• Hasse Diagram

o Hasse Diagram
▪ A Hasse diagram is a graphical representation of the relation of
elements of a partially ordered set (poset) with an implied upward
orientation.
▪ Partial order relation ( A Relation which is Refliexive,
AntiSymmetric, and trasitive ).
o Steps to draw Hasse diagram
▪ 1). First make directed graph.
▪ 2). Remove self entry ( reflexive entry )
▪ 3). Remove Transitive Entry.
o Maximal element : if in a poset an element is not releted to any other element.
o Minimal element : if in a poset no element is related to an element.
o First element : an element (a) in (s) is called first element if ( a <= x) for
every element (x) in (s) if (a) precceds every other element in (s)
o Last Element : an element (b) in (s) is called last element if ( y <=b ) for
every element (y) in (s) if (a) suceeds every other element in (s)
o S can have at most one first element which must be minimal element.
o S can have at most one last element which must be maximal element.
o Upper of Hasse diagram : let (B) be a subset of a set (A), an element x ∈ A is
a upper bound of B if (y,x) ∈ poset for every y ∈ B.
o Lower of Hasse diagram : let (B) be a subset of a set (A), an element x ∈ A
is a lower bound of B if (x,y) ∈ poset for every y ∈ B.
• Lattice
o Least upper bound : minimun element in upper bound
o Greatest lower bound : maximum element in lower bound.
o Least upper bound (LUB) / Suprenum / Join / ∨ .
o Greatest lower bound (GUB) / infiniem / Meet / ∧ .
o Join Semi Lattice : in a poset if LUB / JOIN / suprenum is exist for every pair
of element then poset is called JOIN SEMI LATTICE.
o Meet Semi Lattice : in a poset if GUB / MEET / infiniem is exist for every
pair of element then poset is called MEET SEMI LATTICE.
o LATTICE : A Poset is called Lattice if it is both Meet semi lattice and join
semi lattice.
o PROPERTIES OF LATTICE :
▪ Idempotent law : a ∨ a = a, a ∧ a = a
▪ Associative law : (a ∨ b) ∨ c = a ∨ (b ∨ c)
▪ Commutative law : a ∨ b = b ∨ a.
▪ Distributed law ( Sometimes this law fails for Lattice ):a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a
∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)
o Upper bound of a lattice : in a lattice "L" if there exists an element "I" such
that for every a ∈ L, (a Relation I ) than "I" is called Upper bound of a lattice.
denoted By "I"
o Lower bound of a lattice : in a lattice "L" if there exists an element "O" such
that for every a ∈ L, (O Relation a ) than "O" is called Lower bound of a
lattice. denoted By "O"
o Complement of an element in a lattice : in a bounded LATTICE "L" for any
element (a ∈ L) if there exists an element (b ∈ L) such that (a ∨ b) = I (Upper
Bound) , (a ∧ b) = O (Lower bound), then b is called complement of a i.e. a &
b are complement of each other.
 o Distributive lattice : A lattice L is called distributive lattice if for any elements
a, b and c of L , it satisfies following distributive properties:
▪ a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)
▪ a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)
▪ !Lattices
▪ If the lattice L does not satisfies the above properties, it is called a non-
distributive lattice.
o Complement lattice : if lattice is said to be complement lattice if every element
(a ∈ L) must have at least one complement.
o Boolean Algebra : A lattice L is said to be Boolean algebra if it is both
Complement and distrubutive Lattice.
• Relation
o Relation : A connection between the elements of two or more sets is Relation.
The sets must be non-empty. A Subset of the Cartesian Product also forms a
relation R. A relation may be represented either by Roster method or by Set-
builder method.
o Terms Related to Relation
▪ Cartesian Product - Given two non-empty sets P and Q, the cartesian
product P times Q is the set of all ordered pairs of elements from P and
Q, that is P times Q = {(p, q) : p in P, q in Q}
▪ Domain - The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation
R from a set A to a set B is called the domain of the relation R. It is
called the set of inputs or pre-images.
▪ Range - The set of all second elements of the ordered pairs in a relation
R from a set A to a set B is called the range of the relation R. It is
called the set of outputs or images.
▪ Codomain - The whole set B in a relation R from a set A to a set B is
called the codomain of the relation R. Range ⊆ Codomain.
o Types of Relation
▪ Empty Relation - A relation is an empty relation if it has no elements,
that is, no element of set A is mapped or linked to any element of A. It
is denoted by R = ∅.
▪ Universal Relation - A relation R in a set A is a universal relation if
each element of A is related to every element of A, i.e., R = A × A. It
is called the full relation.
▪ Identity Relation - A relation R on A is said to be an identity relation if
each element of A is related to itself, that is, R = {(a, a) : for all a ∈ A}
▪ Inverse Relation - Define R to be a relation from set P to set Q i.e., R ∈
P × Q. The relation R is said to be an Inverse relation if R from set Q
to P is denoted by R = {(q, p): (p, q) ∈ R}.
▪ Reflexive Relation, Not Reflexive, Irreflexive, Not Reflexive:
▪ Reflexive Relation :
▪ A binary relation R defined on a set A is said to be
reflexive if, for every element a ∈ A, we have aRa, that
is, (a, a) ∈ R.
▪ The number of reflexive relations on a set with the ‘n’
number of elements is given by $$2^{n(n-1)}$$
▪ Not Reflexive : Relation is not reflexive if there exists an a ∈ A
such that (a,a) ∉ A.
▪ irreflexive :
 ▪ Not irreflexive:
▪ Symmetric, Anti-Symmetric,
▪ Transitive :
▪ Equivalence Relation : (reflexive + symmetric + transitive)
▪ Partial order relation : (reflexive + Anti-symmetric + transitive)
▪ !Reflexive realtion
▪ !Symmetric relation
▪ !Transitive relation
• Function
o a function is a relationship between inputs (i.e. the domain) where each input
is related to exactly one output (i.e. the co-domain).
o Domain - The set of all first elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R from
a set A to a set B is called the domain of the relation R. It is called the set of
inputs or pre-images.
o Range - The set of all second elements of the ordered pairs in a relation R
from a set A to a set B is called the range of the relation R. It is called the set
of outputs or images.
o Codomain - The whole set B in a relation R from a set A to a set B is called
the codomain of the relation R. Range ⊆ Codomain.
o Types of function
▪ Injective function or (One One function) : When there is mapping
for a range for each domain between two sets.
▪ Surjective functions or Onto function : When there is more than one
element mapped from domain to range.
▪ Invertible Function : a function (f)is said to inertible if (f) is both one-
one and onto function.
o
• Propositional Calculus
o Proposition: a proposition is a collection of declarative statements that has
either a truth value "true” or a truth value "false". A propositional consists of
propositional variables and connectives.
o Compound Propositions :
o Tautologies : A Tautology is a formula which is always true for every value
of its propositional variables.
o Contradictions :A Contradiction is a formula which is always false for every
value of its propositional variables.
o Contingency : A Contingency is a formula which has both some true and
some false values for every value of its propositional variables.
o Logically equivalence : Two statements X and Y are logically equivalent if
▪ The truth tables of each statement have the same truth values.
o Inverse − An inverse of the conditional statement is the negation of both the
hypothesis and the conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then q”, the inverse
will be “If not p, then not q”. Thus the inverse of (p→q) is (p'→q').
o Converse − The converse of the conditional statement is computed by
interchanging the hypothesis and the conclusion. If the statement is “If p, then
q”, the converse will be “If q, then p”. The converse of (p→q) is (q→p).
o Contra-positive − The contra-positive of the conditional is computed by
interchanging the hypothesis and the conclusion of the inverse statement. If
the statement is “If p, then q”, the contra-positive will be “If not q, then not p”.
The contra-positive of (p→q) is (q'→p').
o Duality Principle : Duality principle states that for any true statement, the
dual statement obtained by interchanging unions into intersections (and vice
versa) and interchanging Universal set into Null set (and vice versa) is also
true. If dual of any statement is the statement itself, it is said self-dual
statement.
o Normal Forms
▪ We can convert any proposition in two normal forms −
▪ Conjunctive normal form
▪ Disjunctive normal form
▪ Conjunctive Normal Form
▪ A compound statement is in conjunctive normal form if it is
obtained by operating AND among variables (negation of
variables included) connected with ORs. In terms of set
operations, it is a compound statement obtained by Intersection
among variables connected with Unions.
▪ Examples
▪ (P∪Q)∩(Q∪R)
▪ Disjunctive Normal Form
▪ A compound statement is in disjunctive normal form if it is
obtained by operating OR among variables (negation of
variables included) connected with ANDs. In terms of set
operations, it is a compound statement obtained by Union
among variables connected with Intersections.
▪ Examples
▪ (P∩Q)∪(Q∩R)
o Arguments : An argument is a set of initial statements, called premises,
followed by a conclusion.
o Valid : An argument is valid if and only if in every case where all the
premises are true, the conclusion is true. Otherwise, the argument is Fallacy
(invalid).
o !Algebra of Propositions
o Law of Syllogism : if p implies q & q implies r then p implies r.
▪ p->q & q->r then p->r.
o Law of inference :
▪ Law of detachment ( Modus Ponen) :
p→q (premises)
p (premises)
∴ q (conclusion)
▪ is valid all true for true
▪ Law of Contrapositive (Modus Tollen) :
p→q
~q
∴ ~p
▪ all false for true conclusion
▪ Disjuctive Syllogism (Elimination) :
p∨q
~p
∴q
▪ p is false then q is true
 ▪ Hypothetical Syllogism ( Transitivity) :
p→q
q→r
∴p→r
▪ all have to be true for true conclusion
o Atomic / primary / simplest : simple statement which does not include
connectives.
o moleculer / secondary / compound : statement which are having more than one
connectives.
o
• Graph Theory
o Graph : A graph (denoted as G=(V,E)) consists of a non-empty set of vertices
or nodes V and a set of edges E.
o Degree of a Vertex − The degree of a vertex V of a graph G (denoted by deg
(V)) is the number of edges incident with the vertex V.
o Walk : A walk is a sequence of vertices and edges of a graph i.e. if we
traverse a graph then we get a walk. (Note: Vertices and Edges can be
repeated.)
o Path : It is a trail in which neither vertices nor edges are repeated i.e. if we
traverse a graph such that we do not repeat a vertex and nor we repeat an edge.
As path is also a trail, thus it is also an open walk.
o Types of Graphs
▪ Null Graph : A null graph has no edges. The null graph of n vertices is
denoted by Nn.
▪ Simple Graph : A graph is called simple graph/strict graph if the
graph is undirected and does not contain any loops or multiple edges.
▪ Multi-Graph :If in a graph multiple edges between the same set of
vertices are allowed, it is called Multigraph. In other words, it is a
graph having at least one loop or multiple edges.
▪ Directed and Undirected Graph : A graph G=(V,E) is called a
directed graph if the edge set is made of ordered vertex pair and a
graph is called undirected if the edge set is made of unordered vertex
pair.
▪ Connected and Disconnected Graph : A graph is connected if any
two vertices of the graph are connected by a path; while a graph is
disconnected if at least two vertices of the graph are not connected by a
path. If a graph G is disconnected, then every maximal connected
subgraph of G is called a connected component of the graph G.
▪ Regular Graph :A graph is regular if all the vertices of the graph have
the same degree. In a regular graph G of degree r, the degree of each
vertex of G is r.
▪ Complete Graph : A graph is called complete graph if every two
vertices pair are joined by exactly one edge. The complete graph with
n vertices is denoted by Kn
▪ Cycle Graph : If a graph consists of a single cycle, it is called cycle
graph. The cycle graph with n vertices is denoted by Cn.
▪ Bipartite Graph : If the vertex-set of a graph G can be split into two
disjoint sets, V1 and V2, in such a way that each edge in the graph
joins a vertex in V1 to a vertex in V2, and there are no edges in G that
 connect two vertices in V1 or two vertices in V2, then the graph G is
called a bipartite graph.
▪ Complete Bipartite Graph : A complete bipartite graph is a bipartite
graph in which each vertex in the first set is joined to every single
vertex in the second set. The complete bipartite graph is denoted by
Kx,y where the graph G contains x vertices in the first set and y
vertices in the second set.
▪ Planar graph − A graph G is called a planar graph if it can be drawn in
a plane without any edges crossed. If we draw graph in the plane
without edge crossing, it is called embedding the graph in the plane.
▪ Non-planar graph − A graph is non-planar if it cannot be drawn in a
plane without graph edges crossing.
o Representation of Graphs
▪ There are mainly two ways to represent a graph −
▪ Adjacency Matrix
▪ Adjacency List
o Isomorphism
▪ If two graphs G and H contain the same number of vertices connected
in the same way, they are called isomorphic graphs (denoted by G≅H).
▪ It is easier to check non-isomorphism than isomorphism. If any of
these following conditions occurs, then two graphs are non-isomorphic
−
▪ The number of connected components are different
▪ Vertex-set cardinalities are different
▪ Edge-set cardinalities are different
▪ Degree sequences are different
o Homomorphism
▪ A homomorphism from a graph G to a graph H is a mapping (May not
be a bijective mapping) h:G→H such that −
(x,y)∈E(G)→(h(x),h(y))∈E(H). It maps adjacent vertices of graph G to
the adjacent vertices of the graph HH.
▪ Properties of Homomorphisms
▪ A homomorphism is an isomorphism if it is a bijective
mapping.
▪ Homomorphism always preserves edges and connectedness of
a graph.
▪ The compositions of homomorphisms are also
homomorphisms.
▪ To find out if there exists any homomorphic graph of another
graph is a NPcomplete problem.
o Euler Graphs
▪ A connected graph G is called an Euler graph, if there is a closed trail
which includes every edge of the graph G.
▪ A connected graph G is an Euler graph if and only if all vertices of G
are of even degree, and a connected graph G is Eulerian if and only if
its edge set can be decomposed into cycles.
▪ An Euler path is a path that uses every edge of a graph exactly once.
An Euler path starts and ends at different vertices.
▪ An Euler circuit is a circuit that uses every edge of a graph exactly
once. An Euler circuit always starts and ends at the same vertex.
 o Hamiltonian Graphs
▪ A connected graph G is called Hamiltonian graph if there is a cycle
which includes every vertex of G and the cycle is called Hamiltonian
cycle.
▪ Hamiltonian walk in graph G is a walk that passes through each vertex
exactly once.
▪ If G is a simple graph with n vertices, where n≥3 If deg(v)≥n/2 for
each vertex vv, then the graph G is Hamiltonian graph. This is called
Dirac's Theorem.
▪ If G is a simple graph with n vertices, where n≥2 if deg(x)+deg(y)≥n
for each pair of non-adjacent vertices x and y, then the graph G is
Hamiltonian graph. This is called Ore's theorem.
o Dirac's Theorem : If G is a simple graph with n vertices, where n≥3 If
deg(v)≥n/2 for each vertex v, then the graph G is Hamiltonian graph. This is
called Dirac's Theorem.
o
• Tree
o A Tree is a connected acyclic undirected graph. There is a unique path
between every pair of vertices in G. A tree with N number of vertices contains
(N−1) number of edges. The vertex which is of 0 degree is called root of the
tree.
o The vertex which is of 1 degree is called leaf node of the tree and
o the degree of an internal node is at least 2.
o Spannning tree : A spanning tree is a subset of Graph G, which has all the
vertices covered with minimum possible number of edges. Hence, a spanning
tree does not have cycles and it cannot be disconnected..
o A complete undirected graph can have maximum $$n^{(n-2)}$$ number of
spanning trees, where n is the number of nodes.
o Minimum Spanning Tree : In a weighted graph, a minimum spanning tree is
a spanning tree that has minimum weight than all other spanning trees of the
same graph.
o
• Group Theory
o Closure Property − For every pair (a,b)∈S, (aοb) has to be present in the set
S ('o' is any operation) .
o Associative Property − For every element a,b,c ∈ S, Property
(aοb)οc=aο(bοc) must hold. ('o' is any operation) .
o Identity Property: There is an element e, called the identity, in G, such that
a*e=e*a=a, ∀ a ∈ G
o Inverse Property: For each element a in G, there is an element b in G, called
an inverse of a such that a*b=b*a=e, ∀ a, b ∈ G.
o Commutative property : Commutative property also holds for every element
a∈S,
▪ (a×b)=(b×a)
o Algebraic Structure : A non empty set A is said to be Algebraic structure
w.r.t to binary operator if it satisfies closure property. e.g. : (N , +), (N , *)
etc
o Semi Group : A non empty set A is said to be Semi group w.r.t to binary
operator if it satisfies closure property and Associative Property.e.g : ( N ,
+ ), (N,*), (z,+). etc.
 o Monoid : A non empty set A is said to be Monoid w.r.t to binary operator if it
satisfies closure property ,Associative Property and identity Property.e.g. :
(z,+). etc.
o Group: A non empty set A is said to be group w.r.t to binary operator if it
satisfies closure property ,Associative Property, identity Property and
inverse Property. e.g. : (z,+), (R,+), . etc.
o Abelian Group : A Group which follow commutative property is known as
Abelian Group. e.g. : (z,+), (R,+) etc.
• Predicate logic
o A predicate is an expression of one or more variables defined on some specific
domain.
o A predicate with variables can be made a proposition by either assigning a
value to the variable or by quantifying the variable.
• Recurrence Relation
o A recurrence relation is an equation that recursively defines a sequence where
the next term is a function of the previous terms.
o Generating Functions : Generating Functions represents sequences where
each term of a sequence is expressed as a coefficient of a variable x in a
formal power series.
o
• Theory of Computation
• Discrete Numeric Function