Lab report: 2

1. Objective:
Following are the objectives of this report:

1) To draw the load deflection diagram.

2) To find the modulus of elasticity.

2. Apparatus:
Following are the apparatus required in this experiment:

1) Wire
2) Hanger
3) Weight/load
4) Meter rod
5) micrometer

3. Introduction:
Introduction includes the important terms given below:

 Weights/Load
 Forces and its Types
 Stress and its Types
 Elasticity
 Plasticity
 Modulus of Elasticity

4. Weights/loads:
Load is a term frequently used in engineering to mean the force exerted on a surface or body.
[1]

4.1 Types of weights/loads:

Different types of loads in engineering mechanics are compression, tension, torsion and
bending. [2]

 Compression:
Compression loading is an effect in which the component reduces it size. During
compression load there is reduction in volume and increase in density of a component.
 Tension:
Tension is the act of stretching rod, bar, spring, wire, cable etc. that is being pulled
from the either ends. This is one of the most important kind of a load that are very
specific in certain cases.
  Torsion:
Torsion is the act of twisting of an rod, wire, spring etc. about an axis due to applied
couple (torque).
 Bending:
Bending is act of changing component from straight form into a curved or angular
form.

Fig 4.1
(Types of Weights/Loads)

5. Force:
Push or pull on a body that move or tends to move a body is called a Force. [3]

5.1 Types of forces:

There are two main types of forces:

 Internal forces:
Forces which are applied by the body are known as internal forces.
 External forces:
Forces which are applied by the surroundings are known as external
forces.

6. Stress:
Internally, beams subjected to loads that do not induce torsion or axial loading experience
compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied to them. Typically,
under gravity loads, the original length of the beam is slightly reduced to enclose a smaller
radius arc at the top of the beam, resulting in compression, while the same original beam
length at the bottom of the beam is slightly stretched to enclose a larger radius arc, and so is
under tension. Modes of deformation where the top face of the beam is in compression, as
under a vertical load, are known as sagging modes and where the top is in tension, for
example over a support, is known as hogging.[4]
6.1 Three Basic Types of stresses:
Basically three different types of stresses can be identified. These are related to the nature of
the deforming force applied on the body. That is, whether they are tensile, compressive or
shearing.

 Tensile Stress:

Consider a uniform bar of cross sectional area A subjected to an axial tensile force P.
The stress at any section x-x normal to the line of action of the tensile force P is
specifically called tensile stress pt.
It is given as = F/A
Where F is force and A is area on which force acts.

 Compressive Stress:

If the bar is subjected to axial compression instead of axial tension, the stress developed
at x-x is specifically called compressive stress pc. Pc =R/A = P/A.

 Shear Stress:

Consider the section x-x of the rivet forming joint between two plates subjected to a
tensile force P as shown in figure. The stresses set up at the section x-x acts along the
surface of the section, that is, along a direction tangential to the section. It is
specifically called shear or tangential stress at the section and is denoted by q.
q =R/A=P/A.
6.2 Normal or Direct Stresses:
When the stress acts at a section or normal to the plane of the section, it is called a normal or
a direct stress. It is a term used to mean both the tensile stress and the compressive stress.

6.3 Simple and Pure Stresses:

The three basic types of stresses are tensile, compressive and shear stresses. The stress
developed in a body is said to be simple tension, simple compression and simple shear when
the stress induced in the body is (a) single and (b) uniform. If the condition (a) alone is
satisfied, the stress called pure tension or pure compression or pure shear, as the case may be.

6.4 Volumetric Stresses:

Three mutually perpendicular like direct stresses of same intensity produced in a body
constitute a volumetric stress. For example consider a body in the shape of a cube subjected
equal normal pushes on all its six faces. It is now subjected to equal compressive stresses p in

#all the three mutually perpendicular directions. The body is now said to be subjected to a
volumetric compressive stress p.

7. Plasticity:
Plasticity is what happens when stress is applied to a material beyond the yield point, σY
(sigma, subscript Y). Plasticity includes all of the behaviors beyond elasticity, including
(generally in order) yielding, strain hardening, and necking, and ends in the failure of the
material. If the stress load is removed from a material after it has gone beyond the yield point,
it will recover the strain achieved through the stress loads during the elastic phase of
deformation, but it will not recover from the stress loads during the plastic deformation. The
elastic phase of deformation always occurs prior to the plastic phase of deformation. [5]

8. Elasticity:
Elasticity is the way a material initially responds when it is subjected to stresses. Elasticity
refers to the material's ability to deform in a non-permanent way, meaning that when the
stress load is removed from the material it will recover its original form. A material will
continue to deform elastically as the stress upon it increases until the elastic limit is reached.
The elastic limit can be found on stress-strain diagrams for all materials, and the limit varies
by the material. For instance, steel experiences far less stress before reaching the elastic limit
than rubber does. Engineers need to refer to stress-strain diagrams, because engineering
design usually stays within the limitations of the elastic stresses. [6]

9. Modulus of Elasticity:
The modulus of elasticity of a material is a measure of its stiffness. It is equal to the stress
applied to it divided by the resulting elastic strain. The modulus of elasticity of steel is many
times higher than that of rubber.By definition, a stiffer material has a higher modulus of
elasticity. The modulus of elasticity of a material is a measure of its stiffness. It is equal to the
stress applied to it divided by the resulting elastic strain. [7]

10. Procedure:
1. Find the original length of the ruler with the help of a scale.
2. Load the scale with some weight and note down the
extension ∂.
3. Similarly, unload the weight and note the reading again.
4. Now, find out the average extension produced.
5. Use this value and calculate the modulus of rigidity ‘E’ by
using formula.
E=P/∂l x L/A

Fig 10 (load deflection diagram)

11. Observation & Calculations:

Least count of the scale of the apparatus = .05 cm, Least count of micrometer = .01 mm

Least count of meter rod = .01 cm, Length of wire (L) = 33.6 inch

Diameter of wire (d) = 0.0307 inch

Initial Load = 0

X-area of wire (A=πd2/4) = 7.4 x 10-4 inch2

Deflection
No. of Loa (∂l) P/∂L E=P/∂l x L/A
observations d Loading Unloading Average (graph) ( Mpsi)
(P) (inch) (inch) (inch) (lb/inch)

1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 7 0.03937 0.03937 0.03937 177 8
3 12 0.059055 0.059055 0.059055 203 9.2
4 17 0.0787 0.0787 0.0787 216 9.8
5 22 0.0984 0.0984 0.0984 223 10.12
6 27 0.118 0.118 0.118 228 10.35

Avg =9.304 M psi = 6.41 x 1010 = 64gpa

Actual = 97 gpa

Error=34%
12. Load-Deflection Diagram:

25

20

15
load (lb)

10

0
0.059055 0.0787 0.0984 0.118

Extension (∂l)

13. Stress-Strain Diagram:

14. Comments:
The main reasons for the deviation of readings are:
 Inaccuracy/inexperience of the observer
 Turns present in the wire
 Wear and tear of the apparatus
 Faulty apparatus
 Poor calibration

15. References:
 [1] https://me-mechanicalengineering.com/types-of-loads/
 [2] https://me-mechanicalengineering.com/different-types-f-stresses
 [3] https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/Lesson-2/Types-of-
Forces.
 [4] http://www.citycollegiate.com/stressXb.htm
 [5] https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/plasticity-5
 [6] https://www.chegg.com/homework-help/definitions/elasticity-5
 [7] https://www.thefreedictionary.com/modulus+of+elasticity