0 m1  m2
x y z
1A1V1 = 2A2V2
Case-2: Incompressible ( = constant)
Continuity equation for 1-D steady flow.

0 If the flow is incompressible
t
1 = 2
u v w
   0 1A1V1 = 2A2V2
x y z A1V1 = A2V2
 u v w  This equation is valid for steady,1-D and
   0
 x y z  incompressible flow.
Discharge (Q)
u v w
  0
x y z Volume flow rate is known as discharge.
volume A  L
This equation is applicable for any type of Q 
incompressible flow. [Steady or unsteady time t
incompressible flow] Q = AV
A1V1 = A2V2
Case-3: 2-D Incompressible flow
Q1 = Q2
The continuity equation for 2-D incompressible In a steady, 1- Dimensional, incompressible flow
u v
flow is  0 discharge remains constant.
x y Acceleration of a fluid particle:
Case-4: 1-D flow
du dv dw
Continuity equation for steady ax  ay  az 
dt dt dt
1 – Dimension flow: u = f(x, y, z t)
v = f(x, y, z, t)
w = f(x, y, z)
mass
  m   * volume
Volume
Mass flow rate: du
ax 
 m   Volume   A  L dt
m  
t t t u = f(x, y, z, t)
du u x u y u dz u dt A1V1 = A2V2
 .  .  .  .
dt x dt y dt z dt t dt V1 = V2 (velocity is not changing with respect to
u u u u space) for uniform flow convective acceleration
ax  u v w  is equal to zero.
x y z t
Convective acc n
local or
or temporal
Steady, 1-D, incompressible:
acc n
v v v v
ay  u v w 
x y z t
w w w w
az  u v w 
x y z t
Convective acceleration:
The acceleration due to change of velocity with

Stream lines are converging  convective
space is known as convective acceleration for
acceleration.
uniform flow convective acceleration is zero.
A1V1 = A2V2
Temporal or local acceleration:
A1> A2
The acceleration due to change of velocity with V2> V1
respect to time is known as temporal acceleration
for steady flow temporal acceleration is zero. Stream lines are diverging deceleration.
Type of flow Convective Local

acceleration acceleration
Steady & 0 0
uniform
Steady & Exists 0
non uniform
Unsteady & 0 Exists A1V1 = A2V2
uniform A2> A1
Unsteady & Exists Exists V2< V1
nonuniform Rotational component:
Sign convention:
Steady, 1-D, incompressible:
Counter clock wise  +ve;
Clockwise ve.
v d v
dxdt 
tan d  x dt x
dx d u

If d is small dt y
v 1  d d 
tan d = d = dt  z    
x 2  at dy 
d v
  1  dv u 
dt x  z    
2  az dy 
   x iˆ   y ˆj   z kˆ
i j k
  

x y z
u v w
Short trick
u
dydt
y
tan d  
dy 1  w v 
x    
tand = d (d is small) 2  y z 
d  u

dt y
d u
  (Clockwise rotation)
dt y 1  u w 
y  
In fluid mechanics angular velocity is defined as 2  z x 
the average angular velocity of initially two
perpendicular line segments.
1  v u 
z  
2  x y 
Condition for irrotational flow:
   x iˆ   y ˆj   z kˆ
For irrotational flow
 =0
i.e. x = 0; y = 0; + z = 0
Generally, in fluid mechanics we are dealing with Note:
2 – D flow x, y, z
For irrotational flow z = 0; vorticity = 0 and
z = 0 circulation = 0.
1  v u  v u
   0  
2  x y  x y
Velocity potential function ()
Vorticity: -
Twice the rotation is known as vorticity.
It is a function of space and time defined in such
i j k a manner that its negative derivative with respect
1    to space gives velocity in that direction.

2 x y z The negative sign is taken because the flow is in
u v w the direction of decreasing potential.
i j k   
u v w
   x y z
vorticity  2 
x y z Velocity potential function can be defined for a 3
u v w – D Flow.
Circulation (): u v
 0
It is the line integral of the tangential component x y
of velocity taken around a closed curve. u v        
     
x y x  x  y  y 
u v   2  2 
    2  2 
x y  x y 
 2  2
Case-1: If  0
x 2 y 2
Velocity potential function satisfies Laplace
equation.
 2  2
  0  continuity equation is satisfied
x y
 v   u 
  udx   v  dx  dy   u  dy  dx  vdy  flow is possible.
 x   y 
 2  2
 v u  Case-2: If  0
     dxdy x 2 y 2
 x y 
Velocity potential function does not satisfy
We know that
Laplace equation.
1  v u 
 z      2  2
2  x y   0
x y
 v u 
 Vorticity  2z      continuity equation is not satisfied
 x y 
Circulation () = vorticity  Area  Flow is not possible.
Case-3: Rotational component Case-2: If  not satisfies Laplace equation.
1  v u   2  2
 z      0
2  x y  x 2 y 2
1           2 0; rotational flow.
       
2  x  y  y  x   Velocity potential function exists only for
irrotational flow whereas stream function exists
1   2  2 
 z      for rotational &irrotational flow. If  satisfies
2  xy yx 
Laplace equation then the flow is irrotational.
z = 0  irrotational flow
Significance of stream function
Velocity potential function exist only for dx dy

irrotational flows. i.e. the existence of velocity u v
potential function implies the flow is irrotational. 
vdx = udy {u  
Note: y
Sometimes irrotational flows are also known as 
vdx  udy = 0 {v  
potential flows. x
 
Stream function ()  dx  dy  0  …. (1)
x y
It is a function of space and time define in such a Equation of a particular streamline.
manner that it satisfies continuity equation. (x, y)
 
u v  
y x   dx  dy ….. (2)
x y
Note: From equation (1) and (2)
Though velocity potential  can be defined for  = 0
3 – D flows, it is difficult to define stream
 = constant
function in 3–D flows therefore, stream function
is generally defined for 2 – D flows. For particular stream line, stream function
remains constant.
1  v u 
 z    
2  x y 
1          
     
2  x  x  y  y  
1   2  2 
 z    2  2 
2  x y 
Case-1: If  satisfies Laplace equation.
 2  2
 0
x 2 y 2
z  0 ; irrotational flow.
Q=AV
= (dx  1)  v

Q  v.dx  dx ----- (a)
y
 
d  dx  dy
x y

d  dx ------ (b)
x
From equation a and b
Q = d = difference in stream function.
Equipotential and constant stream function lines
“The difference in stream function gives
are orthogonal (perpendicular) to each other in
discharge per unit width”.
flow field.
Relationship between equipotential Cauchy – Reimann equations:
line and constant stream function line:
 
u v
 = f(x, y) = Constant y x
  From above equations we can say that
d  dx  dy  0
x y  

 x y
dy
 x  
and u   these equations are known as
dx   y x
y Cauchy-Reimann equations.
dy u
  slope of equipotential line
dx v
 = f(x, y) = constant
 
d  dx  dy  0
x y

 x
dy
dz 
y
dy v
  slope of constant stream function line
dx u
u v
Product of slope    1
v u
5.5 The shape of the streamline, passing through
the origin, in a flow field
5.1 Which of the following statements is true? u  cos(), v  sin() for a constant  is
(A) Eulerian description of fluid motion determined as
follows individual fluid particles (A) y  x3
(B) Lagrangian description of fluid motion (B) y  x cot 2 ()
is a field description
(C) y  x tan()
(C) Both Eulerian and Lagrangian
(D) y  x sin()
description follows individual fluid
particles but in different reference 5.6 Consider the following statements:
frames (1) Streak line indicates instantaneous
position of particles of fluid passing
(D) Eulerian description is a field description
through a fixed point
while Lagrangian description follows
(2) Streamlines are paths traced by a fluid
individual fluid particles.
particle with constant velocity
5.2 A streamline in a fluid flow is a hypothetical
(3) Fluid particles cannot cross streamlines
line at any instant such that irrespective of the type of flow
(A) The fluid velocity is not varying along (4) Streamlines converge as the fluid is
it accelerated, and diverge when retarded.
(B) There is no flow across it Which of these statements are correct?
(C) Fluid can flow across it (A) 1 and 4 (B) 1, 3 and 4
(D) It is always perpendicular to the main (C) 1, 2 and 4 (D) 2 and 3
direction of the flow 5.7 A compressible fluid is flowing steadily through
a duct whose area reduces by 40 percent from
5.3 The flow field represented by the velocity
section (1) to section (2). It is further known
vector
that the corresponding reduction in density of
V  axiˆ  by 2 ˆj  czt 2kˆ where a, b and c are the fluid is 15 percent. Compared to the
constants is velocity of the fluid at section (1), the
(A) Three-dimensional and steady resulting velocity at section (2) is increased
(B) Two-dimensional and steady by a factor of
(A) 1.67 (B) 1.96
(C) Two- dimensional and unsteady
(C) 2.69 (D) 2.96
(D) Three- dimensional and unsteady
5.8 The velocity components in the x and y
5.4 A fluid element is said to have vorticity with directions are given by
respect to a reference frame if in that 3
reference frame u  hxy 3  x 2 y, v  xy 2  y 4 . The value of
4
(A) it travels along a circular streamline  for a possible flow field involving an
(B) it travels along a circular pathline incompressible fluid is
(C) it revolves about its arbitrary point in 3 4
(A)  (B) 
the flow-field 4 3
(D) it rotates about its own centre of mass 4
(C) (D) 3
as it moves 3
5.9 The velocity field for flow is given by 5.13 In a two-dimensional flow with velocities ‘u’
V  (5 x  6 y  7 z )iˆ and v along the x and y directions,
respectively, the convective acceleration
(6 x  5 y  9 z ) ˆj along the y-direction is
(3 x  2 y  z )kˆ v v v v
(A) u  v (B) v  v
and the density varies as   0 exp(2t ) . In x y x y
u v u u
order that the mass is conserved, the value of (C) u v (D) u  v
 should be x y x y
(A) - 12 (B) - 10 5.14 For a two-dimensional incompressible
irrotational flow, the x-component of
(C) - 8 (D) 10
velocity u  2x  3 y . The corresponding y-
5.10 A steady flow occurs in an open channel with component of velocity is
lateral inflow of qm 3 /s per unit width as (A) 2 y  3x (B) 2 y  3x
shown in the figure. The mass conservation (C) 2 y  3x (D) 2 y  3x
equation is
5.15 For a given location in a flow, the rate of
change of density following a fluid particle
 D     
  u v  w , is
 Dt t x y z 
2.4 kg/(m3 /s) . If the density at that point is
q Q 1.2 kg/m3 , then the divergence of the

(A) 0 (B) 0
x x velocity field () at the point is
Q Q (A) 0.5 s1 (B) 0.5 s1
(C) q 0 (D) q 0
x x (C) 2 s1 (D) 2 s1
5.11 Which of the following two-dimensional 5.16 Water enters a pipe of cross-sectional area A1
incompressible velocity fields satisfies the that branches out into sections of equal areas
conservation of mass
A2 and A3 , as shown in the figure below.
(A) u  x, v  y
At one instant, the flow velocities are
(B) u  2x, v  2 y V1  2 m/s, V2  3 m/s and V3  5 m/s . At
(C) u  xy, v  xy another instant, V1  3 m/s and V2  4 m/s .
(D) u  x 2  y 2 , v  0 What is the value of V3 at this instant?
5.12 In a steady one dimensional flow the velocity

 x 
‘u’ is given by u  5 / 1   . The
 3
acceleration at x  0 is given by
(A) 14.43 m/s2 (B) 25 m/s2
(A) 5 m/s (B) 6 m/s
(C) +43.3 m/s2 (D) +0.0693 m/s2 (C) 7 m/s (D) 8 m/s
5.17 The velocity of an incompressible fluid flow 3
0.5 m /s is flowing in the duct and is found
is given U  ( Px  Q)iˆ  Ryjˆ  Stkˆ m/s to increase at a rate of 0.2 m3 /s . The local
where, P  3 s 1 , Q  4 m/s, R  3 s1 and acceleration (in m3 /s ) at x  0 will be
S  5 m/s2 , x and y are in m and t in s: (A) 1.4 (B) 1.0
The local and convective acceleration (C) 0.4 (D) 0.667
components at x  1 m, y  2 m and t  5 s , 5.21 The relation that must hold for the flow to be
are respectively irrotational is
(A) 5kˆ m/s2 and (  3iˆ  18 ˆj ) m/s2 u v u v
(A)  0 (B) 
y x x y
(B) zero and (  3iˆ  18 ˆj ) m/s2
 2u  2 v u v
(C) 5kˆ m/s2 and (18iˆ  3 ˆj ) m/s2 (C)  0 (D) 
x 2 y 2 y x
(D) 5kˆ m/s2 and (3iˆ  18 ˆj ) m/s2 5.22 Choose the correct combination of true
5.18 In a steady flow through a nozzle, the flow statements from the following
velocity on the nozzle axis is given by P. For a steady two-dimensional flow, a
v  u0 (1  3 x / L)i , where x is the distance streamline is identical to a streak line
along the axis of the nozzle from its inlet Q. For a steady two-dimensional
plane and L is the length of the nozzle. The irrotational flow, equipotential lines are
time required for a fluid particle on the axis parallel to the streamlines.
to travel from the inlet to the exit plane of the R. For a steady two-dimensional
nozzle is irrotational flow, equipotential lines are
L L orthogonal to the streak lines
(A) (B) ln 4
u0 3u0 S. For a unsteady flow, the streak lines are
identical to the streamlines at any given
L L
(C) (D) instant
4u0 2.5u0
(A) P, R (B) P, R, S
5.19 For a fluid flow through a divergent pipe of (C) Q, S (D) P, Q
length L having inlet and outlet radii of R1
5.23 The differential form of the mass balance
and R2 respectively and a constant flow rate equation V  0 is valid for
of Q assuming the velocity to be axial and (A) Any flow
uniform at any cross section, the acceleration (B) Steady flows only
at the exit is
(C) Any incompressible flow
2Q( R1  R2 ) 2Q 2 ( R1  R2 ) (D) Only incompressible flows that are
(A) (B)
LR2 LR23 steady
2Q 2 ( R1  R2 ) 2Q 2 ( R2  R1 ) 5.24 For a two-dimensional flow, it is given that the
(C) (D)
2 LR25 2 LR25 values of the steam function and potential
function are, respectively,  A and  A at a
5.20 The area of a 2 m long tapered duct decreases
as A  (0.5  02. x) where ‘x’ is the distance point A. The corresponding values at another
in meters. At a given instant a discharge of point B are  B and  A , respectively.
The volume flow rate across A and B is 5.30 If for a flow, stream function exists and
proportional to satisfies the Lapalce equation, then which
(A)  A  B (B)  A  B one of the following is the correct
statements?
(C)  A  B (D)  A  B
(A) The continuity equation is satisfied and
5.25 A potential function can be defined for a flow the flow is irrotational
if and only if it is (B) The continuity equation is satisfied and
(A) Laminar (B) Incompressible the flow is rotational
(C) Steady (D) Irrotational (C) The flow is irrotational but does not
5.26 A stream function is given by satisfy the continuity equation
  2 x 2 y  ( x  1) y 2 . The flow rate across a (D) The flow is rotational
line joining points A (3, 0) and B(0, 2) is 5.31 The stream function in xy-plane is given
below
(A) 0.4 units (B) 1.1 units
1 2 3
(C) 4 units (D) 5 units  x y
2
5.27 The circulation around a circle of radius 2
The velocity vector for this stream function is
units for the velocity field u  2x  3 y and
v  2 y is 3 3 2 2
(A) xy 3i  x 2 y 2 j (B) x y i  xy 3 j
2 2
(A) 6 units
3 2 2 3
(B) 12 units (C) x y i  xy 3 j (D) xy 2i  x 2 y 2 j
2 2
(C) 18 units 5.32 Match the Group I (Condition) with Group II
(D) 24 units (Regulating Fact) and select the correct
5.28 Consider two-dimensional flow with stream answer using the code given below the lists
1
 
function   ln x 2  y 2 . The absolute
2
Group I
(P) Existence of stream function
value of circulation along a unit circle centred (Q) Existence of Velocity floe potential
at (x = 0, y = 0) is (R) Absence of temporal variations
(A) Zero (B) 1 (S) Constant velocity

(C) (D)  Group II
2
(1) Irrotationality of flow
5.29 For a certain two-dimensional steady
(2) Continuity
incompressible flow, the horizontal and
(3) Uniform flow
vertical velocity components are given by
u  6 y, v  0 , where 'y' is the vertical (4) Steady flow
distance. The angular velocity and rate of (A) P – 2, Q – 1, R – 4, S – 3
shear strain respectively are (B) P – 2, Q – 1, R – 3, S – 4
(A) - 3 and 3 (B) 3 and - 3 (C) P – 1, Q – 2, R – 4, S – 3
(C) 3 and - 6 (D) - 6 and 3 (D) P – 1, Q – 2, R – 3, S – 4
5.33 Potential function  is given as   x  y 2 2
5.37 Let  and  represent, respectively, the
what will be the stream function () with the velocity potential and stream function of a
condition (  0) at x  y  0? flow field of an incompressible fluid. Which
of the following statements are TRUE ?
(A) 2xy (B) x2  y2 P.  exists for irrotational flows only
(C) x2  y2 (D) 2x 2 y 2 Q.  exists for both irrotational and
5.34 If the stream function is given by y  3xy , rotational flows
then the velocity at a point (2, 3) will be R.  exists for rotational flows only
(A) 7.21 unit (B) 10.82 unit S.  exists for both rotational and
(C) 18 unit (D) 54 unit irrotational flows
5.35 In a certain 2-D potential flow the stream line (A) P, R (B) Q, S
passing through a point A = (1, 1) has the (C) Q, R (D) P, Q
following equation, xy  1 . In the 5.38 In an incompressible irrotational fluid
neighbourhood of A, the Equi-potential line motion, if the y component of velocity at any
passing through A may be approximated by point ( x, y) is v  6 xy  x 2  y 2 , the x-
(A) x y (B) x  2 y 1 component of velocity at that point is given
(C) 2x  y  1 (D) x  2 y by
5.36 A pipe has a porous section of length L as (A) v  2 xy  3( x 2  y 2 )

shown in the figure. Velocity at the start of (B) v  3 xy  2( x 2  y 2 )
this section is V0 . If fluid leaks into the pipe (C) v  3 xy  2( x 2  y 2 )
through the porous section at a volumetric
2
(D) v  2 xy  3( x 2  y 2 )
rate per unit area q ( x / L) , what will be the
5.39 The stream function for a two-dimensional
axial velocity in the pipe at any x? Assume
incompressible flow is given by
incompressible one dimensional flow i.e., no
gradients in the radial direction   ( px 2  qy 2 ) , where p and q are non-zero
constants. A potential function for this flow
can be determined only when
q
(A) p  (B) p  q
2
(C) p  q (D) p  2q
qx3 5.40 For a general 3 - dimensional

(A) Vx  V0  2 incompressible, irrotational flow, which one
LD
of the following statements is true?
qx3
(B) Vx  V0  (A) Velocity potential function can be
3L2
defined but stream function cannot be
2qx3 defined
(C) Vx  V0 
LD (B) Velocity potential function cannot be
4qx3 defined but stream function can be
(D) Vx  V0  2
3L D defined
(C) Both velocity potential and stream 5.43 The rate of rotation of a fluid particle is given
function can be defined by
(D) Both velocity potential and stream v
function cannot be defined (A) y  0, z  
2h
v
Common data For 5.41 to 5.42 (B) y  0, z  
h
The velocity field for a 2 - dimensional flow y v
is (C) y  , z 
h h
U0 x U 0 y
u , v (D) y 
y
, z  
v
L L h h
5.41 The above flow can be described as 5.44 The power required to keep the plate in
(A) Rotational and compressible steady motion is
(B) Irrotational and compressible (A) 5 104 watts
(C) Rotational and incompressible
(B) 105 watts
(D) Irrotational and incompressible
(C) 2.5 105 watts
5.42 If L = 0.2 m and the result of total
(D) 5 105 watts
acceleration in x - and y - directions at
( x  L, y  L) is 10 m/s2 ; the value of U U 0 Statement for Linked Answer Questions 5.45 to 5.46
in m/s is The gap between a moving circular plate and a

(A) 1.414 (B) 2.38 stationary surface is being continuously reduced, as
(C) 1.19 (D) 11.90 the circular plate comes down at a uniform speed V
towards the stationary bottom surface, as shown in
Common data for 43 to 44 are given below. Solve
the figure. In the process, the fluid contained between
the problems and choose the correct answers. the two plates flows out radially. The fluid is
The laminar flow takes place between closely spaced assumed to be incompressible and inviscid.
parallel plates as shown in figure below. The velocity
y
profile is given by u  V . The gap height, h, is 5
h
mm and the space is filled with oil (specific gravity
= 0.86, viscosity  2 104 N-s/m2 ). The bottom
plate is
stationary and the top plate moves with a steady
velocity of V = 5 cm/s. The area of the plate is 5.45 The radial velocity at any radius r, when the
2
0.25 m . gap width is h, is
Vr Vr
(A) vr  (B) vr 
2h h
2Vh Vh
(C) vr  (D) vr 
r r
5.46 The radial component of the fluid 5.49 In a given flow field, the velocity vector in
acceleration at r  R is Cartesian coordinate system is given as:
V  ( x 2  y 2  z 2 )iˆ 
3V 2 R V 2R
(A)
4h 2
(B)
4h 2 ( xy  yz  y 2 )  ˆj  ( xz  z 2 )kˆ
What is the volume dilation rate of the fluid
V 2R V 2R at a point where x  1, y  2 and z  3 ?
(C) (D)
2h 2 4h 2
(A) 6 (B) 5
5.47 During an experiment, the position of a fluid (C) 10 (D) 0
particle is monitored by an instrument over a 5.50 A reservoir connected to a pipe line is being
time period of 10 s. The trace of the particle filled with water, as shown in the figure. At
given by the following figure represents any time t, the free surface level in the
reservoir is h. Find the time in seconds for the
reservoir to get filled upto a height of 1 m. If
the initial level is 0.2 m _____.
(A) Stream line (B) Streak line
(C) Path line (D) Timeline
5.48 Smoke is released from a tall chimney from 5.51 Water (density = 1000 ) at 0.1 and alcohol
ABC industry. Wind blows from north to
(specific gravity = 0.8) at 0.3 are mixed in a
south upto time T and there after, the
T-junction as shown in
direction changes from east to west.
the figure. Assuming all the flows to be
After time T, streak lines for smoke particles steady and incompressible, average density
coming out of the chimney are oriented as of the mixture of alcohol and water, in , is
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
(A) 340 (B) 560
(C) 680 (D) 850
5.52 Steady state incompressible flow through a A Answer Key
pipe network is shown in the figure. Inlets
marked as (1), (2), and (3) and exit marked as
5.1 D 5.2 B 5.3 D
(4), are shown with their respective
diameters. The exit flow rate at (4) is 0.1 . A
20% increase in flow rate through 5.4 D 5.5 C 5.6 B
(3) results in a 10% increase in flow rate

5.7 B 5.8 D 5.9 C
through (4). The original velocity through
inlet (3) is____ m/s.
5.10 C 5.11 B 5.12 A
5.13 A 5.14 C 5.15 C
5.16 D 5.17 A 5.18 B
5.19 C 5.20 C 5.21 A
5.53 A cylindrical tank of 0.8 m diameter is 5.22 A 5.23 C 5.24 A

completely filled with water and its top
surface is open to atmosphere as shown in the 5.25 D 5.26 C 5.27 B
figure. Water is being discharged to the
atmosphere from a circular hole of 15 mm 5.28 D 5.29 A 5.30 A
diameter located at the bottom of the tank.
The value of acceleration due to gravity is . 5.31 B 5.32 A 5.33 A
How much time (in seconds) would be
required for water level to drop from a height
5.34 B 5.35 A 5.36 D
of 1 m to 0.5 m?
5.37 D 5.38 A 5.39 C
5.40 A 5.41 D 5.42 C
5.43 A 5.44 C 5.45 A
5.46 C 5.47 C 5.48 B
5.49 B 5.50 20 5.51 D

(A) 188 (B) 266
(C) 376 (D) 642 5.52 17.68 5.53 C
E Explanation 5.8 (D)
u = xy3 – x2y
5.1 (D)
3
V  xy 2  y 4
5.2 (B) 4
u v
 0
5.3 (D) x y
 y 3  2 xy  2 xy  3 / 4  4 y 3  0
5.4 (D)
–3=0
5.5 (C) =3
dx dy

u V 5.9 (C)
dx dy u = 5x+6y + 7z
 
cos  sin  v = 6x+5y + 9z
w = 3x+2y + z
  sin  dx  cos  dy  = 0 exp (–2t)
 = Constant    
 u   v   w  0
t x y z
x. sin  = y. cos 
 – 2 +  (5) +  (5) + () = 0
y = x tan 
  (–2+10+) = 0
Hence, the correct option is (C).  = – 8
5.6 (B) Hence, the correct option is (C).
5.10 (C)
5.7 (B) q m3/s/m
take width = dx
q per unit width
A1 A2 Q
dx
q dx
1A1V1 = 2A2V2
 2 = 0.85 1 Q
Q Q dx
x
 1A1V1 = 0.851  0.6A1V2
Q
V1 = 0.51 V2  Q  qdx  Q  d/x
x
V2 = 1.96V1 Q
 q 0
Hence, the correct option is (B). x
5.11 (B) v u
 
2-D incompressible flow x y
u v f(x) = 3
 0
x y f (x) = 3x
 V = –2y + 3x
Option (a) x     y   1  1  0 Hence, the correct option is (C).
x y
  5.15 (C)
(b)  2 x   2 y   2  2  0
x y Generalised continuity equation is
Hence, the correct option is (B).    
    u     v     w  0
5.12 (A) t x y z
 u  v
u
5   .  u 
 x  t x x y
1    w 
 3 v  w 0
v u y y z
ax  u 
x t    
 u v w  2.4 (Given)
  t x y z
 
 1   u v w 
ax 
5

5
        2.4  0
 x   x 
2
3  x y z 
1   1  
 3    3   u v w 
  1.2       2.4
ax at x = 0  x y z 
 5x  5 
1
 14.43 m/s2 u v w
    2s 1
3 x y z
Hence, the correct option is (A). Hence, the correct option is (C).
5.13 (A) 5.16 (D)
5.14 (C) A1V1=A2V2 + A3V3
u = 2x + 3y 2A1 = 3A2 + 5A3
2-D incompressible, irrotational flow A2 = A3 (Given)
2A1 = 8A2
u v
 0 A1
x y 4
A2
v u
 At another instant
y x
 V1 = 3 m/s ; V2 = 4m/s
v
 2  3A1 + 4A2 + A2V3
y
 3A1 + (4+V3) A2
V = – 2 y
A
V = -2y + f(x)  3 1  4  V3
A2
v
 0  f ( x)  3  4  4  V3
x
As flow is irrotational. so, V3 = 12 – 4 = 8m/s
z = 0 Hence, the correct option is (D).
5.17 (A) 5.19 (C)
Given : u = Px-Q, v = Ry, w = st
u u u u
ax  u.  v  w  
R
x y z t R1
Temporal Acceleration R2
u v w
  0;  0;  s  5m / s 2
t t t
L
at = 0+0+5 = 5 K̂ m/s2
Q = constant
convective acceleration
ac x  uP   V (0)  w(0) Steady, 1-D incompressible
ac x  3u  3 px  Q   3(3(1)  4)  3 V  uiˆ  yˆj  wkˆ
ac  y  4(0)  VR  w(0)  3V V=u
= -3(Ry) = –3 (–32) = 18 a  a x iˆ
ac z 0 u u u
a  ax  u  {  0 steady flow
 3iˆ  15 ˆj m/s2 x t t
Hence, the correct option is (A). u u
au v
x x
5.18 (B)
L Q = AV
Q
V
dx A
Q   Q  Q2   1 
a    
A x  A  A x  A 
x
Let us calculate a at a distance x
 3x 
V  u0 1   iˆ
 L
dis tan ce R  R1 R 2
time  
velocity
R1 R
dx
dt 
 3x  x
u 0 1  
 L
T L dx
0 dt  0  3x 
u0   
 L L
L
1   3x  L 
T n 1    T
u0   L  3 0
R2  R1
L
T n4 
3u 0
L
y A = 0.5 – 0.02x
tan  
x Q = 0.5 m3/sec
y = x tan 
dQ
= R – R1 = x tan   0.2m3 / sec
dt
R = R1 + x tan 
R  R1 Q  Au
tan   2
RL Q d Q
u   
R2  R1
x
R  R1 R2  R1  K A dt  A 
L L
du 1 dQ
R = R1 + Kx 
A = R2 dt A dt
A =  (R1+Kx)2 du

1
0.2
Q2   1  dt 0.5  0.02x
a  
  R1  kx  x    R1  kx 2 
2
at x = 0
Q2   = 20.2 = 0.4 m/s2

  R1  kx  
2
  R1  kx 
2
x  
Q2  2  R1  kx 3  k  5.21 (A)
a
 2
 R1  kx 
2  
For irrotational flow
2Q 2 k
= 1  u v 
 2  R1  kx 
5
wz      0
2  y x 
At x = L
R2  R1 u v
R1  kx  R1  L  
L y x
R1  kx  R2
2Q R2  R1  1 
2
aexit  .   5.22 (A)
2 L  R25 
2Q 2 ( R1  R2 ) 5.23 (C)
aexit 
 2 LR25
. V = 0
u v w
5.20 (C)    0
x y z
valid for any incompressible flow
5.24 (A)
2m 5.25 (D)
5.26 (C) 5.29 (A)
 = 2x2y + (x+1) y2 u = 6y v = 0
 at (3,0) 1  v u  1
1 = 2(3)2(0) +(3+1)(0)2 wz      0  6  3
2  x y  2
1 = 0
Rate of shear strain
2 at (0,2)
1  v u  1
2 = 0+(0+1)4 = 4   0  6  3
2  x y  2
 2 – 1 = 4 – 0 = 4 units
Hence, the correct option is (C). Hence, the correct option is (A).
5.27 (B) 5.30 (A)

U = 2x+3y 
u
V = –2y y
Radius = 2 unit

 v u  v
Circulation        area x
 x y  u v
 0
= (0–3)4 x y
 2  2
5.28 (D)   0
xy xy
1
  n x 2  y 2 ; r  1 Continuity equation is satisfied.
2
1  v u 
U wz      0
2  x y 
Flow is irrotational.
rd
 Hence, the correct option is (A).
5.31 (B)
Given
2 2 2
x +y = r 1
  x2 y3
1 2
  n r
2  1 3
 1 1 u   x 2 3 y 2   x 2 y 2 ˆj
 y 2 2
r 2 r
  1
 
2
.rd v  2 xy3  xy3 ˆj
0 r x 2
2 1 3
    r.d   x 2 y 2iˆ  xy 3 ˆj
0 2r 2
1 2 2
   0     Hence, the correct option is (B).
2 2
Hence, the correct option is (F). 5.32 (A)
5.33 (A) 5.36 (D)

 = x2–y2 Q
qx 2
2
 = ? at x = y = 0 L
By using C-R equations

Q0
  V0 D

x y
 x=0 dx x=L
 2x  x
y Q0 = AV0
  = 2xy + C Q0
At x = 0; y = 0 ;  V0
A
 = 2xy qx 2
dQ  2  Dxdx
Hence, the correct option is (A). L
5.34 (B) q D x3
Q 2 C
Given L 3
 = 3xy At x=0, Q = Q0 ; C = Q0
 q d x3
u  3x Q 2  Q0
y L 3
Q Q0 qDx 3
at (2,3) Velocity =  
u = – 6 unit A A 3L2   D 2
 4
V  3y 4qx 3
x Velocity  V0  2 
at (2,3) 3L D 
V=9 Hence, the correct option is (D).
V  ulˆ  vˆj 5.37 (D)
Vˆ  u 2  v 2  36  81  10.82 units 5.38 (A)
Hence, the correct option is (B). 5.39 (C)

5.35 (A) Given
Stream line passing through a point A (1,1)  = Px2 + qy2
xy = 1 Stream function is valid for both rotational
xdy + ydx = 0 and irrotational flow, but potential function
dy y 1 is valid for only irrotational flow.
m1       1 Then it should satisfies Laplace equation
dx x 1
Equation potential line m1 m2 = –1  2  2
 0
then m2 = 1 x 2 y 2
y-y1 = m(x-x1)  2P + 2q = 0
 y-1 = 1 (x-1) P=–q
 x=y Hence, the correct option is (C).
Hence, the correct option is (A). 5.40 (A)
5.41 (D) 5.43 (A)
2-D flow 1  v u 
wz    
u 0
ux
v 0
u y 2  x y 
L L
1 y
u v u0 u0  0  
    0 i.e incompressible 2 h
x y L L
y
1 v u wz  
wz   h
2 x y Hence, the correct option is (A).
 0  0  0 i.e irrotational
1
5.44 (C)
2
 AV
Hence, the correct option is (D). F
h
5.42 (C)
2 104  0.25  5 102
L = 0.2 
5 103
10  a x iˆ  ayˆj
= 0.510–3N
u u xu  Power = FV
ax  u  10  x  0   10
x L L = 0.510–3510–2 =2.510–5 Watt
u02  0.2 10 u0 = 1.414 m/s Hence, the correct option is (C).
u u u u 5.45 (A)
a u v w 
x y z t A  R 2 V
a  a x2  a y2
u0 x   u0 x    u0 y 
ax    0  0 A  2Rh; V  Vr
L x  L   L  h
u0 x  u0  u02 x
ax   
L  L  L2
 R2V = 2Rh Vr
2
u x
Similarly a y   0
2  Vr 
VR
L 2h
2 2
 u2 x   u2 x  Hence, the correct option is (A).
10   02    02 
 L   L  5.46 (B)
u
 u2x 
2
ar  u
 2  02   10 r
 L  Vr Vr  V 
 Vr   
 u2x 
2
r 2h  2h 
102  2 02 
 L  V 2r
ar 
X = L, L = 0.2 4h 2
2  u04  L2 Hence, the correct option is (B).
 100   50  L2  u04
L4 5.47 (C)
U0 = 1.189 m/s
5.48 (B)
5.49 (B) 0.11.1  1.2Q3  Q3  0.1

0.11  0.2Q3  0.1
u v w
Volume dilation rate    0.01
x y z Q3   0.05 m3 /s
0.2
 2x+x+z+2y+x–2z By using continuity equation
At (1,2,3) A3V3  Q3
 2(1) + 1 + 3 + 2 (2) + 1 – 2 (3) = 5 Q 0.05
V3  3   17.68 m/s
Hence, the correct option is (B). V3  (0.06) 2
5.50 20 4
Hence, the correct answer is 17.68.
5.53 (C)
Volume to be filled (m3 )

Time 
Volume flow rate (m3 /s)
Q  va  a 2 gH

(0.5)2  0.8 dH
4  20 sec Velocity 
 dt
(0.1) 1
2
dH
4 Discharge   A = Negative sign is taken
5.51 (D) dt
dH
Given data : because height is decreasing   A  a 2 gH
dt
water  1000 kg/m3  A dH
dt 
Qwater  0.1 m3 /s a 2g H
t H
alcohal  0.8 1000  800 kg/m3 A 1 2 dH
0 dt   a 2 g H H
Qalcohal  0.3 m3 /s 1
A 2
Average density of mixture of alcohol and t  H 21/2  H11/2 
a 2g
water
Note : From above equation, we can say that time
1000  0.1  800  0.3 (kg/s)
  850 kg/m3 required to empty a tank of height H is proportional
0.1  0.3 (m3 /s) to H 1/2 .
Hence, the correct option is (D). 
(0.8) 2 
5.52 17.68 t

4 2
(0.5)1/2  1
Q1  Q2  Q3  Q4 (0.015) 2 2  9.81
4
Q1  Q2  1.20Q3  0.11.1 t  376.1726 sec
Q1  Q2  0.11.1  1.2Q3 Hence, the correct option is (C).
NOTES
From Newton second law of motion
Generally, forces acting on the fluid element are
pressure force (FP), gravity force (Fg) and viscous F  ma s
force (Fv). In Navier–stokes equation all these PdA  ( P  dP )dA   gdAdz

three forces are taken into consideration. In  V V 
  dAds V 
Euler’s analysis viscous forces are neglected  s t 
only pressure and gravity forces are taken into
 V V 
dP   gdz   ds V 
 s t 
consideration.
6.1 Euler’ Equation:
 V V 
dP   gdz   ds V  0
Assumptions:  s t 
1. Flow is not viscous In Euler equation z = vertical distance
2. Flow is along the stream line. 6.2 Bernoulli’s Equation:
Stream wise direction Bernoulli’s equation based on conservation of

energy principle.
Assumptions:
1. Flow is non – viscous
2. Flow is along a stream line
3. No energy is supplied and no energy is taken
out from the fluid during the flow.
4. steady flow
5. Incompressible flow.
Steady
flow
 V V 
dP   gdz   ds V  0
 s t 

 a  F ( s, t )

 For steady flow a  F ( s )
V V VdV
 
 s ds
dz
cos    V 
ds  dP   gdz   ds V 0
dz  dscos  s 
Kulkarni’s Academy 79 Fluid Dynamics
 dP   gdz  VdV  0 V2 
2. Velocity head  :

dP
 gdz  VdV  0  2g 
 It is the height by which fluid falls in a
By integrating above equation frictionless environment to reach a particular
dP velocity.
   gdz   VdV   0
 V  2 gh
= C incompressible
V2
P V2 h
  gz   Constant 2g
 2 3. Potential energy head (z):
This equation is known as classical Bernoulli’s It is the vertical distance with respect to same
equation. In the above equation each term reference line.
represents energy of the fluid per unit mass. 4. Piezometric head:
6.3 Bernoulli’s theorem: The sum of pressure head and potential
In a steady incompressible non – viscous flow energy head is known as piezometric head.
along a stream line the sum of pressure energy, P
 z = piezometric head.
kinetic energy and potential energy is constant. w
P V2 6.5 Bernoulli’s equation for a horizontal
  gz  const.
 2 stream line:
P V2
  z  const.
 g 2g
In this equation each term represent energy per
unit weight.
6.4 Various heads in fluid mechanics:
1. Pressure head [P/w]:
The height of which the fluid rises due to P1 V12 P2 V22
pressure when a piezometer is connected  z   z
 g 2g 1  g 2g 2
known as pressure are head.
P1 V12 P V2
  2  2
 g 2g  g 2g
Bernoulli’s equation for a real fluid problem:
o + gh = P
wh=P P1 V12 P2 V22
  z1    z2  hL
P P w 2g w 2g
h  or
w g hL = head loss between 1 & 2.
Irrotational flow:  P1   P2  V2  V1
2 2
  z1    z 2  h
w  w  2g
For horizontal pipe z1= z2
P1 P2 V22  V12
P1 V12 P V2   h
  z1  2  2  z2  c12  50 w w 2g
w 2g w 2g
2 2
V22  V12  2 gh
P3 V P V
  z3  4 
3
 z4  c34  50
4
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
w 2g w 2g
Q Q
P V2 P V2 V1  V2 
 1  1  z1  4  4  z4  50 A1 A2
w 2g w 2g
In case of irrotational flow Bernoulli’s equation Q2 Q2
   h  2g
can be applied between any two points A12 A22
throughout the flow field. Because stream line
 A2  A2 
constants are same for different stream lines for Q2  1 2 2 2   h  2 g
irrotational flow.  A1 A2 
Rotational flow: A1 A2 2 gh
Q
A12  A22
As no losses is assumed while deriving this
equation this discharge is known as ideal
P1 V12 P V2 discharge or theoretical discharge.
  z1  2  2  z2  c12  30
w 2g w 2g
A1 A2 2 gh
P3 V 2
P V 2 Qth 
  z3  4 
3
 z4  hL  c34  25
4 A12  A22
w 2g w 2g
h calculation:
In case of rotational flow Bernoulli’s equation
must be applied only for a particular stream line
because stream line constants are different for
different stream line.
6.6 Application of Bernoulli’s equation:
[1] Venturimeter:
It is used for calculating discharge.
P1 XS P
H x m H  2
w s w
P1 V12 P V2 P1  P2 s 
  z1  2  2  z 2  x m  1  h
w 2g w 2g w  s 
6.7 Principle of Venturimeter:  A2  A2 
Q2  1 2 2 2   2 g (h  hL )
By reducing area in a steady incompressible flow  A1 A2 
velocity increasing (from continuity equation) A1 A2 2 g h  hL 
this results in decrease in pressure (from Qact  …..(2)
A12  A22
Bernoulli’s equation). Due to this pressure
difference, there will be manometric fluid From equation (1) and (2)
deflection. When a differential manometer is Cd A1 A2 2 gh A1 A2 h  hL   2 g
connected by measuring this deflection (x), 
A12  A22 A12  A22
discharge can be calculated.
6.8 Coefficient of discharge (Cd): h  hL
Cd 
h
It is defined as the ratio of actual discharge to the
theoretical discharge. Cd depends on type of flow 6.9 General proportions of a
(Reynolds No) and area ratio. Venturimeter:
As Venturimeter is gradually converging &
diverging device losses are less and hence Cd is
0.94 to 0.98.
Qact
Cd  1 1
Qth d 2   to  d1
3 2
Qact  Cd Qth
Angle of convergence – 20 to 22o
Qact 
Cd . A1 A2 2 gh
…. (1) Angle of divergence – Less than 7o
A12  A22
Note:
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2 for  The angle of divergence is generally kept < 7o in
real fluid flow order to avoid flow separation.
P1 V12 P2 V22  If d2 is very low then Pressure decreases, chances
     hL
w 2g w 2g of cavitation will be more.
P1 P2 V2 V2 6.10 Orifice meter:
   hL  2  1
w w 2g 2g
This device is used for finding out discharge and
V V 2 2
it is the cheapest instrument for calculating
 h  hL  2 1
2g discharge.
 V22  V12   2 g  h  hL    It is based on the same principle as that of
Venturimeter.
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
Q Q
V2  ;V1 
A2 A1
Q2 Q2
   2 g (h  hL )
A22 A12
It is a circular disc with a circular hole. 6.11 Pitot tube:
Coefficient of contraction (Cc) It is used for finding the velocity of flow.
a2 vena  controcta area Case-1: Velocity in open channels.
Cc  
a0 orifice area
a2 = Cc a0
apply continuity equation between 1 & 2
a1v1 = a2v2
a 2 v2 cav
V1   v1  2 0 2
a1 a1
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2
P1 v12 P2 v22 Stagnation point is a point at which velocity is

   brought to be rest isentropically.
w 2g w 2g
P1 V12 P2 V22
P1  P2 v v 2 2   
h 2 1
w 2g w 2g
w 2g
V2  0
v  v  2 gh
2
2
2
1
P1 V12 P2
 
 C 2a 2  w 2g w
 v22 1  c 2 0   2 gh
 a1 
h0 
V12
 h  h0  v1  2 gh
2g
2 gh
V2  V12
1  cc2 a02  h  dynomic head
2g
a12
v1  2 g (dynamic head )
Discharge (Q) = a2v2
v1  2 g ( stagnation head  static head
 a2 = cca0
Static head + Dynamic head = stagnation head
a2
1  02 Case-2: Velocity in pipes
cc a0 2 gh a1

c 2a 2 a02
1  c 20 1
a1 a12
cd .a1a0 2 gh
Q
a12  a02
As the area reduction is sudden in orifice meter

losses are more and hence Cd of orifice meter is
less. (0.68 – 0.76).
P1 s P
H x m xH  2
w s w
P2 P1 s 
   x  m  1 …. (2)
w w  s 
From (1) and (2)
V12 s  s 
 x m  1  v1  2 gx m  1
2g  s   s 
If the specific gravity (s.g.) of manometric fluid
is less than the s.g. of flowing fluid then the
equation for velocity is
 s 
v1  2 gx 1  m 
 s 
Note:
Fx & Fy force exerted by the bend on the pipe in
Actual velocity = Cv theoretical velocity x & y direction.
6.12 Relationship between Cc, Cv and Cd: Apply momentum equation in x – direction
P1A + Fx P2A2 cos = Q[V2cos V1]…… (i)
Actual disch arg e Momentum equation in y – direction
Cd 
Theoretical disch arg e
Fy – P2 A2sin = Q [V2 sin - 0]
Aact Vact
Cd   Fy =P2 A2sin+ Q V2 sin ……..(ii)
Ath Vth
Cd = CcCv
6.13 Force on pipe bend:
Momentum equation
F = ma
m(v  u )

t

 F  m(v  u)

m   AV  Q
F = Q(v – u)  Momentum equation

6.5 Bernoulli's equation represents
(A) Momentum balance
6.1 The Euler's equation of motion is a
(B) Mechanical energy balance
(A) Statement of conservation of momentum
(C) Mass balance
of a real fluid
(B) Statement of conservation of energy for (D) Total energy balance
incompressible flow 6.6 Match List - I (forms of Bernoulli's Equation)
(C) Statement of Newton's second law of with List - II (Units of these forms) and select
motion of an inviscid fluid the correct answer using the code given
(D) Statement of generation of entropy below the lists:
6.2 Consider Euler's equation for one- List I
dimensional horizontal unsteady flow. In a V 2
(P) p  wz 
25cm diameter pipe, water discharge 2
increases from 30 to 150 liters /sec in 3.5
p V2
seconds. What is the pressure gradient that (Q)  gz 
 2
can sustain the flow?
(A) 558Pa/m (B) 698Pa/m p V2
(R) z
(C) 0 (D) 7960Pa/m w 2g
6.3 Which of the following assumptions are List II

made for deriving Bernoulli's equation? (1) Total energy per unit volume
(1) Flow is steady and incompressible (2) Total energy per unit mass
(2) Flow is unsteady and compressible (3) Total energy per unit weight
(3) Effect of friction is neglected and flow is
(A) P-1, Q-2, R-3 (B) P-1, Q-3, R-2
along a stream line
(C) P-2, Q-1, R-3 (D) P-2, Q-3, R-1
(4) Effect of friction is taken into
consideration and flow is along a 6.7 In the siphon shown in figure, assuming ideal
stream line Select the correct answer flow, pressure PB
using the codes given below:
(A) 1 and 3 (B) 2 and 3
(C) 1 and 4 (D) 2 and 4
6.4 Bernoulli's theorem
p V2
  Z  constant is valid
g 2 g
(A) Along different streamlines in
rotational flow
(B) Along different streamlines in
irrotational flow
(A)  PA (B)  PA
(C) Only in the case of flow of gas
(D) Only in the case of flow of liquid (C)  PA (D)  PC
6.8 A Venturimeter of 20mm throat diameter is
used to measure the velocity of water in a
horizontal pipe of 40mm diameter. If the
pressure difference between the pipe and
throat sections is found to be 30kPa then,
neglecting frictional losses, the flow velocity
is
(A) 0.2m/s (B) 1.0m/s
(C) 1.4m/s (D) 2.0m/s   h  h 

(A) 2 gh3 1  1 1  2 2 
 3 h3 3 h3 
6.9 Air is inducted from atmosphere through a
bell-mouthed duct by the application of (B) 2 g (h1  h2  h3 )
suction at the other end. A glass tube with its
  h   h  3h3 
lower end immersed into a vessel containing (C) 2g  1 1 2 2 
water is attached to the cylindrical part of the  1  2  3 
duct (see figure). If the liquid level in the   h h  2 h3h1  3h1h2 
glass tube rises by 25mm above the free (D) 2g  1 2 3 
 1h1  2 h2  3h3 
surface and the density of air is equal to
6.11 The flow of a fluid in a pipe takes place from
1.2 kg/m3 , the velocity of air in the
(A) Higher level to lower level
cylindrical portion is (B) Small end to large end
(C) Higher pressure to lower
Pressure
(D) Higher energy to lower energy
6.12 A siphon draws water from a reservoir and
discharges it out at atmospheric pressure.
Assuming ideal fluid and the reservoir is
large, the velocity at point P in the siphon
tube is
(A) 28.6m/s (B) 14.3m/s
(C) 40.4m/s (D) 20.2m/s
6.10 A large tank with a nozzle attached contains

three immiscible, inviscid fluids as shown.
Assuming that the changes in are negligible, (A) 2gh1 (B) 2gh2
the instantaneous discharge velocity is (C) 2 g (h2  h1 ) (D) 2 g (h2  h1 )
6.13 A smooth pipe of diameter 200mm carries 6.15 For a Venturimeter, which of the following
water. The pressure in the pipe at section S1 combination of statements will make a true
realistic description?
(elevation: 10m ) is 50kPa . At section S 2
(P) The area ratio ( AThroat / Apipe ) is very
(elevation: 12m ) the pressure is 20kPa and
close to unity
velocity is 2ms1 . Density of water is
(Q) The discharge coefficient is very close
1000 kgm 3 and acceleration due to gravity is
to unity
9.8m/s 2 . Which of the following is
(R) The angle of convergence is around 60
TRUE?
(S) The angle of divergence is around 60
(A) Flow is from S1 to S 2 and head loss is (A) P, Q (B) Q, R
0.53m (C) Q, S (D) R, S
(B) Flow is from S1 to S 2 and head loss is 6.16 Two Venturimeter of different area ratios are
0.53m connected at different locations of a pipeline
to measure discharge. Similar manometers
(C) Flow is from S1 to S 2 and head loss is
are used across the two Venturimeter to
1.06m register the head differences. The first
(D) Flow is from S 2 to S1 and head loss is Venturimeter of area ratio 2 registers a head
1.06m difference 'h', while the second Venturimeter
registers '5h'. The area ratio for the second
6.14 A pipeline system carries crude oil of density Venturimeter is
800 kg/m 3 . The volumetric flow rate at point (A) 3 (B) 4
1 is 0.28m 3 /s . The cross sectional areas of (C) 5 (D) 6
the branches 1, 2 and 3 are 0.012, 0.008 and 6.17 The pressure differential across a vertical
0.004 m 2 respectively. All the three branches venturimeter (shown in figure) is measured
are in a horizontal plane and the friction is with the help of a mercury manometer to
negligible. If the pressures at the points 1 and estimate flow rate of water flowing through
3 are 270kPa and 240kPa respectively, it. The expression for the velocity of water at
then the pressure at point 2 is the throat is
(A) 202kPa (B) 240kPa

(C) 284kPa (D) 355kPa
V22  V12 xSm 6.20 The diverging limb of a Venturimeter is kept

(A)  longer than the converging limb to
2g Sw
V22  V12 S  (A) Ensure that the flow remains laminar
(B)  x  m  1 (B) Avoid separation
2g  Sw 
V2 S  (C) Ensure that the flow remains turbulent
(C) 2  H  x  m  1 (D) Avoid formation of boundary layer
2g  Sw 
S  6.21 The discharge coefficients of a Venturimeter
V22  V12
(D)  x m   H and an orifice meter, both installed on a pipe
2g  Sw  of internal diameter 100mm , are 0.95 are
6.18 Water is flowing with a volume flow rate Q
0.65, respectively. The venturi throat
through a pipe whose diameter reduces to
diameter is the same as the orifice diameter.
half across a reducer. If the flow is
If the pressure drop across the orifice meter is
frictionless, compare the manometer reading
measured as 300mm of water column, the
corresponding to the three different
corresponding pressure drop for the
inclinations of the pipe 1  300 , 2  00 and
Venturimeter in mm of water column, is
3  300 Note that only the pipe tilts, while approximately
the manometer always stays vertical. (A) 205 (B) 80
(C) 140 (D) 66
6.22 In an orifice meter, if the pressure drop
across the orifice is overestimated by 5%,
then the PERCENTAGE error in the
measured flow rate is
(A) 2.47 (B) 5
(C) 2.47 (D) 5
(A) h1  h2  h3
6.23 The discharge coefficient, C d , of an orifice
(B) h1  h2  h3
meter is
(C) h1  h2  h3
(A) Greater than the C d of a Venturimeter
(D) h1  h3 and h1  h2
(B) Smaller than the C d of a venturimeter
6.19 An orifice plate of 60 mm diameter and
discharge coefficient 0.6 is used for (C) Equal to the C d of a venturimeter
measuring the flow rate of air (D) Greater than one
  1.2 kg/m3 ,   1.8 105 kgm 1s 1 through 6.24 A fluid jet is discharging from a 100mm nozzle
a pipe of 100mm diameter. A manometer and then vena contracta formed has a dimeter
(with water as the working liquid) connected of 90mm . If the coefficient of velocity is
across the orifice plate reads 180mm . The air 0.95, then the coefficient of discharge for the
flow rate is approximately equal to nozzle is
(A) 0.3m3 /s (B) 0.1m3 /s (A) 0.855 (B) 0.81
(C) 0.01m 3 /s (D) 0.003m3 /s (C) 0.9025 (D) 0.7695
6.25 The operation of a rotameter is based on 6.28 The following instruments are used in the
(A) Variable flow area measurement of discharge through a pipe:
1. Orifice meter
(B) Rotation of a turbine
2. Flow meter
(C) Pressure drop across a nozzle
3. Venturimeter
(D) Pressure at a stagnation point The correct sequence of the ascending order
6.26 Figure shows the schematic for the of the head loss in these instruments is
measurement of velocity of air (density = (A) 1, 3, 2 (B) 1, 2, 3
1.2 kg/m3 ) through a constant-area duct using (C) 3, 2, 1 (D) 2, 3, 1
a pitot tube and a water-tube manometer. The 6.29 An orifice meter being used for measuring flow
differential head of water rate of a liquid in a pipe shows a pressure
differential of x meters of water column,
(density = 1000 kg/m3 ) in the two columns of
when the flow rate is 6. If the flow rate is
the manometer is 10mm . Take acceleration
doubled the pressure differential in meters of
due to gravity as 9.8 m/s 2 . The velocity of air water column will be
in m/s is (A) 2x (B) 8x
(C) x 2 (D) 4x
6.30 Group I gives a list of devices and Group
II gives the list of uses.
Group I
(P) Pitot tube (Q) Manometer
(R) Venturimeter (S) Anemometer
Group II
1) Measuring
2) Measuring velocity of flow
(A) 6.4 (B) 9.0 3) Measuring air and gas velocity
4) Measuring discharge in a pipe
(C) 12.8 (D) 25.6
(A) P-1, Q-2, R-4, S-3
6.27 Water flow through a pipeline having four
(B) P-2, Q-1, R-3, S-4
different diameters at 4 Stations is shown in
(C) P-2, Q-1, R-4, S-3
the given figure. The correct sequence of
station numbers in the decreasing order of (D) P-4, Q-1, R-3, S-2
pressure is 6.31 Water is flowing at 1m/s through a pipe (of
10cm I.D). With a right angle bend. The
force in Newton exerted on the bend by the
water is
5x
(A) 10 2x (B)
2
5 5x
(A) 3,1,4,2 (B) 1,3,2,4 (C) (D)
2x 2
(C) 1,3,4,2 (D) 3,1,2,4
Linked Answer Questions 32 to 33 Linked Answer questions 35 and 36

A free jet of water is emerging from a nozzle Water enters a symmetric forked pipe and
(diameter 75mm ) attached to a pipe discharges into atmosphere through the two
(diameter 225mm ) as shown below. branches as shown in the figure. The cross-
sectional area of section 1 is 0.2 m 2 and the
velocity across section 1 is 3m/s . The density
of water may be taken as 1000 kg/m3 . The
viscous effects and elevation changes may be
neglected.
The velocity of water at point A is 18m/s .

Neglect friction in the pipe and nozzle. Use
g  9.81m/s 2 and density of water
 1000 kg/m 3 .
6.32 The velocity of water at the tip of the nozzle 6.35 The gauge pressure at section 1, in kPa , is
(in m/s) is
(A) 13.4 (B) 18.0 (A) 0.6 (B) 13.5
(C) 23.2 (D) 27.1 (C) 135 (D) 600
6.33 The gauge pressure (in kPa ) at point B is 6.36 The magnitude of the force, in kN required
(A) 80.0 (B) 100.0 to hold the pipe in place, is
(C) 239.3 (D) 367.6
(A) 2.7 (B) 5.4
6.34 The figure shows a reducing area conduit
carrying water. The pressure p and velocity V (C) 19 (D) 27
are uniform across sections 1 and 2. The
density of water is 1000 kg/m3 .
If the total loss of head due to friction is just
equal to the loss of potential head between the
inlet and the outlet, the V2 in m/s will
be___________.
A QV
Answer Key
6.1 C 6.2 B 6.3 A dP

= pressure gradient
ds
6.4 B 6.5 B 6.6 A
6.7 B 6.8 D 6.9 D  V 
dP    ds  
6.10 A 6.11 D 6.12 C  t 
6.13 C 6.14 C 6.15 C
dP   Q 
6.16 B 6.17 B 6.18 C        ; Q  AV
ds  t  A  
6.19 B 6.20 B 6.21 C
6.22 A 6.23 B 6.24 D dP   Q 
  
ds A  t 
6.25 B 6.26 C 6.27 D
6.28 C 6.29 D 6.30 C 103
  0.03428
6.31 D 6.32 D 6.33 D 
 0.25
2
6.34 8 m/s 6.35 B 6.36 A 4
  698 pa/m
E Explanation
6.1 (C)
6.3 (A)
6.2 (B)
D = 25 cm 6.4 (B)
dQ 150  30  10
3
 m3/sec 6.5 (B)

dt 3.5
120 103 Bernoulli’s equation is not the total energy
  0.03428 m3/sec conservation equation because while
3.5
deriving Bernoulli’s equation heat transfer
and work transfer are not taken into
consideration therefore Bernoulli’s equation
is known as mechanical energy balance
equation.

v
Diameter is uniform so 0 6.6 (A)
s
0
V 2 N m Joule Energy
P  wz     
2 m2 m m3 volume
A = AV
A=C
6.7 (B) 6.8 (D)

d2 = 20 mm, d1 = 40 mm
P1  P2 = 30 kPa
A1V1 = A2V2
 
 40 V1   20 
2 2
V2
4 4
16V1 = 4V2
V2= 4V1
P1 V12 P V2
  2  2
aBVB = acVc  g 2g  g 2g
VB = Vc P1  P2 V22  V12

g 2g
aAVA = acVc
2  30 103
aV   (4V1 )2  V12
VA  c c 1000
aA
= 15V12  60
aA is very large = VA is negative V12  4
Pc = PA V1 = 2m/s
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between B and C Hence, the correct option is (D).
6.9 (D)
PB VB2 Pc Vc2
  zB    zc
w 2g w 2g
PB P
  zB  c
w w
PB Pc
  zB {Pc  PA
w w
PB PA
   zB air = 1.2 kg/m3
w w
 PB  PA V2
h
2g
In this problem the fluid is flowing from B to
1ha = whw
C i.e. the fluid is flowing from low pressure
1000  25 103
to high pressure therefore pressure alone will ha   20.83m
not decide the direction of flow it is the total a  1.2
energy that decides the direction of flow. V2 = 2  9.81  20.83
V = 20.21 m/s
Hence, the correct option is (B). Hence, the correct option is (D).
6.10 (A) A1V1 = A2V2
A1 = A2
V1= V2 = 2m/s
P1 V12 P V2
  z1  2  2  z2  hL
w 2g w 2g
P1 P
  z1  2  z2
w w
50 103 20 103
  10 
 2 h2  3 .hour 1000  9.81 1000  9.81
 2 h2  15.102 > 14.0387

hour 
3 As piezometric head 1 is greater than
piezometric head at 2. So, flow is from 1 to 2.
 2h2  3hour
 hL = 15.102 – 14.0387
 2 h2
hour 
3 hL = 1.0632m
PA = PB = Patm Hence, the correct option is (C).
VA = 0 6.14 (C)
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between A & B
PA VA2 PB VB2
 z   z
 g 2g A w 2g B
1h1 2 h2 v2
   h3  B  0
3 3 2g
 h  h 
VB  2 g  1 1  2 2  h3 
 3 3 
Hence, the correct option is (A). Q1 = Q2 + Q3
6.11 (D) = 0.28 = a2v2 + a3v3
6.12 (C) Q = 0.28 m3/s
A1 = 0.012 m2
6.13 (C)
A2 = 0.008 m2
A3 = 0.004 m2
P1 = 270 kPa; P3 = 240 kPa; P2 = ?
For calculating v3 apply Bernoulli’s equation
between 1 and 3
Q1 = A1V1
0.28
V1   23.33 m/s
0.012
P1 V12 P V2 6.17 (B)

   3  3
 g 2g  g 2g
P1  P3 V32  V12
 
 2
30  2 1000
  v32  5.44.44
8000
270 103 23.332 240 103 V32
   
1800  9.81 2  9.81 800  9.81 2 g
 v3 = 24.89 m/s
 0.28 = 0.008  V2 + 0.004  24.89
 V2 = 22.5 m/s
By applying Bernoulli’s equation between 1 Apply Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2
and 2, we get P2 = 284.5 kPa. P1 V12 P2 V22
  z1    z2
Hence, the correct option is (C). w 2g w 2g
6.15 (C) P1 P2 V 2  V12
  H  2 ------ (1)
w w 2g
6.16 (B)
P1 S P
 xx M H  2
w Sw w
P1 P2 S 
  x  M  1  H -------- (2)
w w  Sw 
a1
ar  From equation (1) and (2)
a2
V22  V12 S 
 x  M  1
a1a2 2 gh 2g  Sw 
Q
a12  a22 Hence, the correct option is (B).
a1a2 2 gh a1 2 gh 6.18 (C)

Q 
a12 ar2  1 Important points:
a2 1 The discharge equation remains same
a22
irrespective of positioning of venturimeter.
Q = same
a1 2 gh a1 2 g ( sh) 6.19 (B)
 
a 12
r1 ar22  1
1 5
   ar22  15  1
3 ar2  1
2
ar 2  4
Water – Manometric fluid  0.95  p0
2
    2.136
cd = 0.6  0.65  pv
D0 = 60mm
300
pv   140.44 mm of water column
 = 1.2 kg/m3;  = 1.8  105 kg/m-s. 2.136
a1a0 2 gh Hence, the correct option is (C).
Q  cd .
a a
2
1
2
0 6.22 (A)
 
h  x  w  1 beacuse one fluid is water and Q
cd a1a0 2 gh
   a12  a02
another is air.
P
 1000  Q h h
h  0.18   1  149.82m w
 1.2 
Q  P w=c

a1  (0.1)  0.00785m
2 2
4 Q1   P 

a0  (0.06)2  0.002827m2 Q2  1.05P  1.0246 P
4
 2.46%
2.20 105  0.6  0.00785  0.002827 
Q is overestimated because P is
2  9.81149.82
Q overestimated.
0.007852  0.002827 2 Hence, the correct option is (A).
Q = 0.01 m3/s
6.23 (B)
6.20 (B) 6.24 (D)
Qact
6.21 (C) cd 
Qth
D = 100 mm
(cd)vent = 0.95 (cd)orifice = 0.65
a2 = a0
H = 300 mm of water column.
Discharge is same in both venturimeter and
orifice meter
Qv = Q0
cd a1a2 2 gh

cd a1a2 2 gh 
 90 
2
a a a a cd  cc  cv
2 2 2 2
1 2 1 0
Cc  4 = 0.81

100 
2
 cdv hv  cd0 h0
4
pv po Cd = 0.95  0.81 = 0.7695
0.95  0.65
w w Hence, the correct option is (D).
6.25 (B) Given V = 1 m/s
Rotameter is used for calculating discharge. I.D. = 10 m

Hence, the correct option is (B). Q = AV

6.26 (C) =
4
10 10 2 2
1
 
v  2 gx  M  1 
   =
400
m3/s
10  1000  F = ma
 2  9.81   1
100  1.2 
V u  
= 12.77 m/s  m   m V  U 
 t 
 5
6.27 (D) Fx   AV V  U   100   0  1 =
400 2
6.28 (C)  5
Fy   AV V  U   100  1  0 =
Device Shape Losses Cd Cost 400 2
Venturimeter Less High High F  Fx2  Fy2
 5   5  5 5
2 2
Flow nozzle or Medium Medium Medium
nozzle meter       2
 2   2  2 2
Orifice meter High Less Cheap
Hence, the correct option is (C). 6.32 (D)

6.29 (D) D = 225 mm
Q h D0 = 75 mm
Q2 h 2Q h
 2   2
Q1 h1 Q 2
h2 = 4x
6.30 (C)
6.31 (D) Apply Bernoulli’s equation between A and C

P1 Vc2 P V2
   zc  2  a  z a
w 2g w 2g
Vc2 182
 0  21
2g 2  9.81
 Vc = 27.1 m/s
6.33 (D) 6.35 (B)
Apply equation between B and C.
ABVB = ACVC
 
  225 VB  27.1  75
2 2
4 4
VB = 3.01 m/s
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between B and C
PB VB2 P V2
  z B  c  c  zc
w 2g w 2g
For gauge pressure Pc = Patm = 0
PB Vc2  VB2 Q1 = Q2 + Q3
  0.5
2 2g A1V1 = A2V2 + A3V3
PB 27.12  3.012 0.2 0.2
  0.5  0.2  3  v v
w 2  9.81 4 4
PB = 367.576 kPa  v = 6 m/s
Hence, the correct option is (D). Apply Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2
6.34 8 m/s 0
Given
P1 = 130 kPa
V1 = 2 m/s
P
v 2
2  v12 
 1000 
(36  9)
1
P2 = 100 kPa 2 2
V2 = ? P1  13.5kPa
hL = Loss of potential head between inlet and
outlet.
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between in inlet 6.36 (A)
and outlet. Pressure force exerted by the fluid on the pipe
2 2
P1 V P V is equal to magnitude of the force required to
  z1  2 
1
 z2  hL 2
 g 2g  g 2g hold the pipe.

P1  P2 V 2  V12 F=PA
  z1  z2   2  hL
g 2g = 13.5  0.2= 2.7 kN
(130  100) 103 v22  (2) 2 Note:
 
1000  g 2 g As the pipe is symmetric the net force in the
V  2  30  4
2
2
y – direction is zero, Therefore, whatever the
force required to hold the pipe it is in the x –
V22  64
direction.
V2 = 8m/s
NOTES
The pressure decreases in the direction of flow in
7.1 Reynolds Number:
order to overcome losses i.e. pressure gradient is
It is the ratio of inertia force to viscous force that negative in the direction of flow.
VL 7.2 Darcy’s Weisbach Equation:
is, Re 
 This equation is used for calculating head loss
Where – L is the characteristic dimension. due to friction.
Significance of L: FLV 2
hL  ;
It is such a dimension over which significant 2 gD
changes in properties occur. For flow through 4 F ' LV 2
pipes the characteristic dimension is pipe hL 
2 gD
diameter and for a flow over a flat plate the
F = 4F
characteristic dimension is the distance from the
Where F = Darcy’s friction factor or Moody’s
leading edge (x).
friction factor
Reynolds found from his experiments for flow
through pipes: F = fanning friction coefficient
This equation is applicable for laminar or
Re < 2000  Laminar flow
turbulent flow, horizontal, inclined or vertical
2000 < Re < 4000  Transition flow
pipes but the flow must be steady.
Re > 4000  Turbulent flow
7.3 Fully developed flow:
A flow is said to be fully developed flow if the

velocity profile does not change in the
longitudinal direction and the pressure gradient
 dP 
  remains constant.
 dx 
z1 = z2
a1v1 = a2v2
a1 = a2
v1 = v2
P1 V12 P V2
  z1  2  2  z2  hL
w 2g w 2g
P1  P2
 hL … (i)
w
7.4 Laminar flow through circular pipes: Velocity distribution: -
(Hagen – Poiseuille flow)
Assumption:
(1) steady flow
(2) Fully developed flow
r+y=R
dr + dy = o
dy =  dr
du
 
dy
du P r
   .
Temporal (steady) = 0
dy x 2
F = ma 1  P 
du    r.dr
Convective (Fully developed)=0 2  x 
F = ma = O
1  P  r 2
 P  2 u  .  c
 P. r 2   P  dx   r   .2 rdx  0 2   x  2
 x 
at pipe wall
P
  dx.r   .2dx at r = R
x u=0
P r 1  P  R 2
  . …. (1) c
x 2  .
2   x  2
For fully developed flow
1  P  2 1  P  2
u  r   R
P 4  x  4  x 
= constant
x
1  P  2
u   (r  R )
2
r 4  x 
1  P  2 2
Or u  [R  r ]
4  x 
1  P  2  r 2 
u   R 1
4  x   R 2 
 As the shear stress is zero at the centre of the u= umax at the centre (r = 0)
pipe therefore viscous forces are zero at the 1  P  2
centre and hence Bernoulli’s equation can be  umax    R …. (2)
4  x 
applied along the axis of the pipe.
 r2 
 In a laminar flow through pipes the shear u  umax . 1  2  …. (3)
stress varies linearly from zero at the centre  R 
to the maximum at pipe wall. Where u is local velocity.
Kulkarni’s Academy 99 Laminar Flow
 umax. R2
Q
2
Q = AV
Q = R2.V
 umax.R 2
  R 2 .V
2
Note: 
u
V  max. …. (5)
Velocity distribution is parabolic in laminar flow 2
through pipes. 7.5 Pressure drop in a given length ‘L’:
Discharge :
Let us calculate discharge through elemental umax

ring. v
2
d = u  2rdr 1  1  P  
R v      R2 
Q   2 urdr 2  4  x  
8V
0 x2 p2
R
 r2  x R 2 dx   P
Q   2 umax 1  2  rdr 1 p1
0  R  8V ( x2  x1 )
  P1  P2 { x2 – x 1 = L
R R 
2 2 R2
Q  2 umax    8VL 32VL
2 4  P1  P2   …... (6)
R2 D2
R2  umax.R2
Q  2 umax. Q ….(4) Where V is average velocity.
4 2 From equation – (i)
1  P  2  2 P1  P2
   R R  hL
 4  x   w
Q
2  P1 – P2 = ghL
  P  4  FLV 2  32VL
Q  R P1  P2   g   ; P1  P2 
8  x   2 gD  D2
Average velocity (v):  g ( FLV 2 ) 32 VL
 
2 gD D2
64
F
VD
64
F …. (7)
Re
F = Darcy’s friction factor 7.6 Laminar flow between parallel plates:
16
F = 4F  F' (1) Case 1: Fixed parallel plates:
Re
Width of plate = 1 unit
F = Fanning friction coefficient
 In laminar flow through pipes friction factor

depends on Reynolds number only.
F = ma  0 (fully developed & steady)
Shear velocity (V*):
 d   P 
Pdy    dy  dx   dx   P  dx  dy  0
 dy   x 
 P
Pdy   dx  dxdy   dx  Pdy  dxdy  0
dy x
 P
 P r  
   .  y x
 x 2 
The pressure gradient is the flow direction is
 P  R
0     equal to shear gradient in the perpendicular
 x  2 direction.
  P2  P1  D
0  . Velocity distribution:
 x2  x1  4 Most of common fluid – are Newtonian fluid.
P  P  D
0  2 1  du
4L 
dy
 gFLV 2
P1  P2  whL 
2 gD   d 2u

 gFLV 2  D  y dy 2
0   
2 gD  4L  P  d 2u
 
 FV 2 x dy 2
0  …. (8)
8 d 2u 1 P
0 V2  
F dy 2  x
 8
u 1 P 2
0 F   y  c1 y  c2
 V y  x
 8
At y = 0; u = 0; c2 = 0 (bottom plate)
0
Shear velocity = V * y = t ; u = 0 (top plate)

1 dP 2
F o t  c1t
V*  .V 2 dx
8
1  dP  2
c1    t Q  umax.t
2  dx  3
1  dP  2 1  dP  Average velocity:
u  y    yt
2  dx  2  dx  2
Q  V  t  umax.t
3
1  dP 
u   ( yt  y )
2
2
2  dx  V  umax
3
u
For maximum velocity 0 7.7 Pressure drop in a given length ‘L’:
y
t
The velocity is maximum at centre y 
2
1  P    t   t  
2
umax.    t      
2   x    2   2  
1  P  2
umax.    t 
8  x 
Discharge (Q):
dQ = u.dA
2
v  umax
1  P 
t
  yt  y  dy
dQ    2 3

2  x 
0 2  1 P  2
v   t
t 3  8 x 
1  P   t. y 2 y 3 
Q    
2   x   2 3 0 24 v(x)
  P
2t 2
1  P   t 3 t 3 
Q    12V
2  x   2 3 
p2 x2
 p p  t 2  dx
x1
1
1  P  t 3
Q   12V ( x2  x1 )
2   x  6 P1  P2 
t2
1  p  3 12VL
Q  t  P1  P2  P 
12  x  t2
We know that
1  P  2
umax    t
8  x 
1  p  2
4umax    t
2  x 
4umax.t
Q
6
7.6 The minimum value of friction factor that can
occur in laminar flow through circular pipes
7.1 Flow in a pipeline of constant diameter is said is
to be fully developed when (A) 0.02 (B) 0.032
(A) The flow rate in the pipeline increase (C) 0.016 (D) 0.08
along the length of the pipe 7.7 The mean shear stress in a fully developed
fluid flow in a pipe
(B) The flow rate in the pipeline decrease
(A) Is zero at the centre of the pipe and varies
along the length of the pipe
linearly with distance from the centre
(C) The flow rate in the pipeline does not
(B) Is constant over the cross-section
vary along the length of the pipe
(C) Is zero at the pipe wall and increases
(D) The velocity profile does not vary along linearly towards the centre of the pipe
the length of the pipe (D) Varies parabolically across the section
7.2 The inertia force on a fluid particle in a steady 7.8 The velocity profile in fully developed
fully developed laminar flow through a laminar flow in a pipe of diameter D is given
straight pipe, at a Reynolds number of 100, is  4r 2 
by   u0 1  2  , where 'r' is the radial
(A) 100 times the corresponding viscous  D 
force
distance from the center. If the viscosity of
(B) 0.01 times the correspond viscous force the fluid is  , the pressure drop across a
(C) Zero length L of the pipe is
(D) Infinity 32  u0 L 4  u0 L
(A) 2
(B)
7.3 For an ideal fluid flow the Reynolds number D D2
is 8  u0 L 16  u0 L
(C) 2
(D)
(A) 2100 (B) 100 D D2
(C) Zero (D) Infinity 7.9 The velocity profile of a fully developed
laminar flow in a straight circular pipe, as
7.4 The Darcy-weisbach equation for head loss is
shown in the figure, is given by the
valid
expression
(A) Only for laminar flow through smooth
R 2  dp   r 2 
pipes u (r )     1  
4   dx   R 2 
(B) Only for laminar flow through rough
pipes dp
Where is a constant.
(C) For laminar or turbulent flow through dx
smooth pipes only
(D) For laminar or turbulent flow through
smooth or rough pipes
7.5 For flow through a horizontal pipe, the The average velocity of fluid in the pipe is
dp R 2  dp  R 2  dp 
pressure gradient the flow direction is (A)    (B)   
dx 8  dx  4  dx 
(A) ve (B) 1 R 2  dp  R 2  dp 
(C)    (D)   
(C) Zero (D)  ve 2  dx  2  dx 
7.10 Velocity for flow through a pipe, measured at 7.16 Oil having a density of 800 kg/m 3 and
the centre is found to be 2m/s . Reynolds
viscosity of 0.2 Ns/m 2 of is flowing through a
number is around 800. What is the average
pipeline of 50mm diameter at an average
velocity in the pipe?
velocity of 2m/s . The Darcy fraction factor
(A) 2m/s (B) 1.7m/s
for this flow is:
(C) 1m/s (D) 0.5m/s (A) 3. 2 (B) 0.07
7.11 The maximum velocity of a one-dimensional (C) 0.16 (D) 1.6
incompressible fully developed viscous flow, 7.17 Consider a fully developed laminar flow in a
between two fixed parallel plates, is 6m/s circular pipe. If the diameter of the pipe is
The mean velocity of the flow is halved, while the flow rate and length of the
pipe are kept constant, the head loss increases
(A) 2 (B) 3
by a factor of
(C) 4 (D) 5
(A) 4 (B) 8
7.12 The pressure drop for a relatively low (C) 16 (D) 32
Reynolds number flow in a 600mm, 30m
7.18 If laminar flow takes place in two pipes,
long pipe line is 70kPa . What is the wall having relative roughnesses of 0.002 and
shear stress? 0.003, at a Reynolds number of 1815, then
(A) 0 Pa (B) 350Pa (A) The pipe of relative roughness of 0.003
(C) 700Pa (D) 1400Pa has a higher friction factor.
(B) The pipe of relative roughness of 0.003
7.13 Laminar flow developed at an average
has a lower friction factor.
velocity of 5m/s occurs in a pipe of 10cm
(C) Both pipes have the same friction factor
radius. The velocity at 5cm radius is (D) No comparison is possible due to
(A) 7.5m/s (B) 10m/s inadequate data
(C) 2.5m/s (D) 5m/s 7.19 Flow rate of a fluid (density = 1000 kg/m3 ) in
7.14 For the laminar flow of a fluid in a circular a small diameter tube is 800 mm3 /s . The
pipe of radius R, the Hagen- Poiseuille length and the diameter of the tube are 2m
equation predicts the volumetric flowrate to And 0.5mm , respectively. The pressure drop
be proportional to
in 2m length is equal to 2.0MPa . The
(A) R (B) R 2 viscosity of the fluid is
(C) R 4 (D) R 0.5 (A) 0.025 N.s/m 2 (B) 0.012 N.s/m 2
7.15 In a laminar flow through a pipe of radius R, (C) 0.00192 N.s/m 2 (D) 0.00102 N.s/m 2
the fraction of the total fluid flowing through
7.20 The pipe of 20cm diameter and 30 km
a circular cross-section of radius R/2 centered
at the pipe axis is length transports oil from a tankers to the
shore with a velocity of 0.318m/s . The flow
3 7
(A) (B) is laminar. If   0.1Ns/m 2 the power
8 16
1 3 required for the flow would be
(C) (D) (  900 kg/m3 )
2 4
(A) 9.25kW (B) 8.36kW 7.25 The kinetic energy correction factor for a
(C) 7.63kW (D) 10.13kW fully developed laminar flow through a
circular pipe is
7.21 What is the discharge for laminar flow
through a pipe of diameter 40mm having (A) 1.00 (B) 1.33
centre-line velocity of 1.5m/s ? (C) 2.00 (D) 1.50
3 3 3 7.26 In a 4cm diameter pipeline carrying laminar

(A) m /s (B) m3 /s
50 2,500 flow of a liquid with   1.6 centipoise, the
3 3 velocity at the axis is 2m/s . What is the shear
(C) m3 /s (D) m3 /s stress midway between the wall and the axis?
5,000 10,000
7.22 The value of friction factor is misjudged by (A) 0.16 N/m 2 (B) 0.016 N/m 2
+25% in using Darcy-Weisbach equation.
(C) 0.02 N/m 2 (D) 0.0125 N/m 2
The resulting error in the discharge will be
7.27 For a steady fully developed laminar flow of
(A) 25% (B) 18.25%
an oil of specific gravity 'S’ through two
(C) 12.5% (D) 12.5%
pipes in series as shown in figure. The ratio
7.23 It is desired to set up water flow with Reynolds h1 / h2 of the manometric fluid deflections
number of 2000 in a pipe of diameter 10mm
consider only friction losses in the pipes is
by controlling the inlet pressure. The pressure
difference, p (in terms mm of water
column) over a 4m length of the pipe will be
(A) 10 (B) 50
(C) 25 (D) 100
7.24 Choose the correct combination of true
statements from the following
P. The energy correction factor for
4 4
turbulent flow is less than that for D  L  D  L 
(A)  1   2  (B)  2   1 
laminar flow but is greater than unity.  D2   L1   D1   L2 
Q. The energy correction factor for 2 2 2 2
turbulent flow is greater than that for D  L  D  L 
(C)  2   2  (D  1   2 
laminar flow and is also greater than  D1   L1   D2   L1 
unity
7.28 Water flows downwards through a vertical
R. The momentum correction factor for a straight circular pipe of 1m diameter. Assume
given flow is less than the corresponding that the flow is laminar and fully developed
energy correction factor and that there is no pressure gradient. The
S. Both the momentum correction factor frictional force acting on the pipe wall, over
and energy correction factor are always a length of 1m , is nearly ( g  10 m/s 2 )
greater than unity
(A) 3925 N (B) 5890 N
(A) P, R (B) Q, S
(C) P, R, S (D) Q, R, S (C) 7850 N (D) 15,700 N
7.29 Assertion(A): For a fully developed viscous Common Data Questions 7.32 to 7.33
flow through a pipe the velocity distribution
across any section is parabolic in shape. Consider fully-developed, laminar flow in a
circular pipe of radius R. The centre-line
Reason (R): The shear stress distribution velocity of the flow is U.
from the centre line of pipe upto the pipe
7.32 The velocity u at a radial distance r from the
surface increases linearly.
centre-line of the pipe is given by
(A) Both A and R are individually true and
  r    r 
R is the correct explanation of A (A) 1     U (B) 1     U
(B) Both A and R are true but R is not the   R    R 
correct explanation of A   r 2    r 2 
(C) 1     U (D 1     U
(C) A is true but R is false   R     R  
(D) A is false but R is true 7.33 The value of the radial distance from the
Common data Questions 7.30 to 7.31 centre-line of the pipe at which the velocity
be equal to the average velocity of the flow is
A syringe with a frictionless plunger contains
water and has at its end a 100mm long needle (A) 0.666 R (B) 0.696 R
of 1mm diameter. The internal diameter of (C) 0.707 R (D) 0.727 R
the syringe is 10mm . Water density is Common data Questions 7.34 to 7.35
3
1000 mg/m . The plunger is pushed in at An upward flow of oil (mass density
10mm/s and the water comes out as a jet. 800 kg/m 3 ,dynamic viscosity 0.8kg/m-s )
takes places under laminar conditions in an
inclined pipe of 0.1m diameter as shown in
the figure. The pressures at sections 1 and 2
are measured as p1  435kN/m 2 and
7.30 Assuming ideal flow, the force F in newtons p2  200kN/m2
required on the plunger to push out the water
is
(A) 0 (B) 0.04
(C) 0.13 (D) 1.15
7.31 Neglect losses in the cylinder and assume
fully developed laminar viscous flow
throughout the needle; the Darcy friction
factor is 64/Re. Where Re is the Reynolds
number. Given that the viscosity of water is 1
centipoise the force F in newtons required on
7.34 The discharge in the pipe is equal to
the plunger is
(A) 0.13 (B) 0.16 (A) 0.100 m 3 /s (B) 0.127 m 3 /s
(C) 0.3 (D) 4.4 (C) 0.144 m 3 /s (D) 0.161m3 /s

6
7.35 If the flow is reversed, keeping the same Q  1.1310 m /s 3
discharge, and the pressure at section 1 is

(A) 1.86 104 Pa.s
maintained as 435kN/m 2 , the pressure at
(B) 3.38 104 Pa.s
section 2 is equal to
(A) 488kN/m 2 (B) 549 kN/m 2 (C) 6.75 104 Pa.s
(C) 586 kN/m 2 (D) 614 kN/m 2 (D) 7.43104 Pa.s

7.36 A viscous, incompressible and Newtonian
fluid flowing through the main branch of a
circular pipe bifurcates into two daughter
branches whose radii are 4cm and 2cm .
respectively. The flow in both the daughter
branches are laminar and fully developed. If
the pressure gradients in both the daughter
branches are same, then fraction of total
volumetric flow rate (rounded off to the
second decimal place) coming out from the
branch with 4cm diameter is__________.
7.37 A liquid of specific weight 9 kN/m3 flows by

gravity through a 0.3m tank and 0.3m
capillary tube at a rate of 1.13106 m3 /s as
shown in the figure. Top of the tank and
outlet of the capillary are open to the
atmosphere. If the flow is laminar, fully
developed and incompressible, then the
viscosity of the liquid, neglecting entrance
effect, is numerically closest to
A Answer Key 7.6 (B)

64 64
7.1 D 7.2 A 7.3 D F   0.032
Re 2000
7.4 D 7.5 D 7.6 B Hence, the correct option is (B).
7.7 A 7.8 D 7.9 A 7.7 (A)
7.10 C 7.11 C 7.12 B 7.8 (D)
7.13 A 7.14 C 7.15 B 32VL
P1  P2 
7.16 C 7.17 C 7.18 C D2
7.19 C 7.20 C 7.21 D  4r 2 
u  umax. 1  2 
7.22 C 7.23 C 7.24 C  D 
umax = u0
7.25 C 7.26 A 7.27 B
umax u0
7.28 C 7.29 A 7.30 B V 
2 2
7.31 C 7.32 C 7.33 C 32u0 L
P1  P2 
7.34 B 7.35 D 7.36 C 2D2
16u0 L
7.37 D P1  P2 
2D2
E Explanation
7.9 (A)
7.1 (D)
 R 2  dP   r 2 
U (r )    1
7.2 (A) 4  dx   R 2 
Inertia Force 1  P  2
Re=
Viscous Force  R
U max. 4  x 
V 
Inertial Force = 100  Viscous Force 2 2
Hence, the correct option is (A).  R 2  P 
V  
7.3 (D) 8  x 
Inertia Force
Re=
Viscous Force 7.10 (C)
For ideal fluid flow viscous force = 0 Umax = 2 m/s
Re = Infinity Re = 800 (laminar)
Hence, the correct option is (D). V=?
7.4 (D) U max 2
V   1 m/s
2 2
7.5 (D)
7.11 (C) 7.15 (B)
For parallel plates  R 2U max

Q
2
2
V  U max
3
2
  6  4 m/s
3
R /2
Hence, the correct option is (C). Q1   2 rdr.u

0
7.12 (B) R /2
 r2 
Q   2U max 1  2  rdr
1
P r 0  R 
 .
x 2  r2 r4 
R /2
Q  2 U max   2 
1
P R  2 4R 0
w  .
x 2  8R 2  R 2 
Q1  2U max  
70 103 0.6  64 
 
30 4 7 R2
Q  2U max
1
= 350 pascal 64
7
Hence, the correct option is (B). Q1   R 2U max
32
7.13 (A) 7   R 2U max 
Q1   
16  2 
 r2 
U  U max 1  2  7
 R  Q1  Q
16
U max Hence, the correct option is (B).
V  U max  10
2 7.16 (C)
 25  3 Given :
U  10 1    10     7.5 m/s
 100  4 oil = 800 kg/m3
Hence, the correct option is (A). N S
  0.2
m2
7.14 (C) D = 2 m/s
  P  VD 800  2  0.05

Q Re    400

4
R
8  x   0.2
64 64
Q  R4 F   0.16
Re 400
Hence, the correct option is (C). Hence, the correct option is (C).
7.17 (C) 7.20 (C)

P1  P2 Power required to overcome the losses in the
hL 
w pipe
 2 P  wQhL

32VL Q  4 D V P = gQhL
hL  
 gD 2  V  4Q FLV 2
 hL 
 D2 2 gD
32 L  4Q  64 64
hL    F 
D2  g   D2  Re VD
1 64  0.1
hL  
D4 900  0.318  0.2
So, if diameter is half, hL is increases by 16 F = 0.111
times. 0.111 30000  (0.318)2
hL 
Hence, the correct option is (C). 2  9.81 0.2
7.18 (C) hL = 86.4 m
P = gQhL
In laminar flow, friction factor depends only

on Reynolds number. = 900  9.81 (0.2) 2  0.318 86.4
4
= 7.63 kW.
7.19 (C) Hence, the correct option is (C).
Given data : 7.21 (D)
 = 1000 kg/m 3
U max 1.5
V   0.75
Q = 800 mm3/s 2 2
L = 2m  0.0012
Q  0.04  0.75 
2
D = 0.5 mm 4 4
P = 2 MPa 12 3
  m3/s
=? 40000 10000
32VL
P  P1  P2 
D2 7.22 (C)
Q  AV F2  F1 dF
 100  100  25
32    4.074  2   F1 F
2 106  800  (0.5) V
2
 0.5 10  3 2
 4

dF
 0.25
V  4.074m / s F
 = 0.001917 N-S/m2 FLV 2 FL 16Q 2
 hL  
Hence, the correct option is (C). 2 gD 2 gD  D 4
1 7.26 (A)
 F 2
Q
Given data :
 FQ2 = C D = 4 cm
 ln F + ln Q = const
2
 = 1.6  103 N – S/m2
 lnF + 2 lnQ = C Umax = 2 m/s
dF dQ
 2 0
F Q
dQ 1 dF
 
Q 2 F
1
  (0.25)  0.125  12.5%  0
2 
1 2
0 = 2
7.23 (C)
P  r 
  . 
Given : x  2 
Re = 2000 P  R 
0   . 
D = 10 mm = 0.01 m x  2 
VD 1  P  2
Re  U max  
  R
4  x 
Re. 2000 103 P U max  4
V   
 D 1000  0.01 x R2
V = 0.2 m/s 2  4 1.6 103

32VL (0.02) 2
P 
D2 P
  32
32 103  0.2  4 x
P 
(0.01) 2 0.02
 0  32   0.32
2
P = 256 N/m2
0 0.32
10.3    0.16 N/m2
  256  0.02602 m of water 2 2
101325
column Hence, the correct option is (A).
= 26.02 mm of water. 7.27 (B)

Hence, the correct option is (C). 32V1 L1
h1 
D12
7.24 (C)
32V2 L1
7.25 (C) h2 
D22
(1) Q = AV (2) Q = A2V2 7.30 (B)
 4Q
Q D12 V1 V2 
4  D22
4Q
V
 D12
32  4Q.L1
h1 
 D14
32  4Q.L2
h2 
 D24 
F1  P1   0.01
2
F = P1A1
L1 4
2
h1 D14  D2   L1  For P1
    .  Apply Bernoulli’s equation
h2 L2  D1   L2 
D24 P1 V12 P V2
  2  2 { P2 = 0
Hence, the correct option is (B).  g 2g  g 2g
A1V1 = A2V2
7.28 (C)
D12V1  D22V2
V1 = 10 mm/s
= 10  103 m/s
V2 = 1 m/s
P1 V22  V12
 
g 2g
 (V22  V12 )
P1 
2
1000 1  (10 103 ) 2 
P1 
2
2
P1 = 495 N/m
P1 – P2 = 0 
F1  495  (0.01)2
4
FF = w = gV
= 0.038 N = 0.04 N

 1000 10  (1)2 1 Hence, the correct option is (B).
4
7.31 (C)
= 7850 N
FLV 2  64 V2 D2
Hence, the correct option is (C). hL  F  
2 gD  Re 
7.29 (A)
The parabolic distribution of velocity is
obtained from linear shear stress distribution.
Head loss due to friction in needles only b/c 7.34 (B)
in problem neglect losses in the cylinder
0.064  0.11
hL 
2  9.81103
hL = 0.326 m
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2
P1 V12 P V2
  2  2  hL
 g 2g  g 2g
P1 V22  V12
  hL
g 2g Apply Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2
V  V
2 2
 P1 V12 P V2
P1   g  2
 hL 
1
  z1  2  2  z2  hL
 2g  w 2g w 2g
12  (10 103 )2  435 103 200 103
P1  1000  9.81   0.326    5sin 450  hL
 2  9.81  800  9.81 800  9.81
2
P1 = 3698 N/m hL = 26.4 m
 FLV 2 64 LV 2
F  P1 A1  3698   (10 103 )2 hL   .
4 2 gD VD 2 gD
= 0.3 N
32  0.8 V  5
Hence, the correct option is (C),  26.4 
800  9.81 0.12
7.32 (C)
V = 16.18 m/s
 
Q D2V = (0.10) 2 16.18
4 4
Q = 0.127 m3/s
 r2  Hence, the correct option is (B).
U  U max 1  2 
 R  7.35 (D)
Flow is reversed;
7.33 (C)
 r2 
U  2V 1  2 
 R 
1 r2 r2 1 P2 P
 1 2  2    z2  1  z1  hL
2 R R 2 w w
R2 = 2r2
P2 435 103
R  2r   5sin 45 
0
+26.4
500  9.81 800  9.81
R
r  0.707 R  P2 = 614 kN/m2
2
Hence, the correct option is (C). Hence, the correct option is (D).
7.36 (C) V12 V2

 0.6  2  0  hL
Q = Q1 + Q2 2g 2g
r1 = 4 cm; r2 = 2 cm V22 1
 hL  0.6   0.6   0.549 m
d1 = 8 cm; d2 = 4cm 2g 2  9.81
32VL
 hL 
 gD2
32    0.3
0.549 
917  9.81 (1.2 103 ) 2
0.00711
μ  7.43 104 Pa.s
9.6
Q2 U max R 2
? Q Hence, the correct option is (D).
Q  Q2 2
 R 2 1  p  2 1  p  4
Q .  R   R
2 4   x  8  x 
 Q  R4
R24 24
   0.058
R14  R24 44  24
7.37 (D)
Q = A2V2

1.13 106 
4
1.2 10  V
3 2
2
V2 = 1 m/s
V1 0 (Large reservoir)
P1 V12 P V2
  z1  2  2  z2  hL
w 2g w 2g
NOTES
In turbulent flow as there is continuous mixing of As it is difficult to find  this equation is not used
fluid particle, the velocity fluctuates in practice. Reynolds developed the equation for
continuously and hence no turbulent can be turbulent shear stress as
purely steady flow.  = uv
In turbulent flow the shear stress is due to where u and v are fluctuating component in x
fluctuation of velocity in the flow direction as and y direction respectively
well as in transverse direction.
8.1 Prandtl’s mixing length theory:
The head loss in turbulent flow is proportional
y1.75 to y2. Mixing length is that length in the transverse
direction where in the particle after colliding
loose excess momentum and reach momentum of
new region. It is similar to mean free path in
gases. According to Prandtl’s mixing length
l = 0.4 y
0.4 is Carmany constant
‘y’ is distance from the pipe wall
At the pipe wall (y = 0) Prandtl’ mixing length is
u = actual velocity zero.
u = average velocity du
Prandtl’s found u '  v '  l
u = fluctuation velocity component dy
u  u u'  = uv
du du
u  u u    l .l
dy dy
u  u u' 2
 du 
1
T
  l  
2
T 0
u'  u ' dt  dy 
 = turbulent shear stress
Boussinesq developed for turbulent shear stress
Velocity distribution is turbulent flow
as 2
 du  du 
 
du   l  
2
dy dy  dy 
2
 = fluid characteristic   du 
 l2  
 = eddy viscosity, flow characteristic   dy 
Kulkarni’s Academy 115 Turbulent Flow
 du vk
l l = 0.4 y = Reynold’s roughness number
 dy 
 du  vk
< 4  Smooth boundary
v  0.4 y   
 dy 
vk
v  dy > 100  Rough boundary
 du 
0.4 y
vk
2.5 v lny = u + c …. (i) 4< < 100  Transition boundary

u = actual velocity at distance y from wall
Note: The velocity distribution in turbulent flow 8.3 Nikuradse’s Experiment:
is logarithmic in nature. It is found from experiments laminar sublayer
8.2 Hydrodynamically smooth & thickness 
hydrodynamically Rough boundary : 11.6
'
v
 = kinematic viscosity
v = shear velocity
from equation (i)
2.5 v lny = u + c
At the center y = R, u = umax
2.5 v ln R = umax + c
umax  u = 2.5 v lnR – 2.5 v lny
umax  u R
 2.5ln  
v  y
At y = y, u is taken as zero
Were y is very small distance from pipe wall
2.5 v lny = u + c
 = laminar sublayer thickness (height) At y = y , u = 0
k = average height of thickness roughness
2.5 v lny = 0 + c
Conditions for hydro-dynamically smooth and
hydro-dynamically rough boundaries. C = 2.5 vlny
From Nikuradse’s experiment. 2.5 vlny = u + 2.5vlny
k u = 2.5 v[lny - lny]
 0.25  smooth boundary
' u y
 2.5ln
k
 6  Rough boundary v y'
'
u  y
k  5.75log10   valid for rough and smooth
0.25   6  Transition v  y'
'
pipe
Roughness criterion according to Reynold
From experiment it is found that 8.4 Average velocity:
1 Following the same procedure as we have done
y1   sooth pipe
107 in laminar flow we have
y1 
k
 Rough pipe v  vR 
 5.75log10    1.75
30 v   
Velocity for smooth pipes
This equation is valid for smooth pipe.
u  y
 5.75log10   Friction factor in turbulent flow
v  y' For smooth pipe
 1
1  11.6 
y1  y1    f 
0.3164
upto Re  105
107 107  v   Re1/4
u  y 107v  
 5.75log10  f  0.0052 
0.221
v  11.6  (Re)0.232
u  v  y  107   Re = 105 to 4  107
 5.75log10   
v    11.6   For rough pipe
u  v y   107 
 5.75log10    5.75log10   1 R
v     11.6   2log10    1.74
f k
u  v y 
 5.75log10    5.5 In laminar flow friction factor depends on
v   
Reynold’s number were as in turbulent flow
This equation is valid for smooth pipe. friction factor depends not only on Reynold’s
Velocity for rough pipe number but also on average height of roughness.
u  y If the pipe is smooth friction factor depends upon
 5.75log10  
v  y' Reynold’s number were as for rough pipe friction
factor depends on average height of roughness
k
y1  ‘k’.
30
8.5 Moody’s diagram:
k = average height of roughest
u  30 y 
 5.75log10 
v  k 
u   y 
 5.75log10  30   
v   k 
u  y
 5.75log10 30  5.75log10  
v k
u  y
 8.5  5.75log10  
v k
u  y  fv 2
 5.75log10    8.5 The equation  0  is applicable for
v k 8
This equation is valid for rough pipe. turbulent flow also.
Example 1 umax  v
 1.33 f
Find the distance from the pipe wall at which v
local velocity is equal to average velocity in umax
 1  1.33 f
turbulent flow. v
u v  y Example 3
Sol.  5.75log10    3.75
v R A rough pipe carrying water has an average
y = distance from pipe wall height of roughness of 0.48 mm. The
local velocity u = average velocity v diameter of pipe is 0.68 m and length is 4.5m.
u=v the discharge of water is 0.6 m3/sec. Find the
 y power required to maintain this flow.
0  5.75log10    3.75
r (Take viscosity of water 1 centipoises, treat
 y the pipe as rough)
5.75log10    3.75
R Sol. Given :
 y  3.75 K = 0.48 mm = 0.48  103 m
log10   
 R  5.75 D = 0.68 m, Q = 0.6m3/sec
3.75
y
 10 5.75 L = 4.5 m
R N s
y   103 2
 0.223 m
R
Power =?
y = 0.223R

Example 2 Q  AV   0.68 V
2
4
Show that for a turbulent flow in pipe the
0.6
ratio of maximum velocity to the average V  1.652 m/sec
 2
velocity is given by (0.68)
4
umax
 1  1.33 f VD 1000 1.652  0.68
v Re  
 183
u v  y
Sol.  5.75log10    3.75 Re = 1.123  106
v R
Flow is turbulent for rough pipe
at center u = umax ; y = R
umax  v R 1 R
 5.75log10    3.75  2log10    1.74
v R f k
We know that 1  0.34 
f 2  2log10  3 
 1.74
0  v f  0.48 10 
8
f = 0.01806
 0 fv 2
 fLV 2 0.01806  4.5 1.6522
 8 hL  
2 gd 2  0.68  9.81
f
v  .v hL =0.01662 m
8
f Power = wQhL
 umax  v  3.75 v = 9810  0.6  0.01662 = 97.86 kJ
8
Example 4 Example 4
Rough pipe of 0.1 m diameter carries water Using Reynold’s roughness criterion
at the rate of 50 liter/sec. The average height established the type of boundary for the
of roughness is 0.15 mm. Find following data = k = 0.01 mm, shear stress
(i) friction factor (0) = 4.9 N/m2, w = 0.001 Ns/m2,  = 1000
(ii) shear stress at the pipe surface kg/m3.
(iii) shear velocity 
(iv) maximum velocity Sol.   1106 m2 / s

Take density of water as 1000 kg/m3 and
v = 106 m2/s. 0 49
v    0.07
Sol. Q = AV  1000
Q 50 103 Reynold’s criteria

V   6.36m / s
A  (0.1)2 vk 0.07  0.01103
  0.7
4  1106
VD VD 6.36  0.1 vk
Re     636618.28  4  0.7 Hence, smooth boundary.
  106 v
Hence flow is turbulent. Rough pipe Example 5

A rough pipe has a diameter of 0.08m the
1  R velocity at point 3 cm from the pipe wall is
 2 log10    1.74
f  k  25% more than velocity at 1cm from pipe
wall find the average height of roughness.
1  0.05 
 2log10  3 
 1.74 Sol.
f  0.15 10 
f = 0.02171
 fV 2 1000  0.02171 6.362

0  
8 8
0 = 109.806 N/m2
u2 = 1.2541
0 u  y
v   0.3313m / s  5.75log10    8.5
 v k
Maximum velocity u1 y 
 5.75log10  1   8.5 ----(1)
umax v k 
 1  1.33 f
v u2 y 
 5.75log10  2   8.5 ----(2)
v

umax  1  1.33 0.02171  6.36  k 
Dividing equation 2 by equation 1
umax  7.6063 m/s k = 0.00371 m
8.6 Consider a steady, fully developed turbulent
flow in a pipe of circular cross-section at high
8.1 Turbulent flow generally occurs Reynolds number.
(A) At very low velocities If the pipe diameter is doubled at a constant
flow rate, by what factor does the pressure
(B) In flows of highly viscous fluids drop decrease?
(C) In flows through very narrow passages (A) 2 (B) 16
(D) In flows at high velocities through large (C) 8 (D) 32
passages 8.7 Water flows steadily through a smooth
circular tube of 5 cm diameter at a flow rate
8.2 Flow in a pipe can be expected to be turbulent
of  kg/s. Take viscosity   0.001 Ns/m 2
when the Reynolds number based on mean
velocity and pipe diameter is and   1000 kg/m3 . The Darcy friction
factor is given as f D  64 / Re d for fully
(A) = 0 (B) < 2000
developed laminar flow and
(C) > 4000 (D) > 100
f D  0.316Re0.25
d for fully developed
8.3 Shear stress in a turbulent flow is due to turbulent flow. The approximate pressure
(A) The viscous property of the fluid drop per unit length in the fully developed
region of the tube is
(B) The fluid
(A) 20 Pa/m (B) 120 Pa/m
(C) Fluctuation of velocity in the direction of (C) 480 Pa/m (D) 960 Pa/m
flow
8.8 Match the flow conditions in a circular pipe
(D) Fluctuation of the velocity in the of diameter D and surface roughness k to the
direction of flow as well as transverse to corresponding functional relationships of
it friction factor. f. Choose the correct matching
8.4 Using the Prandtl's mixing length concept, Flow in a circular pipe
how is the turbulent shear stress expressed? (P) Laminar flow in smooth pipe
(Q) Turbulent flow in smooth pipe
du du
(A) l (B) l 2 (R) Turbulent flow in rough pipe (at high Re)
dy dy
(S) Turbulent flow is rough pipe (at low Re)
2 2
 du   du  Friction factor f
(C) l   (D) l 2

 dy   dy  (1) f  f (Re, k / D)
(2) f  f (k / D)
8.5 Friction factor in laminar and turbulent flow
(3) f  f (Re)
in a circular pipe varies as Re1 & Re0.25
respectively. If V is the average velocity, the (4) f  64 / Re
pressure drop for laminar and turbulent flow Here, Re is the Reynolds number
respectively will be proportional to (A) P – 4, Q – 1, R – 2, S – 3
(B) P – 2, Q – 3, R – 1, S – 4
(A) V and V 0.8 (B) V 0.5 and V 2
(C) P – 3, Q – 4, R – 2, S – 1
(C) V 0.5 and V 1.75 (D) V and V 1.75 (D) P – 4, Q – 3, R – 2, S – 1
8.9 The flow of water (mass density (A) P – 2, Q – 3, R – 4, S – 1
 1000 kg/m ) 3
and kinematic viscosity (B) P – 3, Q – 2, R – 4, S – 1
6
 10 m /s ) in  commercial pipe, having
2
(C) P – 2, Q – 3, R – 1, S – 4
equivalent roughness k s a 0.12 mm, yields an
(D) P – 3, Q – 2, R – 1, S – 4
average shear stress at the pipe boundary
8.13 The velocity profile in turblent flow through
 600 N/m 2 . The value of ks /  ' (  ' being 1/7
u  y
the thickness of laminar sub-layer) for this a pipe is approximated as   ,
pipe is
umax R
where umax is the maximum velocity, R is the
(A) 0.25 (B) 0.50
radius and y is the distance measured normal
(C) 6.0 (D) 8.0
to the pipe wall towards the centerline. If u av
8.10 A steady flow of water takes place through a
uav
pipe of 100 mm internal diameter and 10 m denotes the average velocity, the ratio
umax
length. The average velocity of the flow is 5
is
m/s and the wall shear tress is 250 N/m2 . The
pressure drop for the given pipe length is 2 1
(A) (B)
15 5
(A) 2.5 105 N/m2 (B) 2.0 105 N/m2
1 49
(C) 5.0 104 N/m2 (D) 105 N/m 2 (C) (D)
3 60
8.11 Velocity measurement of flow through a
rough circular pipe indicate that the average
velocity is 2.6 m/s and the centre line velocity
is 3.17 m/s. What is the friction factor for the
pipeline?
(A) 0.027 (B) 0.020
(C) 0.015 (D) 0.010
8.12 Match the following flow patterns with their
characteristics
(P) Turbulent flow
(Q) Boundary layer separation
(R) Laminar flow
(S) Steady flow
(1) No change in flow properties at any
point in the flow field
(2) Highly irregular and rapid fluctuations
of flow velocities
(3) Wake formation
(4) Smooth flow without mixing of layers
A Answer Key 8.7 (C)
D = 5  102 m
8.1 D 8.2 C 8.3 D

m   kg/s
8.4 D 8.5 D 8.6 B
 = 0.001 Ns/m2;
8.7 C 8.8 D 8.9 D  = 1000 kg/m3
8.10 D 8.11 A 8.12 A 64

FD  (For fully developed)
Re
8.13 D F = 0.316 Re0.25

m    A V
E Explanation

  1000   0.05 V
2
8.1 (D) 4
V = 1.6 m/s
8.2 (C)
P1  P2
 hL
8.3 (D) w
wFLV 2
8.4 (D) P1  P2  whL 
2 gD
8.5 (D) P1  P2 wFV 2  g  F  V 2  FV 2

   
L 2 gD 2 gD 2D
8.6 (B)
VD
Re 
P  V 2 
 1000 1.6  0.05

Q d 2 V   80000
4 0.001
(Re > 4000 so flow is turbulent)
4Q
V
 D2 F = 0.316 (80,000)0.25
16Q2 = 0.0187
P 
 2d 4 P1  P2 1000  0.0187 1.62

If d = 2d, Q = constant L 2  0.05
P1  P2
P decreases by 16 times.  481 Pa/m
L
8.8 (D) 8.11 (A)
8.9 (D) V = 2.6 m/s

Umax = 3.17 m/s
Given that
U max
 = 1000 kg/m3  1  1.33 F
V
 = 106 m2/s 3.16
 1  1.33 F
KS = 0.12 mm 2.6
0 = 600 N/m2 F = 0.026
 600
Vx  0   0.7745
 1000 8.12 (A)
11.6 11.6 106 8.13 (D)

 '   1.497 105 m
V* 0.7745
1/ 7
u  y
= 1.497  102 mm  
umax R
K 0.12
  8.01 u = V at y = 0.223R
 ' 1.497 102
1/ 7
V  0.223R 
Hence, the correct option is (D).     0.8016
umax  R 
8.10 (D)
V 49
 
Di = 100 mm U max 60
L = 10 m Hence, the correct option is (D).
Vavg = 5 m/s
0 = 250 N/m2
P FLV 2
 hL 
w 2 gD
FLV 2  FV 2
P  . g {w   g  0 
2 g .D 8
FV2 = 80
FLV 2  8 L 8  250 10

P   0 
2D 2D 2 100 103
 105 N/m2
NOTES

When fluid flows though pipes it encounters D2
various losses. These losses are classified into  m 4
D
major loss and minor loss.
D
9.1 Major loss:  m
4
The head loss due to friction is known as major
loss. This major loss is given by
Darcy-weisbach equation:
FLV 2
hL 
2 gD

Q  AV  D 2V
4
4Q
V
 D2 i = hydraulic slope
2
FL  4Q  16 FLQ 2
h
hL   2
 tan   L  i
2 gD   D  2 g 2 D5 L
FLQ 2 V  c mi
hL 
2 g 2 5 D hL
D V c .
16 4 L
FLQ2
hL  {Flow should be steady 4 LV 2
12D5 hL  2
cD
Major losses are also calculated Chezy’s
FLV 2
formula. hL 
2 gD
According to Chezy’s formula
4 LV 2 FLV 2
V  c mi  
c2D 2 gD
m = hydraulic mean depth or diameter
8g
A area of flow c2 
m  F
P wetted perimeter
8g
c
F
Unit of Chezy’s constant:
m
c
sec.
9.2 Minor losses: From continuity equation
Losses due to Q
Q = A2V2 ;  V2
 Sudden expansion V2
 Sudden contraction P1  P2 V2 V2  V1 
 …. (2)
 Bend loss g g
 Entrance loss From equation 1 and 2
 Exit loss are known as minor losses. V2 (V2  V1 ) (V12  V22 )
  hL e p
1. Minor losses due to sudden expansion: g 2g
2V22  2VV
1 2  V1  V2
2 2
 hL e p 
2g
(V1  V2 ) 2
hL e p 
2g
In deriving this equation Bernoulli’s equation,
momentum equation and continuity equations are
(1) From Bernoulli’s equation: used.
2
P1 V12 P2 V22 V2  V 
    hL exp hL e p  1 1  2 
w 2g w 2g 2 g  V1 
P1  P2 V12  V22 1 1  A2V2

AV
hL exp   …. (1)
w 2g
V2 A1
Assumption: 
V1 A2
The pressure in the eddy region is assumed to be 2
equal to upstream pressure. V2  A 
hL e p  1 1  1 
2 g  A2 
(2) Exit loss:

It is similar to sudden expansion with A2 is
infinite.

 F  m(v  u)
 F  Q(v  u) [momentum equation]
2
 P1A1 + P1(A2 A1) – P2A2 = Q[V2 – V1] V2  A 
hL e p  1 1  1 
2g   
(P1  P2)A2 = Q[V2 – V1]
P1  P2 Q V12 V 2
  V2  V1  hL e p  
 A2 2g 2g
Kulkarni’s Academy 125 Flow Through Pipes
(3) Sudden contraction loss: Entrance loss
0.5V 2
hentrance 
2g
Where V is velocity in pipe.
(5) Bend loss:
KV 2
Bend losses are given by hbend 
2g
V  V 
2
hcont  c 2 Where V is velocity in pipe and K depends on

2g angle of bend and radius of curvature on bend.
2
V22  Vc  Example 1
   1
2 g V2  Water flows from a reservoir through a series
of pipe joined as shown in Fig.,
ac
cc 
a2
From continuity equation
acvc = a2v2
Vc a2 1
 
V2 ac cc
2
V2  1 
hcontr .  2   1
2 g  cc 
Note : If the coefficient of contraction cc is not given

then sudden contraction losses are taken as
0.5V22 Find the percentage error in discharge when
hcont  minor losses are neglected. Assume K = 1 for
2g
bends and friction factor F = 0.02 for all pipe
Where V2 = velocity in smaller diameter pipe. the available head of 20 m is used in
(4) Entrance loss: overcoming losses.
It is similar to sudden contraction. Sol. Discharge when all losses are taken into
account (actual discharge).
a1v1 = a2v2 = a3v3 (discharge is same)
  
 d12v1  d 22v2  d32v3
4 4 4
 0.12 v1 = 0.22v2 = 0.12v3
v1 = 4v2 = v3
0.5V 2 0.5v12 kv12 FL1v12 kv12

 20     
2g 2g 2 g 2 gd1 2 g
(v1  v2 ) FL v 0.5v FL v
2 2 2
v 2 2 9.3 Hydraulic gradient line and total
  2 2
  3 3 3 3
2g 2 gd 2 2g 2 gd3 2 g energy line
 3v1 
2 HGL:
0.5v1 v1 0.02 100v1 v1  4 
2 2 2 2
P 
     The line joining piezometric heads   z  at
2g 2g 2 g (0.1) 2g 2g w 
various points in a flow is known as hydraulic
v12
0.02  200. gradient line.
16  0.5v1  0.02 100  v1
2 2
2 g  0.2 2g 2 g  0.1 If the pipe is horizontal and of uniform diameter

v12 hydraulic gradient line represent pressure
  20 variation.
2g
0.02548v12  0.05096v12  2.0387v12  P V2 
TEL: The line joining total head   z  
w 2g 
0.02866v12  0.06371v12  0.02548v12 
at various in a flow is known as total energy line
1.019v12  0.5096v12  20
Note:
 3.7022v12  20 Distance between TEL and HGL gives velocity
v1 =2.9242 m/s head.
 Graphical representation of Bernoulli’s

Qa  AV
1 1   0.12  2.926 equation:
4
 Qa = 0.0229 m3/s
FL1v12 FL2v22 FL3v32
20   
2 gD1 2 gD2 2 gD3
When minor losses are neglected
0.02  100  v12 0.02  200  v12

20  
2 g  0.1 16  2 g  0.2
0.02  100  v12

2 g  0.1
V = 3.084 m/s

Qb  AV
1 1  d12  V1
4
Qb  Qa
= 0.02422 m3/s %error  100
Qb
0.02422  0.0229
%error  100
0.02422
= 5.456%
Note: Example 3
A horizontal pipe of given diameter d
suddenly enlarges to D. Find the ratio D/d
such that the rise in pressure for a given
discharge post the enlargement shall be
maximum.
Sol.
In a flow HGL can rise or fall but the total energy
line will never rise as long as there is external
energy input. i.e. Total energy line will rise in the
case of pumps and compressors.
Example 2
At a sudden expansion of a water pipe line
from a diameter of 0.24 m to 0.48 m the HGL
rises by 10 mm, find the discharge through Apply Bernoulli’s equation between 1 & 2
pipe. P1 V12 P2 V22
    hL exp
Sol. w 2g w 2g
P2  P1 V12  V22 (V1  V2 ) 2
  
w 2g 2g
P2  P1 P V1V2  V22
  
g g 2g
 P = [v1v2  v2 ]
2
P
 0 for max pressure rise
P1 V12 P V2 V2
  z1  2  2  z2  hL exp.
w 2g w 2g V1  2V2 = 0
V1 = 2V2
V12  V22 P  P 
  hL exp.   2  z2    1  z1   
2g w  w  D2V1  D2V2
4 4
V12  V22 V1  V2   3 D 2
V
     10 10 m  1 2
 
2
2 g 2 g d V2
3
 1 2  V2  10 10  g
VV 2 D
 2
Q = A1V1 = A2V2 d
  Pipes in series:
 0.242V1   0.482V2
4 4 Assumption:
V1 = 4V2 (1) Minor losses are neglected.
 4V22  V22  0.01 g (2) Friction factor is same.
v = 0.18 m/s
 
Q d22 V2   0.482  0.18
4 4
3
Q = 0.3272 m /s.
Q1= Q2 = Q3 = Q4 = Q Pa V 2
P V 2
  za  b 
a
 za  hL1
b
…. (1)
Neglect minor losses b/c pipe length is more w 2g w 2g
hL  hL1  hL2  hL3  ...... Pa Va2 Pb Vb2
  za    zb  hL2 …. (2)
FL Q 2 FL Q 2 FL Q 2 w 2g w 2g
hL  1 51  2 52  3 53
12d1 12d 2 12d3 hL1  hL2
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q Note:
Equivalent pipe: In case of parallel connection as the ends of pipes
are connected between same points therefore the
A pipe of uniform diameter is said to be
energy loss is same for all parallel pipes.
equivalent to a compound pipe when the
discharge and head losses are same in both pipes. Equivalent pipe (Parallel):
Assumption:
1) All parallel pipes are assumed to be similar.
i.e. the length and diameters of each pipes is
FLeQ 2 same.
hLe  2) Friction factor is assumed to be same in
12de5
all pipes.
FLeQ 2 FL1Q 2 FL2Q 2 FL3Q3
    ...
12de5 12d15 12d 25 12d35
Le L1 L2 L3
    .......
d e5 d15 d 25 d35
In Dupuit’s equation minor losses are neglected. ‘n’ number of similar pipes are connected in
Pipes in parallel: parallel.
Parallel connection is used for increasing
discharge.
FLeQ 2
Q = Q1 + Q2 hLe 
12de5
2
Q 1
hL  FL   .
 n  12d
5
FLQ 2
hL 
12n2d 5
FLQ 2 FLeQ 2

12n2d 5 12de5
L L
2 5
 e5 if Le = L
nd de
de5  n2d 5
de  n2/5d
Power transmission through pipes:
P  (  gh) A V
9.1 The Reynolds number for flow of a certain
Pth = WQH
fluid in a circular tube is specified as 2500.
Pact. = WQ(H – hL)
What will be the Reynolds number when the
Pact tube diameter is increased by 20% and the

Pth fluid velocity is decreased by 40% keeping
fluid the same?
(A) 1200 (B) 1800
(C) 3600 (D) 200
9.2 A pipeline is said to be equivalent to another,
if in both
H  hL

H (A) Length and discharge are the same
Condition for max. power transmission (B) Velocity and discharge are the same
 FLQ 2  (C) Discharge and frictional head loss are
Pact  WQ  H 
 12d 5  the same
(D) Length and diameter are the same
 FLQ3 
Pact  W QH 
 12d 5  9.3 While deriving an expression for loss of head
due to a sudden expansion in a pipe, in
For max. efficiency addition to the continuity and impulse -
dPact . 3FLQ 2 momentum equations, one of the following
H 0
dQ 12d 5 assumptions is made
H = 3hL (A) Head loss due to friction is equal to the
This is condition for max. power transmission. head loss in eddying motion
H  hL 3hL  hL (B) The mean pressure in eddying fluid is
Max. Efficiency =    equal to the downstream pressure
H 3hL
2 (C) The mean pressure in eddying fluids is
max  66.67% equal to the upstream pressure
3
(D) Head lost in eddies is neglected
9.4 Water steadily flowing from a 100 mm
diameter pipe abruptly enters a 200 mm
diameter pipe. If the velocity in the 100 mm
diameter pipe is 5 m/s, the head loss due to
abrupt expansion in terms of height of water
is
(A) 1.276 m (B) 0.717 m
(C) 0.562 m (D) 1.5 m
9.5 The hydraulic diameter of an annulus of inner 9.10 A fire protection system is supplied from a
and outer radii Ri and RO respectively is water tower with a bent pipe as shown in the
figure. The pipe friction 'f' is 0.03. Ignoring
(A) 4( R0  R1 ) (B) R0 R1
all minor losses, the maximum discharge, Q,
(C) 2( R0  Ri ) (D) R0  R1 in the pipe is
9.6 Two reservoirs that differ by a surface
elevation of 40 m, are connected by a
commercial steel pipe of diameter 8 cm. If the
desired flow rate is 200 N/s of water at 20 0C
, determine the length of the pipe. Assume
fluid properties of water at 20 0C as (A) 31.7 lit/sec (B) 24.0 lit/sec
  1000 kg/m3 and (C) 15.9 lit/sec (D) 12.0 lit/sec
  0.001 kg/m-s . The value of friction 9.11 A 12 cm diameter straight pipe is laid at a
factor (f) = 0.0185 may be chosen if uniform downgrade and flow rate is
(A) 20.5 m (B) 205 m maintained such that velocity head in the pipe
(C) 2050 m (D) 20500 m is 0.5 m. If the pressure in the pipe is
9.7 A farmer uses a long horizontal pipeline to observed to be uniform along the length when
transfer water with a 1 hp pump and the the down slope of the pipe is 1 in 10, what is
discharge is Q litres per min. If he uses 5 hp the friction factor for the pipe?
pump in the same pipe line and assuming the (A) 0.012 (B) 0.024
friction factor is unchanged the discharge (C) 0.042 (D) 0.050
will be approximately 9.12 A liquid is pumped at the flow rate Q through
(A) 5 Q (B) 51/2 Q a pipe of length L. The pressure drop of the
(C) (5Q)1/2 (D) 51/3 Q fluid across the pipe is  P Now a leak
9.8 The head loss due to a sudden contraction in develops at the mid-point of the length of the
a pipeline is given by pipe and the fluid leaks at the rate of Q/2.
Assuming that the friction factor in the pipe
 1 V 2 V2
(A)  2  1 (B) 1  CC2  remains unchanged, the new pressure drop
 CC  2 g 2g
across the pipe for the same inlet flow rate
2
 1  V2 2V
2
(Q) will be
(C)   1 (D)  CC  1
 CC  2g 2g 1 5
(A)   P (B)   P
Here CC is the contraction coefficient and V 2 8
is the average velocity of flow in the 3
(C)   P (D) P
contracted section of the pipeline. 4
9.9 An elbow in a pipeline of cross-sectional area 9.13 A single pipe of length 1500 m and diameter
0.01 m2 , has a loss coefficient of 2.0. If the 60 cm connects two reservoirs having a
flow rate of water, through the pipeline is difference of 20 m in their water levels. The
360 m3 /hr , the head loss due to the elbow in pipe is to be replaced by two pipes of the
metres of water column is: same length and equal diameter d to convey
(A) 5 (B) 2 25% more discharge under the same head
(C) 10 (D) 1 loss.
If the friction factor is assumed to be the same 9.18 Match the items between the following two
for all the pipes, the value of d is groups concerning flow in a pipeline. Choose
approximately equal to which of the the most suitable matching
following options? List I
(A) 37.5 cm (B) 40.0 cm (P) Head loss due to friction
(C) 45.0 cm (D) 50.0 cm (Q) Head loss at entrance from a reservoir
9.14 Two water carrying circular pipes are to a pipeline
connected in parallel. The length L1 , (R) Head loss due to sudden expansion
diameter d1 and friction factor f1 for the first (S) Head loss due to a pipe bend
List II
pipe are 200m, 0.5 m and 0.025 m
respectively, while L2  100 m, d 2  1.0 and
V2   L  V 
2
1. KL   2. f   
 2g   D   2g 
f 2  0.02 . The velocity ratio V2 / V1 is
(A) 4.0 (B) 2.0 V2  (V1  V2 ) 2
3. 0.5   4.
(C) 5.0 (D) 5  2g  2g
9.15 In a pipe flow, the head lost due to friction is (A) P – 3, Q – 4, R – 1, S – 2
6m. If the power transmitted through the pipe (B) P – 2, Q – 4, R – 1, S – 3
has to be the maximum, then the total head at (C) P – 2, Q – 1, R – 3, S – 4
the inlet of the pipe will have to be (D) P – 2, Q – 3, R – 4, S – 1
maintained at 9.19 Three reservoirs A, B and C are
(A) 36 m (B) 30 m interconnected by pipes as shown in the
(C) 24 m (D) 18 m figure. Water surface elevations in the
9.16 The hydraulic diameter for flow in a reservoirs and the piezometric head at the
rectangular duct of cross-sectional junction J are indicated in the figure.
dimensions H, W is
HW HW
(A) (B)
 2( H  W )
HW 2 HW
(C) (D)
4( H  W ) 2
(H  W )
9.17 The energy grade line (EGL) for steady flow
in a uniform diameter pipe is shown in figure.
Which of the following items is contained in Discharge Q1 , Q2 and Q3 are related as
the box?
(A) Q1  Q2  Q3
(B) Q1  Q2  Q3
(C) Q2  Q1  Q3
(D) Q1  Q2  Q3  0
(A) A pump 9.20 The phenomenon of water hammer in pipe
(B) A turbine flow originates from
(C) A partially closed valve (A) The microscopic form of all matter
(D) An abrupt expansion (B) The non-Newtonian behaviour of water
(C) The critical point singularity of the Passage 24 - 25
phase diagram
A pipeline (diameter 0.3 m, length 3 km)
(D) The compressibility of water when
carries water from point P to point R (see
subjected to suddenly applied high
figure). The piezometric heads at P and R are
pressure
to be maintained at 100 m and 80 m,
9.21 'n' identical pipes of length L, diameter d and
respectively. To increase the discharge, a
friction factor f are connected in parallel
second pipe is added in parallel to the existing
between two reservoirs. What is the size of a
pipe from Q to R. The length of the additional
pipe of length L and of the same friction
pipe is also 2 km Assume the friction factor,
factor f equivalent to the above pipe?
f = 0.04 for all pipes and ignore minor losses.
(A) n1/2d (B) n1/5d
(C) n2/5d (D) n1/3d
9.22 A centrifugal pump is used to pump water
through a horizontal distance of 150 m and
then raised to an overhead tank 10 m above.
The pipe is smooth with an I.D. of 50 mm.
What head (m of water) must the pump
generate at its exit (E) to deliver water at a 9.24 What is the increase in discharge if the
flow rate of 0.001 m3 /s ? additional pipe has same diameter (0.3 m)?
The Fanning friction factor, f is 0.0062. (A) 0% (B) 33%
(C) 41% (D) 67%
9.25 If there is no restriction on the diameter of the
additional pipe, what would be the maximum
increase in discharge theoretically possible
from this arrangement?
(A) 0% (B) 50%
(A) 10 m (B) 11 m (C) 67% (D) 73%
(C) 12 m (D) 20 m
Passage 26
9.23 A pipe carrying a discharge of 500 litres per
The Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss
minute branches into two parallel pipes, x
fLV 2
and y, as shown in the figure. The length and through a pipe is given as h f  . A
diameter of pipes x and y are shown in figure. 2 gD
The friction factor f, for all pipes is 0.03. The reservoir, as shown in the figure, stores water
ratio of flow in pipes x and y is to a height of 8 m. The entrance from the
(A) 0.36 (B) 0.44 reservoir to the pipe (length 50 m, diameter
(C) 0.67 (D) 1.00 10 cm) is sharp, with a loss coefficient of 0.5,
and the friction factor for the pipe is 0.017.
9.26 What would be the discharge through the A Answer Key
pipe?
(A) 0.0311 m3 /s 9.1 B 9.2 C 9.3 C
(B) 0.0322 m3 /s 9.4 B 9.5 C 9.6 B
(C) 0.0331 m3 /s 9.7 D 9.8 C 9.9 C
(D) 0.0341 m3 /s 9.10 B 9.11 B 9.12 B
9.13 D 9.14 D 9.15 D
9.16 D 9.17 A 9.18 D
9.19 A 9.20 D 9.21 C
9.22 B 9.23 A 9.24 C
9.25 D 9.26 A
E Explanation
9.1 (B)
Re = 2500
D = 1.2 D
V = 0.6 V
VD
Re 

1.2D  0.6V  


VD
 0.72   0.72  2500

= 1800
9.2 (C)
9.3 (C)
9.4 (B)
D1 = 100 mm D2 = 200 mm
V1 = 5 m/s
A1V1 = A2V2
V2 A1 D12
 
V1 A2 D22
V  V 
2
hL  1 2
2g
2
V12  V2  9.8 (C)
 1  
2 g  V1  9.9 (C)
52  1002 
2
A = 0.01 m2
 1
2  9.81  2002  K = 2; Q = 360 m3/hr =
360
 0.1 m3/s
3600
hL = 0.7167 m Q 0.1
V V   10 m/s
hL = 0.717 m due to sudden exp. A 0.01
Hence, the correct option is (B). KV 2 2  100
hL    10 m
2g 2  9.81
9.5 (C)
4A 9.10 (B)
Dh 
p

4.
4
D 2
o  Di2 

  Do  Di 
Total length = 25 + 150 = 175 m
 Do  Di = 2(Ro  Ri) A1V1 = A2V2
Hence, the correct option is (C). AV
V1  2 2
A1
9.6 (B)
A1 >> A2 V1 is negligible
9.7 (D) Apply Bernoulli’s between 1 and 2
P1 V12 P V2
1 hp pump    z1  2  2  z2  hL
w 2g w 2g
Discharge = Q liter per min
V22
 P = wQhL 25   hL
2g
FLQ2 Exit loss so neglected
 P  wQ. ; P  Q3
12ds hL = 25 m
P2 Q23 FLQ2
  hL 
P1 Q13 12d 5
0.03  175  Q 2
5 Q23  25 
  12(0.1)5
1 Q3
Q = 0.0239
 Q2  5 3 Q = 23.9  103 m3/sec
1
= 23.9 lit/sec
9.11 (B)  P 13  P12  P23

 L 2   L  Q 2 
 2 
F Q  F    
 w.      w.   5  
2 2
 12d
5
  12d 
   
 
wF 1 1
h 1  LQ 2   
tan   L slope  12d 5
2 8
L 10
D = 0.12 m wFLQ 2  5 
P13 
V2 12d 5  8 
 0.5m
2g 5
P13  P  
8 
2
FLV
hL 
2 gD Hence, the correct option is (B).
 F  V 
2
hL 9.13 (D)
    
L  D   2g 
L = 1500 m, D = 0.6 m
1 F
  (0.5)
10 0.12
0.12 0.12
F   0.024
10  0.5 5
9.12 (B)
Head difference = 20 m
FLQ 2 FLQ 2
hL   20  …. (1)
12(d )2 12(0.6)5
Apply Bernoulli’s between 1 and 2

P1 V12 P2 V22
     hL V1 = V2
w 2g w 2g
 P1  P2 = whL  P = whL Q
wFLQ 2 Q
P  ... (1) 2
12d 5 (both same diameter and same length)
Q = 0.625 Q
FL(0.625Q) 2
 20  …. (2)
12(d )5
Equation 1 = equation 2
D = 49.71 50 cm
9.14 (D) 9.20 (D)
2
FLV FL V 2 9.21 (C)
hL1  hL2  1 1
 2 2
2 gD1 2 gD2
0.025  200 V12 0.02 100 V22 9.22 (B)
 
0.5 1 F = 0.0062
V
5V12  V22  2  5 F = 4F = 0.0248
V1
I.D. = 50 mm = 50  103 m
Q = 0.001 m3/5
9.15 (D)
L = 150 + 10 = 160 m
hL = 6 m
For max. power H = 3 hL FLQ2
hL 
H = 18 m 12d 5
Hence, the correct option is (D). 0.0248 160  (0.001)2

9.16 (D) 12  (0.05) 2
hL = 1.05 m
Head generates = 10 + 1.05 = 11.05 m
4 Ac 9.23 (A)
Dh 
P
4  Hw 2 Hw hL1  hL2
 
2( w  H ) ( H  w) FL1Q12 FL1Q22
Hence, the correct option is (D).  
12d15 12d 25
9.17 (A)
5/2
Q12 d15 0.25 Q1  2 
9.18 (D)       0.3628
Q22 d 25 0.35 Q2  3 
9.19 (A) Hence, the correct option is (A).
9.24 (C)
High to low
200 – 160
180  160
Q1 + Q2 = Q3
FLQ2 20 12  (0.3)5 9.26 (A)

20   Q 2

12d 5 0.04  3000
3
H=8m
Q1 = 0.0697 m /s
L = 50 m
D = 0.1 m
Loss coefficient = 0.5 F = 0.017
2
Q 
0.04  2000   2 
0.04 1000  Q2
2
 2 
20  5
 5
12(0.3) 12(0.3) FLQ 2
Q2 = 0.0985 m3/s hL 
12(d )5
Q  Q1 0.0985  0.0697
 2 100  100 0.017  50  Q 2
Q1 0.0697  hL 
12  (0.1)5
= 41.4%
Hence, the correct option is (C). FLQ 2
hL 
9.25 (D) 12(d )5
If no restriction on the diameter of addition Apply Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2

pipe P1 V12 P2 V22
  z1    z2  hL
w 2g w 2g
Then hL = 8 m
Total head loss = sudden contraction + hL +
exit loss
0.5V 2 fLV 2 V 2
8  
2g 2 gd 2 g
0.04 1000  Q22 0.5 V 2 0.017  50 V 2 V2
20  0 8  
12(d )5 2  9.81 2  9.81 0.1 2  9.81
Q2 = 0.12 m3/s V = 3.96 m/s
2
FLQ Q = AV
hL  0
12d 5 
Q  Q1 =  d 2  3.96  0.0311 m3/sec
% increase  2 100 4
Q1
0.12  0.0697
 100 = 73.23%
0.0697
NOTES
Boundary layer theory was proposed by Prandtl 10. Development of boundary layer over a
in 1904. flat plate:
When a real fluid flows past the solid object

the velocity of the fluid will be same as the
velocity of object, when it comes in contact with
object. If the object is stationary the fluid will
also have zero velocity. Away from the object the
fluid velocity increases and at some distance When a real flow fluid past a flat plate the
velocity of the fluid on the plate will be same as
from the object the fluid velocity will be equal to
that of the plate velocity if the plate is at rest the
free stream velocity, this distance from the object fluid will also have zero velocity. The boundary
where there are velocity gradients is known as layer thickness grows as the distance from the
leading-edge increases upto some/certain
boundary layer thickness & this region is known
distance from the leading edge the flow in the
as boundary layer region. boundary layer is laminar as the laminar
In the boundary layer region, the flow is boundary layer grows instability occur and flow
viscous and rotational as the flow is viscous in changes from laminar to turbulent through
transition. It is found that even in turbulent
the boundary layer region, Bernoulli’s equation boundary layer region close to the plate the flow
is not applicable in the boundary layer region. is laminar, this region is known as laminar
Outside the boundary layer region as the flow sublayer region.
Laminar sublayer region exists in turbulent
is not viscous Bernoulli’s equation can be
boundary layer region.
applied. 10.2 Boundary Condition:
Kulkarni’s Academy 139 Boundary Layer Theory
[1] x = 0;  = 0 [2] y = 0; u = 0 Definition:
du It is the distance by which boundary should be
[3] y = ; u = u [4] y = ; 0
dy displaced in order to compensate for the
Nominal boundary layer thickness or reduction in mass flow rate due to boundary layer
Boundary layer thickness [] growth.
It is the distance from the boundary to the point 10.3 Momentum thickness ():
in y – direction where the velocity is 99% of free It is the distance by which the boundary should
stream velocity. be displaced in order to compensate for the
reduction in momentum due to boundary layer
Note:
growth.
For all calculation purposes at y = ; u = u.

u  u 
Displacement thickness (*)   1   dy
0  
u u 
10.4 Energy thickness (E):
It is the distance by which boundary should be
displaced in order to compensate for the
reduction in kinetic energy due to boundary layer
growth.

u  u2 
E   1  2  dy
0  
u u 
Example 1
The velocity distribution in boundary layer is
Reduction in mass flow rate due to boundary
u y
layer growth is given by  [linear velocity profile]
  u 
= mideal  mreal Find :
= (uu)dy (1) Displacement thickness

(2) Momentum thickness
Total mass reduction =   (u
0
  u )dy …. (1)
Sol. (1) Displacement thickness
  u 
    1  dy
0
 u 
 
 y  y2 
 *   1   dy   y  
m = u(*1) …. (2) 0
  2  0
from equation (1) and (2)  
   
2 2
=   (u  u )dy  u *
0
(2) Momentum thickness ():
 
 y y  y2 y3 
1    1   dy    2 
u 0
*  (u  u )dy  
0  2 3  0
  
  u    
 

1   dy 2 3 6
0
 u  >* >
Note: 10.5 Von-Karman momentum integral
* equation:
 Shape factor of boundary layer ( H ) 
 Assumptions
 This term is used in the analysis of flow (1) steady flow
separation. (2) Incompressible flow
 For linear velocity profiles, the shape factor (3) 2 – D flow
is 3.
dP
(4)  0 (this condition is valid for external
Example 2 dx
Assume that the shear stress distribution flows only)
varies linearly in laminar boundary layer From Newton second law of motion. Von –
 y Karman equation can be derived it is
such that as    0 1  
  0 d

Find displacement thickness.  u dx
2
For external flow
 y 0 = shear stress on the plate surface
Sol.    0 1  
   = momentum thickness
 du
 0 d dP
dy  
 u dx dx int ernal / pipe flow
2
  y
 du  0 1   dy x = distance from the leading edge.
 
10.6 Significance of von-Karman equation:
  y2 
 u  0 y c [1] With the help of von-Karman equation
 2 
the boundary layer thickness can be
at y = 0; u = 0 , c = 0
calculated.
  y2 
 u  0 y  …. (1) [2] Shear stress on the surface of the plate
 2  can be calculated.
at y =  ; u = u [3] The drag force on the plate can be calculated.
  
u  0     …. (2) Note:
 2
 y  y2 
 
u  2  2  y 2 
  1  
u    2 
2
  u 
    1  dy
0
 u 
  2 y 2 
 0    2  dy
1   y  u x u x
Reynolds no = 
  v
 y 2 2 y3  2 3
        
 6 2  0
y Where x = distance from leading edge
 6 2
For flow over flat plate in the Reynolds number
1
     (Re) less than 5  105 then flow is taken as
3
 laminar.
*  And when Re > 5  105 flow is Turbulent.
3
Avg. drag coefficient [CD] 39 d
0  U 2 … (i)
280 dx
dU

FD dy
CD 
1
 Au2 dU
2 0  
dy y 0
With the help of CD, drag force can be calculated.
10.7 Local drag coefficient or skin friction dU 3U 

coefficient: dy 2
y 0
0 3U 
C fx  0   … (ii)
1 2
 u 2
2 Equation (i) = equation (ii)
Example 3 39 d 3U
U 2  
For a velocity profile for a laminar boundary 280 dx 2
u 3 y y3
  13U  d  
layer 
u 2  3 140 dx 
Find: 140
d   dx
(1) Boundary layer thickness 13U 
(2) Shear stress on the surface of the plate
2 140
(3) Drag force  xc
(4) Avg. drag coefficient in terms of 2 13U 
Reynold number At x  0,   0, c  0
U 3 y y3 2 140
Sol.    x ….(iii)
U  2 23 2 13U 

U  U  280
 1   dy  x
0
U  U  13U 
3 y y3   3 y y3  

From equation (iii)
  1      dy
2 23   2 23   280 x
0 2 
39 13 U 
 
280
By using Von-Karman equation 280 x 2
 
2
0 d 13 Re x

U  dx
2
280 x

d  39  13
0  U 2  
Re x
dx  280 
4.64 x Note:

Re x As the distance from the leading-edge
increases, the shear stress decreases.
4.64x
 (3)
U  x

  x1/2 (For any laminar boundary layer)
2 x2

1 x1
dFD  0 Bdx
L
FD   0 Bdx
0
0.323U 
L
FD   Re x dx
x1 and x2 distance from leading edge. 0
x
Note:
 U  L
As the distance from the leading edge is Re L 
 
increasing the boundary layer thickness is
also increasing. FD  0.646 ReL BU
3U  (4) Average drag coefficient:
(2) 0 
2
3U  0.323U 
0   Re x
4.64 x x
2
Re x FD
CD 
0.323U  U  x 1
0  AU 2
x  2
0.646 Re L BU 
0 
1 CD 
1
x ( BL)U 2
2
01 x2
 U  L
02 x1 1.292 BU 

CD 
( BL)U 2
1.292 Re L 

U  L
1.292 Re L
CD 
Re L
1.292
CD 
Re L
Note:
F1 F2
If F1 is drag force on first half of the plate and

F2 is the drag. Force on second half of the
plate as shear stress is more on the first half
of the plate there fore F1  F2 .
10.8 Boundary layer separation:

As the velocity gradient is zero at the separation
When fluid flows through converging
point, the shear stress is zero at the separation
passage the velocity increases pressure
point.
decreases i.e. the fluid flows under Negative
pressure gradient (favorable pressure 10.11 Blausius solution:
gradient). This flow is also known as
Blausius developed non – linear 3rd order
accelerating flow. The boundary layer
ordinary differential equation for obtaining
thickness decreases in this region due to
boundary layer solutions.
increase in velocity.
Laminar Turbulent
When the fluid flows in diverging passage
5x 0.371x
velocity decreases and pressure increases i.e.   1
the fluid flows under positive pressure Re x (Re x ) 5

gradient if the angle of divergence is large the 0.664 0.058
retardation of fluid particles will be more and CFx   1
Re x (Re x ) 5
at some point the fluid particles may not
support the flow and the fluid may separate 1.328 0.074
CD  CD  1
from its boundary and may reverse the flow Re L (Re x ) 5
this is known as boundary layer separation
and this occurs at the boundary.
10.5 How is the displacement thickness in
boundary layer analysis defined?
10.1 Boundary layer is a thin fluid region close to (A) The layer in which the loss of energy is
the surface of a body where minimum
(A) Viscous forces are negligible (B) The thickness upto which the velocity
approaches 99%
(B) Velocity is uniform (C) The distance measured perpendicular to
(C) Inertial forces can be neglected the boundary by which the free stream
is displaced on account of formation of
(D) Viscous forces cannot be neglected boundary layer
10.2 In the boundary layer, the flow is (D) The layer which represents reduction in
momentum caused by the boundary
(A) Viscous and rotational
layer
(B) Inviscid and irrotational 10.6 Consider the following statements:
(C) Inviscid and rotational 1. Boundary-layer thickness in laminar
flow is greater than that of turbulent
(D) Viscous and irroational flow
10.3 The hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness 2. Boundary-layer thickness in turbulent
is defined as the distance from the surface flow is greater than that of laminar flow
where the 3. Velocity distributes uniformly in a
turbulent boundary layer
(A) Velocity equals to the local external
4. Velocity has a gradual variation in a
velocity
laminar boundary-layer
(B) Velocity equals the approach velocity Which of the statements given above are
correct?
(C) Momentum equals 99% of the
momentum of the free stream (A) 1, 3 and 4 only (B) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(C) 1 and 2 only (D) 2, 3, and 4 only
(D) Velocity equal 99 % of the local 10.7 List I give the different items related to a
external velocity boundary layer while List II gives the
10.4 Which one of the following statements is mathematical expression. Match List I with
correct? While using boundary layer List II and select the correct answer
equations, Bernoulli's equation (symbols have their usual meaning).
10.8 The displacement thickness at a section, for
(A) Can be used anywhere
an air stream (  1.2 kg/m 3 ) moving with a
(B) Can be used only outside the boundary velocity of 10m/s over flat plate is 0.5mm .
layer
What is the loss of mass flow rate of air due
(C) Can be used only inside the boundary to boundary layer formation in kg per meter
layer width of plate per second?
(D) Cannot be used either inside or outside (A) 6 103 (B) 6 105
the boundary layer (C) 3103 (D) 2 103
10.9 Given that 10.14 The development of boundary layer zones
  boundary layer thickness, labelled P,Q,R and S over a flat plate is
*  displacement thickness shown in the given figure. Based on this
e  energy thickness figure, match List I (Boundary layer zones)
with list II (types of boundary layer) and
q  momentum thickness
select the correct answer
The shape factor H of boundary layer is
 
(A) H  e (B) H  e
 
* 
(C) H  (D) H 
 e
10.10 The laminar boundary layer thickness over a
flat aligned with the flow varies as
Column I Column II
(A) x1/2 (B) x4/5
(A) P (1) Transitional
(C) x1/2 (D) x 2
(B) Q (2) Laminar
10.11 The turbulent boundary- layer thickness
Viscous sub
varies as
- layer
(A) x4/5 (B) x1/5
(C) R (3) Laminar
(C) x1/2 (D) x1/7
(D) S (4) Turbulent
10.12 In the laminar boundary layer flow over a flat
(A) P – 3, Q – 1, R – 2, S – 4

plate, the ratio   varies as (B) P – 3, Q – 2, R – 1, S – 4
x
(C) P – 4, Q – 2, R – 1, S – 3
(A) Re (B) Re
(D) P – 4, Q – 1, R – 2, S – 3
1
(C) (D) Re1/2 10.15 Air (kinematic viscosity 15 106 m2 /s ) with
Re
a free stream velocity of 10 m/s flows over a
10.13 A flat plate is kept in an infinite fluid
smooth two-dimensional flat plate. If the
medium. The fluid has a uniform freestream
velocity parallel to the plate. For the laminar critical Reynolds number is 5 105 , what is
boundary layer formed on the plate, pick the the maximum distance from the leading edge
correct option matching Columns I and II upto which laminar boundary layer exists?
Column I (A) 30 cm (B) 75 cm
(P) Boundary layer thickness (C) 150 cm (D) 300 cm
(Q) Shear stress at the plate 10.16 Velocity distribution in a boundary layer
(R) Pressure gradient along the plate flow over a plate is given by  u / u   1.5
Column II y
1. Decreases in the flow direction where,   ; y is the distance measured

2. Increases in the flow direction normal to the plate;  is the boundary layer
3. Remains unchanged thickness; and u is the maximum velocity at
(A) P–1, Q–2, R–3 (B) P–2, Q–2, R–2
y   if the shear stress  , acting on the plate
(C) P–1, Q–1, R–1 (D) P–2, Q–1, R–3
is given by   K
 mu 
where,  is the
10.21 Consider a constant pressure boundary layer
 over a flat plate of length L = 3m. The free
dynamic viscosity of the fluid, K takes the stream velocity is u  60 m/s and the
value of density and viscosity of the fluid respectively
(A) 0 (B) 1 are   1.23 kg/m3 and   1.79  105 Ns/m 2 .
(C) 1.5 (D) None of these Transition occurs at a distance xcr  0.1m
10.17 The thickness of the laminar boundary layer from the leading edge. If the free stream
on a flat plate at a point A is 2 cm and at a velocity is changed to u  120 m/s, X cr
point B, 1 m downstream of A, is 3 cm. What becomes
is the distance of A from the leading edge of
(A) 0.2 m (B) 0.1 m
the plate?
(C) 0.05 m (D) 0.005 m
(A) 0.50 m (B) 0.80 m
10.22 In a laminar boundary layer over a flat plate,
(C) 1.00 m (D) 1.25 m what would be the ratio of wall shear stress
10.18 The critical value of Reynolds number for 1 and 2 at the two sections which lie at
transition from laminar to turbulent boundary
distances x1  30 cm and x2  90 cm from
layer in external flows is taken as
the leading edge of the plate?
(A) 2300 (B) 4000
1 1 1
(C) 5 105 (D) 3 106 (A)  3.0 (B) 
2 2 3
10.19 Which one of the following is the correct
1 1
1 1
relation between the boundary layer (C)  32 (D)  33
thickness  ¸ displacement thickness  * and 2 2
the momentum thickness  ? 10.23 Air flow in a square duct of side 10 cm. At
(A)   *   (B) *     the entrance, the velocity is uniform at 10 m/s
and the boundary layer thickness is
(C)     * (D)   *  
negligible. At the exit, the displacement
10.20 For air flow over a flat plate, velocity (U) and thickness is 5 mm (on each wall). The
boundary layer thickness () can be velocity outside the boundary layer at the exit
expressed respectively, as is
3
U 3y 1  y  4.64 x (A) 12.35 m/s (B) 11.08 m/s
    ;  . If the free
U  2 2    Re x (C) 10 m/s (D) 9 m/s
stream velocity is 2 m/s, and air has 10.24 The boundary layer flow separates from the
surface if
kinematic viscosity of 1.5 105 m2 /s and
du dp
density of 1.23 kg/m 3 , then wall shear stress (A)  0 and 0
dy dx
at x = 1m, is
du dp
(A) 2.3102 N/m2 (B)  0 and 0
dy dx
(B) 43.6 103 N/m2
du dp
(C) 4.36 103 N/m2
(C)  0 and 0
dy dx
(D) 2.18 103 N/m2 (D) The boundary layer thickness is zero
10.25 At the point of separation 10.31 The laminar boundary layer over a large flat
(A) Velocity is negative plate held parallel to the flow is 7.2 mm thick
(B) Shear stress is zero at a point 0.33 m downstream of the leading
edge. If the free stream speed is increased by
(C) Pressure gradient is negative
50%, then the new boundary layer thickness
(D) Shear stress is maximum
at this location will be approximately
10.25 Flow separation is caused by (A) 1.8 mm (B) 8.8 mm
(A) Reduction of pressure to local vapour (C) 5.9 mm (D) 4.8 mm
pressure 10.32 For the control volume shown in the figure
(B) A negative pressure gradient below, the velocities are measured both at the
(C) A positive pressure gradient upstream and the downstream ends. The flow
(D) Thinning of boundary layer thickness to of density  is incompressible, two
zero dimensional and steady.
10.27 For a laminar boundary layer with constant The pressure is P0 over the entire surface of
dp the control volume. The drag on the airfoil is
free stream velocity (i.e.  0 ), the
dx given by
u
variation of with distance from the wall
y
is given by
10.28 Which one among the following boundary
layer flows is LEAST susceptible to flow
separation?
(A) Turbulent boundary layer in a favorable
pressure gradient
(B) Laminar boundary layer in a favorable u2 h
(A) (B) Zero
pressure gradient 3
u2 h
(C) Turbulent boundary layer in adverse (C) (D) 2u2 h
pressure gradient 6
(D) Laminar boundary layer in adverse Linked Answer Question 10.33 to 10.34
pressure gradient The boundary layer formation over a flat
10.29 In a two-dimensional, steady, fully plate is shown in the figure below. The
developed, laminar boundary layer over a flat variation of horizontal velocity (u) with y and
plate, if x is the stream wise coordinate, y is x along the plate in the boundary layer is
the wall normal coordinate and u is the approximated as: u  P sin(Qy)  R
streamwise velocity component, which of the
following is true?
10.30 The maximum thickness of boundary layer
in a pipe of radius 'R' is
(A) 0.1 R (B) 0.22 R
(C) 0.5 R (D) R
10.33 The most acceptable boundary conditions 10.35 The mass flow rate (in kg/s) across the
are section q-r is
(A) At y  0, u  0 ; at y  , u  U  ; at (A) Zero (B) 0.05
(C) 0.10 (D) 0.15
du
y  0, 0 10.36 The integrated drag force (in N) on the plate
dy
between p-s, is
(B) At y  0, u  U  ; at y  , u  U  ; at (A) 0.67 (B) 0.33
du (C) 0.17 (D) Zero
y  0, 0
dy Linked Answer Question 10.37 to 10.38
(C) At y  0, u  0 ; at y  , u  U  ; at An automobile with projected area 2.6 m2 is
du running on a road with speed of 120 km per
y  , 0
dy hour. The mass density and the kinematic
(D) At y  0, u  U  ; at y  , u  U  ; at viscosity of air are 1.2 kg/m3 and
du 1.5 105 m2 /s , respectively. The drag

y  , 0 coefficient is 0.30.
dy
10.37 The drag force on the automobile is
10.34 Expression for P, Q and R are
(A) 620 N (B) 600 N
(A) P  0, Q  0, R  0 (C) 580 N (D) 520 N
(B) P  U  , Q  0, R  0 10.38 The metric horse power required to overcome
the drag force is

(C) P  0, Q  , R  U (A) 33.23 (B) 31.23'
2
(C) 23.23 (D) 20.23

(D) P  U , Q  , R0 Linked Answer Question 10.39 to 10.40
2
Consider a steady incompressible flow
Linked Answer Question 10.35 to 10.36
through a channel as shown below.
A smooth flat plate with a sharp leading edge
is placed along a gas stream flowing at U =
10 m/s. The thickness of the boundary layer
at section r - s is 10 mm, the breadth of the
plate is 1 m (into the paper) and the density
of the gas   1.0 kg/m 3 . Assume that the
boundary layer is thin, two dimensional, and
follows a linear velocity distribution, The velocity profile is uniform with a value
u  U  ( y / ) , at the section r-s, where y is of u0 at the inlet section A. The velocity
the height from plate. profile at section B downstream is
 y
 Vm  , 0 y

u   Vm ,   y'  H 
 Hy
Vm , H   y  H
 
Vm Mass flow rate per unit width of the plate,
10.39 The ratio is
u0 perpendicular to the plane of the figure across
1 the section BC is
(A)
1  2( / H )
(B) 1 3
(A) u
8
1 1
(C) (D)  3 
1  ( / H ) 1  ( / H ) (B) u   0.1L 
 8 
p  pB
10.40 The ratio A (where PA and PB are the  3 
1 2
u 0 (C) u   0.1L 
2  2 
pressure at section A and B, respectively, and  3 
(D) u   0.1L 
is the density of the fluid) is  8 
1 1 10.43 A thin flat plate of dimensions of
(A)  1 (B)
1  ( / H )  1  ( / H ) 100cm  200cm is completely immersed in
2 2
1 1 an oil stream with velocity 6 m/s. The density

(C)  1 (D)
1  (2 / H )  1  ( / H ) and dynamic viscosity of oil may be taken as
2
890 kg/m 3 and 0.29kg/m.s Assume a drag

10.41 Consider a laminar flow over a flat plate of
length L = 1m. The boundary layer thickness coefficient given by CD  1.328Re0.5
L , where
at the end of the plate is  w for water,  a for Re L is the Reynolds number based on the
air for the same free stream velocity. If the
plate length. The total frictional force, if the
kinematic viscosities of water and air are
fluid steam is along the longer side of the
1106 m2 /s and 1.6 105 m2 /s ,
plate, is numerically closest to
respectively, the numerical value of the ratio,
w (A) 4.435 N (B) 44.35 N
______. (C) 443.5 N (D) 4435 N
a
10.44 A flat plate is exposed to a steady, constant
10.42 A fluid of constant density  flows steadily
density fluid flow with a free stream parallel
past a porous plate with a uniform free stream
to the axis of the plate (case 1). In another
velocity u as shown in the figure.
case, this plate is replaced by a plate which is
half the length of the previous plate (case 2),
all other conditions remaining unaltered. In
both the cases, flow over the entire length of
the plate is laminar. What is the ratio of the
drag coefficients for these two cases (Given:
the local boundary layer thickness  scales

as Rex 1/2 , where Re x is the local
x
Fluid is sucked through the porous section
Reynolds number at an axial coordinate x)?
with a velocity of 0.1u . Velocity
cD.1 cD.1
distribution at section CD is given by (A)  0.500 (B)  0.666
3 cD.2 cD.2
u 3 y  1 y 
     . cD.1 cD.1
u 2    2    (C)  0.707 (D)  1.000
cD.2 cD.2
A Answer Key 10.9 (C)
10.1 D 10.2 A 10.3 D 10.10 (C)

10.4 B 10.5 C 10.6 D
For laminar flow
10.7 A 10.8 A 10.9 C
5x 5x
10.10 C 10.11 A 10.12 D  
Re x  u x
10.13 D 10.14 A 10.15 B

10.16 C 10.17 B 10.18 C
10.19 A 10.20 C 10.21 C  x
1
2
10.22 C 10.23 A 10.24 B Hence, the correct option is (C).

10.25 B 10.26 C 10.27 *
10.11 (A)
10.28 A 10.29 B 10.30 D
10.31 C 10.32 A 10.33 C 10.12 (D)
10.34 D 10.35 B 10.36 C
4.64 x
10.37 D 10.38 C 10.39 C 
Re
10.40 A 10.41 0.25 10.42 D
10.43 C 10.44 C  4.64

x Re
E Explanation 
  Re 
1
2
x
10.1 (D)
10.2 (A)
10.13 (D)
10.3 (D)
10.14 (A)
10.4 (B)
10.5 (C) 10.15 (B)
10.6 (D) Given data :

  15 106 m2/s
10.7 (A)
u = 10 m/s
10.8 (A)
Re = 5  105
Given data :
u x u x
* = 0.5 mm Re  
 
 = 1.2 kg/m3
u = 10 m/s 10  x
 5 105 
 15 106
m   u *
 x = 0.75 x
 1.2  10  0.5
= 75 cm
 6  103 kg/s
Hence, the correct option is (A). Hence, the correct option is (B).
10.16 (C) 10.18 (C)

u 1.5 y
 1.5  10.19 (A)
u 
10.20 (C)
3
u 3y 1  y  4.64 x
y     ;
u 2 2  6  Re x
y = 0;  = 0
u = 2 m/s
y
  = 1.5  105 m2/s

du  = 1.23 kg/m3
y , 0
dy 
k ( u )     
0  

3u
 du  |x1m   0 
 2
dy  0
1.5u 3 1.23 1.5 10 5  2
   . u   1.5  =
 
 
 4.64 1 
At y = 0 i.e., on the wall 2 
 = 0  2 1 
u k ( u )  1.5  105 
 1.5  
 
k = 1.5 0 = 4.35  103 N/m2
Hence, the correct option is (C). Hence, the correct option is (C).
10.17 (B) 10.21 (C)
L=3m
3 cm u = 60 m/s ;  = 1.23 kg/m3 ;
2 cm
 = 1.79  105 pq.s.
A B Transition occurs. xcr = 0.1 from leading edge
x1 1m x=?
 x u x
Re x 

1 x
 1
2 x2 1.23  60  0.1
  412290.50
3 x1 x1 4 1.79 105
  
2 1  x1 1  x1 9 1.23 120  x
=
 4 + 4x1 = 9x1 1.79 105
5x1 = 4 x = 0.05 m
x1 = 0.8 m
10.22 (C) 10.27 (*)
Y
1

x
 
1 x
 2 r
2
du
x1 dy
1 du

90
  3
1
2 When y = ; 0
2 30 dy
du
Hence, the correct option is (C). y  0;  max
dy
10.23 (A) 10.28 (A)
In laminar flow due to law velocities,
Boundary layer thickness is negligible
separation is happing so turbulent is least
susceptible to flow separation.
A2  81 cm 2
10.29 (B)
A1  100 cm 2 *  5 mm y
10 cm
U 1  10 m/s
x
u u
at exit 
y x
9 10 10.30 (D)
Fully developed
R  max R
A  81 cm 2
Developing
Apply continuity
flow
A1V1 = A2V2 Hence, the correct option is (D).
10.31 (C)
 10  100 = 81  V2
4.64 x
V2 = 12.35 m/s 
Re x
Hence, the correct option is (A).  = 7.2 mm
X = 0.33
10.24 (B)
u2  1.5u1
10.25 (B) 
4.64x
 u x
10.26 (C) 
x x 10.33 (C)
 
u x u
y = 0; u = 0,
x1 = x2
y = ; u = u,
x
x1  u2 du
1 u1 y = ; 0
   1.5u1 dy
2 x x1  u1
u 2 Hence, the correct option is (C).
1 10.34 (D)
 1.5
2
y = 0; u = 0
7.2mm
2   5.87 mm 0 = P(0) + R
1.5
Hence, the correct option is (C). R=0
10.32 (A) u = P sin Q(y)

u = PsinQ
U 0
du
y  ; 0
dy
u  u
y du
 h h  P cos(Qy )  Q
dy
0 = PQ.cos(Q)
dx
PQ  0 b/c if p = 0, Q = 0 u = 0 irrespective
dF0 = 0(dx  1) of y which is not possible.
FD   0dx
Then cos(Q) = 0
u y
 
u h Q 

2
u  u  y y
h
   1   dy  1   dr 
0  
u u  h h Q
0
2
h
 
6 u  P sin .
Von-Karman equation 2
0 d d P = u
   0   u2
u dx
2
dx Hence, the correct option is (D).
FD   0dx
10.35 (B)
d
FD   u .dx  u2
2
 u = 10 m/s
dx
h u = u(y/)
FD   u2 . (one side of aerofoil)
6  = 10 mm
u 2 h
Total drag = FD   w=1m
3
Hence, the correct option is (A).  = 1 kg/m3
q r  
 y  y2   
0     2     2  2
1  dy  y 
u 0
u 
10
=  5mm
2

p s mreduction     * 1 u
q r = 1  (5  1)  10
= 50  103 = 0.05
 
m pq m rs 10.36 (C)
Drag force: It is the force exerted by the fluid
p s on the plate in a direction parallel to the
1m relative motion. When the angle of incidence
q of the plate is zero the drag is due to shear
10 m/s
only.
10 103 m 0.05 kg/s
q r
p

m pq    (  1)  u  1 10  103  10
0.1 kg/s
= 0.1 kg/sec
1
p s
r

Momentum entering pq mv
u dy 
Ppq = 0.1  10 = 1N
s Pqr = 0.05  10 = 0.5 N
r
u  u 1

 
m rs     (dy 1)u U   10 m/s 10 10 3 m
0
 
y
mrs     u dy Momentum through rs
0

u 110 10 103
  1
2 2
r
= 0.05 kg/s
   dy
mqr  m pq  mrs
= 0.1 – 0.05 – 0.05 kg/sec s
u y 
 m pq    (dy 1)  u
u 
Momentum =   (dy  1)  u2 10.39 (C)

=   u 2 dy u0 A
4 B
0 

u2 y 2 3
Prs    dy
0
 2 A B H
Prs = 0.33 N
r 2

p q 0.5 1
1
0.33
 Vm y
Fdrag = 1 – (0.5 + 0.33) = 0.17 N 0  y 
u 

Hence, the correct option is (C). Vm   y  H  
10.37 (D) Vm ( H  y )
H   y  H
2 
A = 2.6 m
Mass flow rate at section A
5
V  120   33.33 m/s 
18 mA    A v
CD = 0.3    ( H  1)  v0
 = 1.5  105 m2/s = Hu0 …. (1)
   
 = 1.2 kg/m3 m B  m12  m23  m34
FD
CD 
1 2
 u A dy
2 vm y 
1 y H
FD  CD  u2 A
2
 

1
0.3  1.2  33.332  2.6 m12    (dy 1)  u
2 0

FD = 519.89 N  Vm y
m12   dy
Hence, the correct option is (D). 0

10.38 (C)
 Vm 
m12   m34
2
P=FV 
m 23   Vm  ( H  2 )
 519.89  33.33 J/S
Total mass flow at exit (or section B)
P = 17328.13 W
Vm V 
17328.13   Vm ( H  2 )  m
OR  23.23HP 2 2
746 
Hence, the correct option is (C). m B  Vm  Vm H  2 Vm

 Vm(H  ) …. (2) 10.41 0.25
For steady flow Given data : L = 1 m, w = 1  106 m2/s
  a = 1.6  105 m2/s
m A  mB
w
?
  Hu0  Vm ( H   ) a
5x
Vm

H

1 For laminar flow   ;  v
u0 H     VL
1   v
H
w v 1106
Hence, the correct option is (C).  w   0.25
a va 1.6 105
10.40 (A) Hence, the correct answer is 0.25.
PA  PB 10.42 (D)
?
1 2 U B C U
Pu0
2
Apply Bernoulli’s equation between A and 
B (outside the boundary layer)
A B A D
U0 Vm 0.1U 
PA PB    
m AB  m BC  mCD  m AD
PA u02 PB Vm2 
   m AB   AV   ( 1)u   u
w 2g w 2g

m AD   L  0.1u  0.1 Lu
PA  PB V  u 2 2
 m 0

g 2g   3 y y3 
mCD   u   3 dy
 2 2 
u02  Vm2 
0
PA  PB
  3  y 2  
  
2  v02  1 1  y3  
  u     3   
 2  2  0 2  4 0 
PA  PB Vm2
  2 1 5
1 2
 u0 u0   u
2 8
   
Vm 1 m BC  m AB  mCD  m AD

u0   5
=  u  u  0.1 Lu
1  
H 8
 5 
1  u    0.1L 
  8 
   2 
1      3 
  u   0.1L 
  H   8 
Hence, the correct option is (A). Hence, the correct option is (D).
10.43 (C)
l=2m
 = 890 kg/m3
w= 1 m
 = 0.29 kg/m-s
u = 6 m/s
CD  1.328  Re 
1
2
FD
CD 
1
 A.u2
2
1
FD  CD   Au2
2
1
= 0.0068   890  (2 1)  6 2
2
= 221.71 N
Total drag force = 2  221.71
= 443.43 N
10.44 (C)
1
cD 
L
cD1 L 1
 2
  0.707
cD2 L 2
NOTES
Chapter-11
VORTEX MOTION
11.1 Introduction: 1
v
The motion of fluid along a curve path is known r
vortex motion. This equation is applicable for free vortex
Vortex motion is of two types – equation.
(1) Forced vortex Example:
(2) Free vortex (1) Motion of fluid in the diffuser of the
(1) Forced vortex motion: centrifugal pump.
Motion of a fluid in a curved path under the (2) Flow of fluid in pipe bend.
influence of external agency (Torque) is known (3) Whirl pool
as forced vortex motion. As there is a continuous (4) Flow of liquid wash basin.
expenditure of energy in forced vortex motion. Note:
therefore, Bernoulli’s equation is not applicable. Free vortex is an irrotational flow.
For forced vortex motion the equation
v = r then v  r
is applicable for forced vortex motion.
Example:
(1) Liquid in a container when rotated
(2) Motion of fluid in the impeller of a
centrifugal pump.
Note:
Forced vortex motion is a rotation flow.
(2) Free vortex motion:
In free vortex motion the fluid moves in curved 11.2 Generalised equation for vortex
path due to internal fluid action but not due to motion:
external torque. As there is no expenditure of
energy, therefore Bernoulli’s equation is
applicable for free vortex motion.
d
 mvr   0
dt
mvr = c
c
vr   c
m
vr = c
Kulkarni’s Academy 159 Vortex Motion
mv 2 c
  CF v
r r
Volume = dA. dr v22 v12
P2  P1     gz2  gz1
m 2 2
 
volume v22 v12
P2   gz2  P1  gz1
m = .volume 2 2
= .dAdr Divide with g
dAdrv 2  P  P1 v12 P v2
 PdA  P dr  dA   z1  2  2  z 2
r  r  g 2 g 2
v 2 P Bernoulli’s equation is applicable for free vortex.
 P dr  P  dr
r r 11.4 Forced vortex motion equation:
P v 2
 
r r v2
dP  dr   gdz
This equation gives the variation of pressure in r
radial direction. For forted vortex v = r
We know that from hydrostatic law P2 r2
 r 2 2
z2
 dP 
P1 r1
r3
dr    gdz
z1
2 2 2 2
 P2  P1  .r2  .r1  gz2  gz1
2 2
P
  w   g  r22 r12 
z  P2  P1       g ( z2  z1 ) _____(1)
2
P = f (r, z) 2 2
P P v22 v12
dP  dr  dz  P2  P1    gz2  gz1
r z 2 2
v 2 v22 v12
dP  dr  gdz  P2   gz2  P1   gz1
r 2 2
This equation is valid for both free and forced P2 v22 P v2
vortex.    z2  1  1  z1
g 2 g g 2 g
11.3 Free vortex motion equation:
Bernoulli’s equation is not applicable for forced
For free – vortex motion vortex.
c 11.5 Observation:
vr = c; v 
r
c2
p2 r2 z2
From equation 1.
 dp  r3
dr    gdz
 r2 r2 
 P2  P1  2  2  1   g ( z2  z1 )
p1 r1 z1
c 2 c 2 2 2
P2  P1     gz2  gz1
2r22 2r12 Used when P1 P2
Let us select two point 1 & 2 on the surface P1 = 11.6 Isobars in forced vortex:
P2
 r2 r2 
 0  2  2  1   g ( z2  z1 )
2 2
11.7 Volume of paraboloid:

1
Volume =  R2 H
Fig. (a) Fig. (b) 2
 r2 r2 
 2  2  1   g ( z2  z1 )
2 2
2 2 2
  r2  r1   ( z2  z1 )
2g 
From above equation we can say that the variation
between r & z is parabolic.
Example 1
Show that in a forced vortex motion the rise
of liquid at ends is equal fall of the liquid at
the centre when no water spills over. (i.e., x
= y)
Sol.
Fig. (c)
If point 1 is taken on the surface r1 = 0
2 2
  r2  0   ( z2  z1 )  z
2g 
2 r22
 z
2g
1
 R 2 ( H  y )   R 2 ( H  y  x)   R 2 ( x  y )
2
1 1
 R 2 x    R 2 x    R 2 y
2 2
1 2 1
 R x   R2 y
2 2
2 R 2
H  x=y
2g
11.2 Which one of the following is an irrotational
flow?
11.1 A cylindrical container is filled with a liquid (A) Free vortex flow
up to half of its height. The container is
(B) Forced vortex flow
mounted on the centre of a turn-table and is
held fixed using a spindle. The turn-table is (C) Couette flow
now rotated about its central axis with a (D) Wake flow
certain angular velocity. After some time 11.3 A right circular cylinder is filled with a liquid
interval, the fluid attains rigid body rotation. upto its top level. It is rotated about its
Which of the following profiles best vertical axis at such a speed that half the
represents the constant pressure surfaces in liquid spills out, then the pressure at the point
the container? of intersection of the axis and bottom surface
is
(A) Same as before rotation
(B) Half of the value before rotation
(A) (C) quarter of the value before rotation
(D) Equal to the atmospheric pressure
11.4 Which combination of the following
statements about steady incompressible
forced vortex flow is correct?
P. Shear stress is zero at all points in the
flow.
(B) Q. Vorticity is zero at all points in the flow.
R. Velocity is directly proportional to the
radius from the centre of the vortex
S. Toal energy per unit mass is constant in the
entire flow field
(A) P and Q (B) R and S
(C) (C) P and R (D) P and S

11.5 Forced vortex flow is similar to solid body
rotation. For this case
(A) The shear strain rate is zero but the local
angular velocity is non-zero
(B) The shear strain rate is non-zero but the
local angular velocity is zero
(D) (C) Both the shear strain rate and the local
angular velocity are zero
(D) Both the shear strain rate and the local
angular velocity are non-zero
11.6 Choose the correct combination of true 11.10 A leaf is caught is a whirlpool. At a given
statements from the following: instant, the leaf is at a distance of 120 m from
P. In a free vortex, the total pressure varies the centre of the whirlpool. The whirlpool
from streamline to streamline can be described by the following velocity
Q. In a forced vortex, the total pressure
 60 103 
varies from streamline to streamline distribution; Vr    m/s and
 2r 
R. In a free vortex, the static pressure
increases with radial distance from the
300 103
centre at the same elevation V   m/s ,
2r
S. In a forced vortex, the static pressure
decrease with radial distance from the Where r (in metres) is the distance from the
centre at the same elevation centre of the whirlpool. What will be the
(A) P,Q,R (B) R, S distance of the leaf from the centre when it
(C) P,Q,R,S (D) Q,R has moved through half a revolution?
11.7 A cylindrical vessel open at the top is filled
(A) 48 m (B) 64 m
with water and rotated at a constant angular
velocity about its vertical axis such that the (C) 120 m (D) 142 m
bottom of the vessel is just exposed at the
11.11 The U tube arrangement shown rotates about
axis. The volume of water spilled as a
axis BB at 60 /  r.p.m. Initially (before
fraction of the volume of the cylinder is
rotation) the level in the arms of the U tube is
(A) 1/3 (B) 2/5
60 cm. The steady state difference in the
(C) 1/2 (D) 2/3
levels of the two limbs is
11.8 An open circular tank of 1m height and 0.3 m
diameter contains 0.8 m of water. If the tank
is rotated about the vertical axis such that
there is no spillage of water, the maximum
angular velocity of the tank is, nearly
(A) 18.65 rad/s
(B) 18.65 rad/minute
(C) 1.865 rad/s
(D) 1.865 rad/minute
11.9 A closed cylinder having a radius R and
height H is filled with oil of density  . If the (A) 12.5 cm (B) 25 cm
cylinder is rotated about its axis at an angular (C) 20 cm (D) 10 cm
velocity of  , then thrust at the bottom of the
cylinder is 11.12 The constant angular velocity at which a
liquid rotates in a cylinder about a vertical
(A) R 2gH
axis such that the pressure at a point on the
 2 2
R
(B) R2 axis is the same as at a point 2m higher at a
4 radius 2m is
(C) R ( R  gH )
2 2 2
(A) 2 rad/s (B) 1 rad/s

2   R 
2 2
(D) R   gH 
(C)  rad/s (D) 2  rad/s
 4 
11.13 Both free vortex and forced vortex can be A Answer Key
expressed mathematically in terms of
tangential velocity V at the corresponding 11.1 A 11.2 A 11.3 D
radius r. Choose the correct combination 11.4 B 11.5 A 11.6 D
Free Vortex Forced Vortex 11.7 C 11.8 A 11.9 D
(A) V = r  const Vr = const 11.10 B 11.11 D 11.12 C
11.13 D 11.14 A
(B) V 2  r  const V = r  const
(C) Vr = const V 2  r  const E Explanation
(D) Vr = const V  r  const 11.1 (A)
11.14 A U-tube of a very small bore, with its limbs
11.2 (A)
in a vertical plane and filled with a liquid of
density  , up to a height of h, is rotated about 11.3 (D)
a vertical axis, with an angular velocity of 
11.4 (B)
, as shown in the figure.
 As fluid is flow, shear stress will be
The radius of each limb from the axis of
rotation is R. Let Pa be the atmospheric present
pressure and g, the gravitational acceleration.  Vorticity = 2  rotation
The angular velocity at which the pressure at  V = rw; v  r
the point O becomes half of the atmospheric Hence, the correct option is (B).
pressure is given by 11.5 (A)
11.6 (D)
11.7 (C)
11.8 (A)
Pa  2 gph 2( Pa  gh) r 2 w2
(A) (B) z
R 2 R 2 2g
(0.15)2  w2
Pa  2gh Pa  gh 0.4 
(C) (D) 2  9.81
2R 2 2R 2
W = 18.6761 rad/s
11.9 (D) 11.10 (B)
Ftotal = Force due to weight of fluid (F1) + Whirl pool is an example of free vortex
Force due to rotation (F2) motion and it is irrotational flow.
F1 = gV { V  volume
dr
= gR2H Vr 
dt
F1 = gH.R2
d
When fluid is rotating, pressure varies with V  r
respect to radius
dt
dP V 2

dr r
60 103
Vr 
In force vortex v = rw 2r
dP
 rw2 300 103
dr V 
2r
w2 r 2
P Vr dr 1
2  
V rd  5
w2 r 2
R
F2    2rdr
2 1 dr
 d 
o
w2 R 4 5 r
F2 
4  2 r
1 dr
 w2 R 2 
 
50 d    r
Ft  R  2
 gH  120
 4 
 r2
Hence, the correct option is (D).  e 5

120
Note: 
r2  120  e 5
If the force on the top surface is to be

calculated then it is only due to rotation, there = 64 m
is no weight force on the top surface of the
container. Hence, the correct option is (B).
11.11 (D) w2  r22  r12 

P2  P1   g ( z2  z1 )
2N 2 60 2
w   2rad / s
60  60 Pa w2 R 2
 Pa    gh
w2 2 2
  r2  r1   z2  z1 2 2
2g Pa w2 R2
  gh 

4
2  9.81
 0.752  0.252   z2  z1 2 2
 Pa  2gh  w2 R2
 z2 – z1 = 0.1019 m
Pa  2gh
10 cm  w2 
R 2
11.12 (C) Pa  2gh
 w
R 2
r 2 w2
z Hence, the correct option is (A).
2g
22  w2
2
2  9.81
w  9.81  3.14  rad/s
11.13 (D)
11.14 (A)
We know that
V 2
P2  P1  dr  gdz
r
Pa
P1 
2
P2 = Pa
r1 = 0
r2 = R
V = Rw

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Fluid Mechanics

(Theory + Objective + Conventional)

[For GATE, UPSC-ESE, State Public Service Commission,

KULKARNI’S ACADEMY PUBLICATION

Malakpet, Hyderabad, Telangana 500036

Phone: +91-9000770927, E-mail: kamehyderabad@gmail.com

Malakpet, Hyderabad, Telangana 500036

Phone: +91-9000770927, 7893190907

 ALL RIGHTS STRICTLY RESERVED

First Edition: 2020

Typesetting by: Kulkarni’s Academy Publication, Hyderabad

Praveen Kulkarni Director,

2. Pressure Measurement (Manometry) 17 to 29

3. Buoyancy and Flotation 30 to 41

7. Laminar Flow 97 to 113

8. Turbulent Flow 114 to 122

9. Flow Through Pipes 123 to 137

10. Boundary Layer Theory 138 to 157

11. Vortex Motion 158 to 165

Fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing Any measurable characteristic is a property.

1.2.2 Specific weight /Weight density(w)

1.4.1 Newtonian Fluid:

Note: “as the app is decreasing with rate of

1.4.2 Non-Newtonian Fluids:

Ex: Rice starch, sugar in water.

(b) Non – wetting liquid

The rise or fall of a liquid when a small diameter

[Weight of liquid = vertical component of Fs]

Note : P Practice Questions

the following manner for gases. (A) 2  0  d (B) 4  0  d

air has a diameter of 0.05mm . If the pressure (C) 4  r R 2 n 3

E Explanation 1.4 (B)

1.1 (B) 1.5 (A)

Work =   [4 r2 n  4R2]

The pressure measured with respect to

The pressure measured with respect to zero

 For a static fluid forces acting on static fluid are

Vacuum pressure = Patm. Pabs.

(A) 9750 N/m2 (B) 8720N/m2 (C) 3, 2, 4 and 1 (D) 2, 1, 4 and 3

(A) 43 mm water (vacuum)

(A) 49.275 (B) 94.275

(A) 1225 N/m 2 (B) 980 N/m 2

(C) 1250 N/m 2 (D) 1000 N/m 2 s (C)

2.24 A manometer is made of a tube of uniform

2.1 C 2.2 D 2.3 D

2.4 D 2.5 D 2.6 D

2.7 D 2.8 A 2.9 C

2.10 B 2.11 C 2.12 C

2.31 Which of the following pressure units

(B) mm of mercury As height is same in all containers, so,

P1 + H + 0.2  0.2  13.6  H = P2

Poil + 900  9.81  3  13500 9.81  0.2 

By using volume conservation

2.28 22.6 2.30 (A)

 Pgauge  oil  g  2  water  g  0.5  g

3.3 Principle of Floatation:

For a floating body to be in equilibrium weight

3.2 Centre of Buoyancy (B):

[1] Stable equilibrium

[2] Unstable equilibrium

[3] Neutral equilibrium

3.5 Metacentre (M):

It is the point of intersection of normal axis of the

[1] A completely submerged body will be in Metacentric height (GM):