FLOW ASSURANCE &
SAND/WATER MANAGEMENT
Hybrid elastomers deliver
the best of both worlds
Advonces in swelloble elostomer pocker systems ore enhoncing long-term
well performonce of reduced costs for operotors by delivering greoter flexibility
in welldesign ond more relioble isolotion results.
I ntroduced to the market in the early 2000s, swellable
I elastomer packers are one-trip self-setting sealing prod-
ucts used to isolate annular spaces between tubulars and
open hole or casing and address inflow control perform-
ance, includirg sand management. They are increasingly
being deployed as an alternative to conventional cement-
ing, mechanical, and openhole packer technologies.
Swellable packers traditionally have been used with
single-fluid actlation elastomers that expand in either
hydrocarbon-based or water-based fluids. Oil-based elas-
tomers, initially designed with a man-made EPDM poly-
mer material that swells naturally in oil, operate in a
diffusion-absorption process in which swell time and vol-
ume are determined by temperature and hydrocarbon
composition. The swell rate is faster at higher tempera-
tures and in lighter hydrocarbons as well as in lower-vis-
cosity fluids.
A water-swellable elastomer is a nitrile-based rubber
crosslinked with a super-absorbent polymer that facilitates
swelling. The swell rate is faster at higher temperatures
and lower salinities.
A flexible qllernqtive
Among the breakthrough technologies that have
emerged in recent years is the dual-fluid-activated
swellable hybrid elastomer that can swell in hydrocar-
bons or water or a combination of both.
The fit-for-purpose method cross-links the super-
absorbent polyrner into the EPDM elastomer, providing a
homogeneous blend of rubber that can swell at different
rates dependirg on specific well conditions. Hybrid elas-
tomers swell faster at hieher temperatures and in lighter
oils and lower salinities, and can swell up to three
times their original volume in oil and / or water.
Weatherford's hybrid elastomer tech-
nology is a swellable elastomer that is
i
responsive to both oil and water in liquid,
wet 3zS, or multiphase environments,
60
providitg reliable, long-term isolation. Hybrid elastomer :
eliminate the uncertarnLy of fluid type and also address
the issue of absorption rates that vary dependirg on the
type of fluid present and temperature.
Designed for use with a variety of packer systems,
the hybrid elastomers allow swelling to occur in a con-
trolled predictable fashion depending on well condi-
tions. The hybrid elastomers also ensure long-term
isolation because they continue to swell while making
contact with wellbore fluids even after initial swelling.
The hybrid design is advantageous for numerous appli-
cations, includirg cases where an operator needs a packe r.
to swell quickly or before a well begins production. Using
the hybrid elastomer, the process can be expedited with-
out occurrirg too quickly. The packer is initially placed
in brine where it begins swelling ata relatively slow rate .
\Arhen the well comes online with higher-temperature
oil, the swelling process accelerates at a rate much faster
than with a conventional oil-elastomer packer.
Another application is in oil wells where a water-produc-
irg zo:ne develops. Deploying a hybrid elastomer provides
a cost-effective alternative to runnirg a long series of oi1-
based and water-based packers. The hybrid elastomer alsc,
addresses the temperature limitation of water-based elas-
tomers, which are not recommended for use in environ-
ments that exceed I25"C (257"F) .
A similar process is used for dry gas wells,
where swelling occurs at a fast rate due to
[he low viscosity of the fluid and the
higher temperatures. When a
nonviscous fluid enters
the matrix too
quickly,
The Genesis
swellqble pocker
provides cosl-effeclive
one-lrip, self-setting isolqtion with
no moving mechqnicql components,
(lmoges courlesy of Weqlherford lnlernotiono t)
Novernber 20ll I EPmag.corm.

. Hybrid elastomer capable of
" D iffusi on' a bsorption pro ce ss
swelling in either hydrocarbon
'swetltime and volume or water-based solutions
gaverned by temperature and
irydroc rbon c omposition
a ' Swell speed customizable
for activation fluid
" \Vill swell in condensate (independ ent swell control)
and wet gas
. Element is single piee e of
' Swell speed customizable rubber {not sections}
Weolherford's swellqble elqslomer options qre formulqled
objectives ond wellbote compqlibility issues.
- rplosive decompression can
occur. To avoid
.:)ackers equipped with hybrid elastomers are swelled in
-lo. clrocarbon fluid before the well comes
online.
Eiliminoting uRcertointy
Srrrce the hybrid elastomer was introduced inJanuary
''n{,)9, it has been used with packer systems globally for
-'t"r-ret\/ of isolation operations, includitg sand control.
In one case, a major operator encountered sand influx
:-ltro a gravel pack that was interfering with production in
-, rnzture oil well producitg water and sand offshore Azer'
rixUan. Swellable packers were selected as the most reliable
::*--rlationoption, providing the operator with a five-week
- -rrnaround that could pass
through flowcontrol profiles
-rncl seal in the screen without requiring a workover. The
:enredial technology was deployed through narrow 4Vz-tn
- asrng. The swellable packer also allowed the well to con-
rnue producitg during the activation phase.
Because there was no clear evidence indicating
,.'ltether the fluid concentration was water- or oil-based,
-
lere \vas uncertainty over which kind of elastomer to
-:se , The Genesis Annulus Swellable Packer
(ASP) , suited
_ _,r both openhole and cased-hole wells, was deployed
-,lrh a hybrid elastomer, which was able to provide a seal
:eqardless of fluid type.
The operation was executed within the desired time-
:railre. The sand was completely shut off within 30 days,
evident wiithin that
n evi
,-lilr decreases Iin sand production
:eriod. The client plans to install the hybrid elastomer
:Ieckers in more wells in the same field. Flybrid elastomers
:l>o can be used alongside water- or oil-based elastomers.
-\ -Qjor operator in West Africa require d zonal isolation
-r conjunction with an expandable sand screen (ESS)
.,nc1 control completion using swellable packers as the
-nosr cost-effective solution. The plan initially determined
-lle use of water swellable elastomers because the comple-
EPrnag.conr. I Novernber 20lI
FLOW ASSURANCE &
SAND/WATER MANAGEMENT
tion fluid was brine, and isolation was
required prior to the well coming online.
After brine samples were tested, it
was determined that the swelling time
would exceed the operator's require-
. Swelltirne and volume ments. Further testing revealed the
governed by temperature and
water salinity hybrid elastomer would provide similar
. \rVill swell in water vflpor results to water swellable elastomers
Swell speed customizablo in the brines. Because the packers
'
r Used a$ flreon.s of swelling
would be in the reservoir section, they
would be in contact with the in situ
hydrocarbons, which would allow the
oil swellable components of the elas-
lo meel specific swelling tomer to swell concurrently, achievitg
a faster swell to meet the customer's
requrrements.
that risk, Through further well evaluation and discussion with
the client, it was decided the sand control completion
would use a combination of hybrid swellable and water
swellable packers for the required zonal isolation. The
completion was run successfully, and the well was brought
online within the required timeframe. To date, produc-
a tion has exceeded expectations.
Pushing the lechnologY
The hybrid elastomer also is used with the swellable
Micro-Seal isolation system (MSIS), a low-pressure
packer designed to prevent micro-annular fluid and
pressure migration.
The seal provides micro-annulus conformity and seal-
irg in spaces that form after cementing and against the
outer d,iameter of the casitg. Each MSIS seal is equipped
with a slow-swelling FI2W2 hybrid elastomer that does not
respond to fluids in the well when the pipe is run or
when the cement is curing.
The technology also has been incorporated into the
ComboPac Open Packer system, a new concept that pro-
vides a combination of a conventional compression set
element and a conforming swellable elastomer packer
that can be used in both water and oil swellable versions.
The system is designed for a broad range of nonuniform,
openhole environments and has a lower pressure rating
and smaller outer diameter that can be installed in a vari-
ety of hole deviations. The system is effective for open-
hole completions and isolating sand screen sections and
in long horizontal wells.
Since it was introduced nearly three years ago, the
hybrid elastomer has been deployed on more than 200
conventional packer systems and 400 MSIS systems world-
wide. It is applicable for all well and reservoir conditions,
and its use is expected to be expanded to additional mar-
kets with today's increasingly complex wells.
 FLOW ASSURANCE &
SAND/WATER MANAGEMENT
Pipe-in-pi e riser syste
overco e / callenes
lnnovqtive construction techniques provide superior performonce.
T h" never-ending battle to extract more reserves from
I mature provinces such as the UK sector of the North
Sea has seen new precedents set for temperature and
pressure requirements in rigid riser systerns.
The need to transfer multiphase products increasingly
from HP /HT wells back to shore makes this challenge
even more demanding. In a recent project, for example,
riser materials were exposed to extreme temperatures
ranging from 180'C to -30'C (356'F to -22"F) in certain
well conditions.
Flistortcally, industry consensus maintained that
pipe-in-pipe systems able to withstand environrnental
challenges such as corrosion, structural integriqz, and
thermal management would be too costly and complex
to apply to riser systems. Flowever, companies now work
closely with supply partners to engineer, procure, and
construct innovative pipe-in-pipe assemblies as a cost-
effective solution to flow assurance rssues.
Pipe-in-pipe bends, while challenging technologically,
can lead to simplification of overall pipeline design and
can give better pipeline performance in times of opera-
tion and shutdown.
It is imporlqnl thot piBe bends hqve q
--------------t slroight porlion on the end lo enqble effi-
cienl welding to lhe nexl section. This cqn
presenl the insertion of one bend inlo
onolher. (lmoges courlesy of Tqlq Sleel)
polymer sea!
at each end -i
lnsulation
62
r €il s
Why insulote risers qnd bends?
HP /HT fields are technically more complex to develop
because of the inherently higher energy in the well fluic
and its multiphase composition. Managing the extreme
pressure and operatitg temperature must be based on
criteria such as corrosion, maintaining structural
integrity, and thermal management.
One particular challenge is managing pipeline shut-
down. I-ess expensive solutions for managing the insttla-
tion of bends, such as wet coatings, compromise overaltr
shut-down times due to reduced thermal efficiency.
Flowever, solutions such as "self-draining" spools pres-
ent a significant design challenge that can be mitigated
by the inclusion of pipe-in-pipe bend,s, enabling the same
thermal integrity to be maintained in the whole line.
-fata Steel previously implemented a solution for pipe-
in-pipe bends for a North Sea development. But new
insulation techniques have since been developed that
give far superior insulation propertres.
Risers, spools, ond bends
The main challenge with the construction of pipe-in-
pipe bends is how to pass the inner flowline bend into
the outer casirg pipe. It is important that pipe bends
have a straight portion on the end to enable efficient
welding to the next pipe section, and this can present
the insertion of one bend into the other.
The second construction challenge is efficient insula-
tion. Wrapping or sheathing is simply not practical dur-
irg this operation because the insulation would occup\
the annulus of the assembly and prevent integration.
lnsulqtion
A system developed by Tata Steel overcomes these prob-
lerns by deploying granular Nanogel insulation into the
annulus of the pipe-in-pipe system.
Nanogel is made by first forming a silica gel then
expelling the water from the sili ca rnatrix. The resulting
material is granular with trapped nanopores of air,
inhibitirg heat transfer by conduction, convection,
and radiation (with the inclusion of an opacifier).
The deployment of a novel polyrneric bulkhead, cast
directly into the annulus, provides a solid barrier to
Novernber 20ll I EPmag.com
 FLOW ASSURANCE &
SAND/WATER MANAGEMENT

: -lin insulation, allowing for the reiative movement of
-; lu.lrer and outer bends. The polymer is a "syntactic"
,;:e rial, silicone rubber r'vith glass microspheres dis-
-, Se d through the matrix rvith high strength, flexibility,
, - -i thermal efficiency. The tangent ends of the inner
--
-i outer bends are held rigidly, ensuring the assembly
-cl'ances achieved at manufactttre are retained when
- - r-rnit is transferred to the rvelding contractor for
- - rrporation into the pipeline spool or riser.
; rrr the insulation to be effectivelr, deployed, provid-
-. consistent thermal performance, the annular gap
- -,r-rghout the assembly must be r-rniform. In this
:.ance , it is important that the rnanufacturing toler-
-.-,-eS of the pipe and bends are controlled closely.
after bending also need to be maintained following heat
treatment. For the inner clad bends, a full body quench
and temper (QT) heat treatment is applied at the SMGB
bending mill to guarantee homogenized material prop-
erties for the bends, fulfilling mechanical and corrosion
requrrements.
HP I HT mqleriql properties for pipe-in-pipe
Additional material complexities also have to be over-
come. Generally inHP / FIT lines, there are challenges
because of corrosion, low temperature toughness, and
strength. These parameters require careful material
selection to maintain the balance of properties from the
outset throush to bend production.

Steel pipe End bend mqnufqcture

- . ie ther with Tata Steel, Eisenbau Krimer (EBK)
, -,:1 the pipe bending plant of Salzgitter Mannesmann
.-',,bblech (SMGB) have developed a series of controls,
- :h-tding a process and measurement system, to ensure
bend dimensions are controlled closely and mating
:rlclS can be produced, matched. and paired so the
, -)st accurate assemblv is produced.
Xrl respect to the process-related thinning in the extra-
s of the hot induction bends, the wall thickness for
-c jnner and outer mother pipes was increased accord-
-:h. To match precisely, the mother pipes have been
-rnufactured with the same ID as the riser pipes.
EBK supplies Tata Steel with mother pipe, which has
rterial properties that allow formation through hot
-luction benditg. The main material challenges are
-llsure the mechanical properties are suitable after
- lcling. Therefore SMGB is taking responsibility for

-e chemical design of the prematerial. This also involves

-- consideration of a series of heat treatment and form-
- j processes. Eisenbau Kramer uses
a multipass welding
- rcess and steel plate from premium mills in Europe.
The manufacturing process at EBK generates pipe
- rite closest dimensional control through a series of
lcl-forming and sizing operations such as external
. -ibration.
\t the SMGB pipe bending plant, these special mother
res are bent by hot induction bending. Heat is applied
-: (llrgh electrical induction to the mother pipe materi-
s. and the pipe is slowly formed, giving the correct
-: llnetry. In most pipeline applications, the critical
-rne nsions are the positions and attitudes of the end,s
- rhe bends (center-to-end dimension) maintaining
- overall geometry of the pipeline.
F{orvever, with pipe-in-pipe bends, it is important that
-e bend radius is accurately controlled to ensure the
-;, bends can be integrated. The precise dimensions
Two l6-in. clqd bends qte illuminqled in lhe quenching tonk
ofter quslenitizqtion qt q pipe bending mill.
Thermal stresses need to be managed as the loads are
shared between inner and outer pipe. In addition, insu-
lation can lead to extreme temperature being retained
in the pipe materials duritg operation and shutdown
that can form challenging conditions for conventional
steel products.
HP /HT well environments present some of the most
challenging and technologically demanding conditions
for field developments, not least because the properties
in each reserve present significant challenges in terms
of material selection and design.
Tata Steel and its supply partners have expanded capa-
bilities further with the design and creation of cost-effec-
tive insulated pipe-in-pipe bends for risers and spools -
once considered too difficult to accomplish.

IFrnag.com I Novenrber 20ll 63


From surlqce to seqfloor
Operotors ore using 'subseo foctories'to move processing from topsides to
the seobed for greenfield ond brownfield proiects.
h" vision of "subsea factories" on seabeds around the
T
I rvorld is one that is slowly becomirg reality. Although
the jigsaw of competing technologies needed to give an
operator a field development toolbox it can work with is
complicated, it is now increasingly achievable.
The importance of having such options at their dis-
posal - whether for subsea separation, boosting, or com-
pression - clear\y is recognized by all the industry's
n4jor players.
The rewards can be dramatic when the business case
is right. It is generally accepted that boosted wet tree
der,elopments can deliver between 5% and 20% higher
recovery rates than dty tree developments, for example.
Statoil has made no secret of its goals for advancitg
sr,rbsea processing technologies to improve recovery
tr om existing fields. On its Gullfaks South field, the
company has worked with Framo Engineering since
l{l08 developing technology for compressing wet gas on
,iire seabed. The field's current recovery rate is already
62%, and the combination of subsea compression and
conventional low-pressure production in later phases
i: 'q cor-rld lift the total recovery rate to an outstanding 74%,
accordirg to Statoil, which would increase production
D) 106 Bcf (3 Bcm) of gas - an additional 6%.
The standard industry solution has been to supply
r-ornpression from a platform or onshore, but the closer
: (lrnpression is placed to a well, the more gas can be
=rtr acted. That's why companies like Statoil want
to place
-ire compressor on the seabed nearer to those wells.
I : ''ri!_: 1r' i: '
igz-4
An orlisl's rendering of lhe Snorre, Vigdis, qnd Tordis field oper-
otions. (lmoge courtesy of Stoioil)
E.Pmnag.com I Novernber 201I
OPTIMIZAIICN
At the recent OTC Brasil show in Rio deJaneiro, the
company stressed in a presentation that it sees subsea
processing very much as an enabling technology for
both greenfield projects (mainly those in northern, Arc-
tic, and deepwater areas) and brownfield developments
that lrr..'y otherwise be abandoned without being
exploited to the maximum. New technology develop-
ment remains the k.y to openitig the door to innovative
ways of applying subsea processing.
Accordirg to Simon Davies, Statoil project leader for
subsea technology and operations, the vision of a "sub-
sea factory" could drive the application of more sophis-
ticated gas processing on the seabed (gas sweetening
and gas dehydration). Longer and more remote step-
outs are driving interest in developing local, potentially
renewable power generation concepts, he added.
Pumping and compression technology also will con-
tinue to evolve, Davies said, with more robust and sim-
plified systems becomitg available that are capable of
greater pressure boost while handling liquids without
the need for upstream scrubbing. Separation systems
will become more sophisticated, and new materials -
including nanotechnology - also will have an increasing
role in tomorrow's systems.
As the industry finds and develops oil and gas reserves
in deeper, more rernote, and harsher environments, the
technological challenges, qualification requirements,
and technical risks of deplopng subsea processing will
increase, Davies said.
"However, the business upsides will also increase, and
there will almost certainly be areas where
subsea processing becomes an
enabling technology, without
which fields cannot be profitably
developed," he concluded.
29
 SAND/WATER
MANAGEMENT
Managing sand through flow cont
in the modern completion
Operotors qre continuolly seorching for improved wqys of working smorter ond rnc';
efficiently while still enhoncing production.
A k"y question in the drive for enhanced production is
f\ how best to control and. manage sand. Controlling
the flow of unconsolidated sand into the well is one of the
most critical challenges in a:ny sand face completion. The
failure to address it correctly can have a significant impact
on productivitp well life, completion equipment life, and
safety through the erosion of surface equipment as well as
the environmental and financial impact of disposing of
large quantities of sand.
lnflow conlrol devices con be instqlled qs q stqndqlone oplion
or in conjunction with q sqnd screen such qs lhe FloMqx Dulch
Weqve sqnd conlrol screen. (lmoges courtesy of Tendeko)
In unconsolidated formations, high florv rates and draw-
down pressures, pressure depletion. and \rater production
trigger sand production. Besides prematurelv killing r,r'ell
production, excessive sand production can cause erosion
and the blockage of dolrrhole hardrr-are. irhich can dam-
age or disable downhole and surface e quipnent.
Drilling technology has adr-anced to sr-rch ail e\tent drat
horizontal and multilateral rvells are no\r the norlll. rrith
z6
greater reservoir penetrations and lorver Ci.,, . l
sures. This increased length and une\ren pI ri: t
along the well bore has resulted in an incrr.-:->:
control issues such as installation risk due ir,-, : I t''
and water influx due to reservoir heteroeen-i- --:
Conlrolling the sqnd
The first step in any sand control applic?ir-,--
detailed exploration of the characterisuc-r r:, --
tion. There arevarious methods used to ie :.-
optimum sand control methods for each',.;o-' I ,
the formation sand grain size is essential t,-, -,--
selection, and laboratory technolos, is tr-.e*-i -. i'
lish the most suitable sand control metitoi
Traditional completion methods that zli*--,, :;,. "
reservoirs to be exploited often dramaticirnl"^ -:'
duction efficiency and are being replaced t-,', -: Ll
technologies that keep formation sand in pr*. - ,L
unduly restricting productivity.
Most options for completing sand-prone r-E:: '
physical restraint of sand misration. The-se r-- - '
o Resin injection, where a resin is injecte ,r. -: ilr r'"
mation to cement the sand grains irz ,\rri,,,
o Gravel pack, where a gravel slurrv in a *,.._- -r'
is pumped into the annular space ber,,n, r,': - ;
tzed sand screen and the open hole . crrJ; - r*
lar filter;
o Standalone screens, which are simple il---r.-,- , l, ,
suited for uniform formations, [picali.. , ]i
formity coefficient is calculated at less rlr-.'.- ri,
o Inflow control device (ICD) screens. Cr:,,
reduce or delay an influx of water br-rt -,,"-- -- ; i,
sand control benefits such as reducinE
'r . r,.l
to near zero.
Go with the flow
More recently, great emphasis has been pla; o " l
itg production by using ICDs in conjlurcn(: - - '
screen technologies. This Qpe of completic,,-- : i, r
been most prominent in the Middle East ar--,- ' i
br-rt is nou- gaining greater recognition elser,, r ;
May 2012
 SAND/WATER
MANAGEMENT

Passive ICDs are used to enhance the performance of installing ICDs, a predetermined pressure dru- : ': 'rr"'

horizontal wells in unfavorable environments such as created between the reservoir and the cornpie:
nonuniform permeability and/ or pressure along horizon- This choking effect creates a back pressllre c'rl --- -
tal sections. The advent of passive ICD technology has dra- quality sections of the reservoir, allowing tighl-: *l: l

matically improved well productivity and wellbore cleanup, to contribute and even out the well's inflo\\-'DI- :- '
resulting in increased recovery and its associated benefits. will result in better coning control, therefore nl-., rr ,-

An ICD is deployed as a part of a well's completion to water breakthrough.

create an evenly distributed flow profile along a segmented AdCitionally, the FloCheck valve allott's for t'-' u '

producing zone. Each ICD placed along the zone creates a down capability without the need to deplor ar-- --
locahzed restriction to flow that is predetermined during string, the ability to set liner hanger/packers ''r-- l

the completion design. This restricted flow creates an addi- ical packers simultaneously against the valr-e- l- - lrr\

tional pressure drop, which balances the wellbore pressure control, and the ability to pressure-test the ttr-ll- ' -:-; *
drop. The resultant evenly distributed flow profile can out setting arry additional packers.
reduce water or gas coning and sand production and solve This has enabled ICD completions to be ils -;* '
other drawdovrn-relate d production problems. ing periods of high well losses without harinq ' I ' ' ;';;

Standalone ICDs canbe spaced throughout the comple- loss control material.
tion liner adjacent to the production or injection reservoir. The FloCheck valve also is a convergence 'i.,- l$'tti

They can be placed on everyjoint or run in combination basedonSeVeralimportantlessonslearnedi..-_-.

with btankjoints to provide the desired well compartmen- decade of ICD installations:
tahzatron and inflow profile. c DeploFng inner strings is sometimes lllcii- *- ' i,,

A well-designed ICD completion assisted by wellbore poor hole conditions;

hydraulic modeling calr promote production from the o Low bottomhole pressure can cause difi=e :o - :"'

entire length of the lateral and mitigate the effect of the irg due to inability to circulate;
severe pressure gradients, eliminate cross-flows existing in o Low bottomhole pressure can lead to mtir--:

openhole completions and, in certain cases, significant$ with inner strings to set mechanical pacli.:'
reduce rvater cut. o Inner strings take time to run and Call itrlo:l =.,, *'

ICD technology comes in a variety of modes: fixed, and stiffness; and

adjustable, and with shut-off capabilities in conjunction o Fluid loss during running of upper comT-'i-

with sliding sleeve technology. cult and cost$ to control.

-
Tendeka's ICDs can be installed as a standalone option The valve allows for circulation to the bott*-:-- l',ll

or in conjunction with a sandscreen in a FloRight ICD. By an inner string, permits the setting of mecirat--- -," ,, I

without an inner string, enables the spottinE - - - ' ,,';

and spacers prior to pulli^g out, and proriCe: -- -

control while running upper completion.

When used with ICD technology, FloCheci" -- 'n'-
the nozzIe, thus preventing arry fluid loss i'-1u1" -- ,. Iri
hole. Once production is initiated, the ball nt": -

off seat and the cage is shortly eroded on flt-rr,' :.*

both production and injection.
The company's ICDs achieve an even, cc)lls-!:: I

of fluid along each interval throughout the c --- -I l lll

string, improving performance, efficiencr-. ar- i : ' ,,

tion. Combined with a sand screen in an tDlt - l--r

reservoir, the reservoir fluid passes from the : - :- , li

through the screen and into the flow chaml-n": ' ' r.
is regulated by the ICD orifice. Along uith um-':"-
pressure drops in the production zo:ne are F;;.'l- r' ,

ing a more efficient completion.

Tendekq's FloCheck vqlve qllows for circulqtion to the boftom with-
oul qn inner slring. Once production is initiqted, fh€ bolt simply World firsl in Gulf of Mexico
comes otf-seql. Tendeka recentV d.ployed the world's first s[-r: -

78 May 20Lz

in a sandstone reservoir in the Gulf of Mexico
5r\-erely
-1 --/ depleted
---I- reservoir with difficult
hu*r'' : nditions, the well was planned as a reentry out
- passive inflow control devices to manage inflow from two
":ner
,l**-1l- rvith a 4Yt-tn openhole, which negated the
:*i'entional technologies. Offset wells with sand
i :-lrltliprnent installed experienced very high com-
l:t .o--n and used a variety of high-rate water packs,
and expandable screens.
llti-,r-."
. txpan\,'s solution was to provide inflow control
: ,:rJ sl ellable packers, which were installed in a 4]/a-
l*:- -'l'e section of the well. Coarse metal mesh sand
utrs (T e Lrsed to minimize the plugging of sand and
-nn
un -:rrq rrell flowback, and the swellable packers were
luirr*- n=leerre design, which were simple to deploy and
i, -:rsrall. The new FloRight2%-rn ultra slim hole
-*::ri s\stem was used across the 170-rn (560-ft) zone
rtrr,--r of rnore than 4,000 m (13,125 ft).
- - D rtechnology used was based on a recent success-
-,penhole reentry completion deployed by the
:{om I May 2Ol2
SAND/WATER
MANAGEMENT
company in the Middle East to manage water rn an open-
hole multilateral horizontal oil-producing well. That project
was another world first in that it allowed the deployrnent of
lateral wells connected to the mother bore.
The carbonate well had reache d 50% water cul Limited
success was achieved with plugging it back to minimize
water production, so it was decided to carry out a workover
and install the ICDs to passively control inflow from the
laterals, uniformly produce from the mother bore, and
reduce the potential for cross-flow between the laterals.
Fourteen Tendeka FloMatik passive ICDs and six
swellable packers were installed to compartmentalize the
reservoir, and numerous wellbore hydraulic simulation
runs were undertaken to match flow and pressure profiles.
The project saw the ICDs create proportionate inflow
along the well and passively control influx from the later-
als with no cross-flow or packer leaks. A rate of 4,100 b/ d
of oil with }Vo water cut was achieved, compared to 1,500
b/ d before the workover.
il
r
 SAND/WATER
MANAGEMENT
WEA technique saves time, money
A new multispecies effluent test encomposses the ronge of responses
obtoined from higher order tests.
Th. OSPAR Commission, the mechanism by which 15
I governments of the western coasts and catchments of
Europe cooperate to protect the marine environment of
the northeast Atlantic, has been considering a risk-based
approach to the monitoring of produced water dis-
charges. It seems likely an approach using whole effluent
assessment (WEA) alongside a single substance approach
could be introduced in the near future. The essential ele-
ment of \AIEA is the application of testing to a sample of
the whole effluent rather than individual substances
known to be within it.
According to OSPAR's2007 "Practical Guidance Docu-
ment on Whole Effluent Asessment," the added value of
WEA is greatest in complex effluerm, which contain mix-
tures of chemicals or require very detailed process-specific
knowledg. to allow characterrzatron. Produced water would
seem to fall into that category, as it consists of both natu-
rally occurring and added chemicals, which can include
biocides, defoamers, or scale and corrosion inhibitors, and
its composition varies depending on location, formation
t1pe, and stage of production. Therefore, aWEA approach
to produced water testing can have the potential benefit of
providing a measurement of not only the effects of sub-
stances known to be present but also unknown substances
as well as the combined effects of all components.
A new qpproqch
The !\IEA approach involves using biological tests to
determine persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity
(PBT:criteria), and tests commonly applied to marine sys-
tems are based on the use of single species from different
trophic levels. For example, in the UK the Offshore
Chemical Notification Scheme requests ecotoxicity data
for offshore chemical products from an alga e (Skeletonema
costatum), a crustacean (Acartict tonsa)and a fish species
(e.g. Scophthalmus maximus). The bacteria I'ibro flsheri
also is commonly used as a single species test.
Researchers at the UK-based compan)- NCIIIB Ltd.
have taken a new approach in der-eloping rrhat tL")
believe to be the only multispecies \\L\ tesl\ currendr-
available. The Microbial Arrav for Todc Risk \sessment
80
tests, MARA and LumiMARA, are based 6n d1c r-:',: I
microbial species to assess toxicity, and work to ai.;. . - ,,r,
cates that results obtained from these tests encLilTt-:;- -
range of responses obtained from more costlr al-- - - lr '-
consumirg higher order tests.
The company was formed 30 years ago to mzulaa: ' '
IJK's National Collection of Industrial Food anC lv[:-"-l rrr-
Bacteria. It has since growrr to offering a range r-,f - - : lrllr
analysis and microbiological services to industr \ >r - - I '
including oil and gas and houses the biggest ret-e:t-
collection of industrially and environmentallr- ld.,.-', - ri'
microorganisrns in the IJK. There are approtirlr;*" - s
strains in the collection, which have been isolate; -. rlrrl ldl
wide variety of environmental locations and Soun-i:': ' ri
as the gills of marine fish and hydrothermal r-enrs ) rlilr""
of these bacterra are regularly supplied to indr.LSE- : r
use in antibiotic production, while others cotrlC v-:. '
unique properties and commercial potential tha: ---r"
not yet been realized.
NCIMB used strains from the collection to Ce-, : r:: Tr
MARA test. The microorganisms used were car e:', --'
selected to cover a wide genetic diversity and pT,,- --, r
spectrum of sensitivities to different compoltellb r - rr q
duced water.
The MARA test comprises 10 bacterial species ,
yeast. A serial dilution of the effluent is prepzr t*1 ;r itllli-tfill
This LumiMARA plqte imoge wqs coplured qfter 30 minriuunes iltr
q
exposure lo two-fold dilution series of somple. The
lhe percenloge of inhibilion of bioluminescence is comntpwnuna
ogoinsl the conlrol row contqining no somple. (lmog,es
of NCIMB trd.)
May 20LZ I Eh"ary"
 SAND/WATER
MANAGEMENT
to microbial growth media in a microtiter plate, and inoc-
ulated with the array of microorganisms. The plate is
incubated for 18 hours at 30"C (86'F), with the addition
of a redox dy" that allows assessment of the amount of
growth, and scanned. The response of the bacteria can
range from no inhibition of growth to no growth, with
varying degrees of growth inhibition in between. The
data are imported to image analysis software and plotted;
different strains will respond differently to different dilu-
tions of the effluent, so a toxicity rating for each strain
car' be calculated and used to create a toxicity profile for
the effluent.
LumiMARA employs 11 naturally bioluminescent bacte-
ria from a variety of habitats, including nine marine and
two freshwater species. Bioluminescent bacteria emit light
as a result of a biochemical reaction. \Arhen these bacteria
are exposed to toxins, their luminescence is inhibited,
and reduction of light output can be used as a rapid and
direct measurement of toxicity. Different dilutions of the
effluent sample are added to a plate containirg the 11
82
Terry Dondo, MARA R&D, qnd Emmq MqcGill, Oilfield Ser,u, loss,,
exqmine lhe onolysis of q MARA plote using ihe MARA soliii'uu*rlr"nh
bioluminescent strains. The plate is incubated t': r -
utes and read using a luminometer, and resttlm a: -
to calculate a toxicity rating (for both tests an E[:
is calculated for each of the species, i.e. the conr f,-- "-
of toxicant which induces a response halfir.ar- be t:, = -
baseline and maximum) . Combined integrated r- --
tion of all 1 1 species provides a unique toxiciq p r :-
the effluent being tested.
North Seq cqse study
Both MARA and LumiMARA have been tested
mpm*ntiv*.**nr/silfiefid * fra*Jine. co m
MOMHNT E
May 2012 | EPmlag
 SAND/WATER
MANAGEMENT
duced water samples from 15 North Sea oil and gas instal-
lations, alongside established algae (Skeletonema costatum)
and crustacean (Acartia tonsa) single species tests, as part
of a wider coordinated study to assess the role of WEA in
a risk-based approach to produced water monitoring. The
offshore installations sampled included a mixture of oil
and gas producers as well as early and late stages of pro-
duction and high and low water cut.
The microbes, the algae, and the crustacean used in the
test all showed different degrees of sensitivity to the differ-
ent produced water samples, but for all of the produced
water samples tested, the sensitivity of the algae and crus-
tacean fell within the range of responses shown by the dif-
ferent microbial species. In other words, it appears that
tests using a genetically diverse group of microorganisms
can give results that are indicative of the response of the
wider ecosystem. As higher order testing can take up to
three days, the results suggest that multispecies microbial
tests like MARA and LumiMARA can offer a fast, low-cost
method for the WEA toolbox that could potentially be
84
used as an initial screenirg test before moving on -
itg that uses higher order organisms such as cnrs-L-1. -
and fish.
AdditionEl benefits
The multispecies microbial approach to WF_-\ als,_, _ --:
number of additional benefits and uses. The gror,,-r-,
of the different microbial species in the presence - ---
ent dilutions can be used to produce a dendograir- ,-
ing unknown chemicals to standards and can prc,-, -- -
insight into the mode of toxic action. The fingen-rr---- -:
duced from the multispecies tests are ideal tools ft- 1 -.-
ing comparisons to be made between samples, 1o,:;:
and time points as well as in response to chemicai r:-.
ments. The tests also can be used to detect subCe - - -
within the toxicity profile of samples, making Cte r-- :
abletoolintermsofidentifyinganyuneXpectedc---.,_
in composition of the produced water before dxei '- .
a bigger problem and for monitoring the effecur-e r--:" '
otherwise of a:ny remedial steps taken.
May 2012 | EP rrr;a !
 OFFSHORE
IOR/EOR
Subsea gas compression
to boost recovety rates
The introduction of subseo gos compression technology hos been one of the biggest
offshore stories of 2012 so for, representing o technologicol leop forword by the upstreom
industry thot could hold huge potentiol for further improving field recovery rotes.
Th" queue of gas compresslon projects being formed
I by Statoil as it seeks to meet the Nc rwegtan govern-
ment's demands to further enhance production and
recovery rates from the country's continental shelf is
growing all the time.
The company is the first to admit that seabed com-
pressron represents a major technological leap into the
future for the E &P industry. But it is a milestone that
has long been a target for the operator as it stretches the
limits in its efforts to improve already tmpresslve recov-
ery rates from its gas fields.
The reasons for developing subsea gas compressron
technologies are as follows, according to the company:
. Gas fields require boosting of the reservoir flow as
reservorr pressure depletes;
o Subsea gas compression replaces the need for an off-
shore piatform or onshore compression facrhLy;
[ullfaks fiEld l*y aui
The Gullfqks project otfshore Norwoy is Slotoil's second lorgesl
subseq gqs compression project. According to lhe compon%
seobed gqs compression is o key elemenl iowqrd estqblishing the
reolity of q lrue 'subseq foclory.' (lmoges coudesy of Stqtoil ASA)
78
o It offers a cost-effective development solution (capes
. It reduces operational costs (opex);
. It is advantageous to place the compressor close to
the well;
. Production
is increased and accelerated;
'nililil#: are reduced through lower enersr.
. There are no emissions or disposals to sea; and
. The process is safer due to unmanned operation.
It is for the above reasons that Statoil has been at the
forefront of subsea developments for decades, particr-r-
larly in the area of subsea processing where it is ackno",n'.-
edged as a world-leader. Its historical track record is
impressive, as the following milestones in subsea pro-
cessing advances illustrate :
. Hydrocarbon boosting on the Lufeng field offshort
China;
. Separation at the Troll pilot project and separatior-
and boosting at the Tordis project, both offshore
Norway;
. Raw seawater injection at the Norwegian Tyrihans
development; and
o Compression at the Gullfakr, Argurd, and Ormen
Lange pilot projects offshore Norway.
This year the company has managed to achieve 10 \'e r-':
of operation on the seabed for its Troll pilot project. ccilr-
cept selection approved for Gullfaks subsea compressit,'r--
final investment decision made on Asgard subsea com-
pression, and installation of the Ormen Lange field sut'
sea compression pilot (at the operator's test pit in
Nyhamna, Norwvf, for production operator Shell).
Asgord, Gulfoksn qnd Ormen Longe
Statoil's first subsea gas compression project to boost pr---
dr-rction rvhen need.ed will be on the Asgard. field., rr-her r -.
rrill have fivo massive 11.5-MW compressors placed lreal
the rvells to produce enough pressure to push the gas : -
the field's platform as natural pressure declines. The r,I.--
cial plan for development and operation was officiailr
appro\ ed br the Norwegian government in April.
August 2Ol2 | EPmag, cc tr"
 OFFSHORI
IOR/ECR
But the company's Gullfaks and Ormen Lange pilot
projects also will see the technolos'used, with the com-
pany's Gullfaks South project in particular set to benefit
most in the short-term.
This field has already achieved an extremely impres-
sive recovery rate of 62%,but Statoil has said the combi-
nation of subsea wet gas compression and conventional
low-pressure production in later phases could eventually
lift the total recove ry rate to 7 4%. This equates to what
would be around 3 Bcm of increased gas production (an
additional 6% of the field's reserves in the ground).
Eqch of the two Gullfoks South 5 MW wel gqs compressors will
be locqted by ihe 'L' qnd 'M'lemploles on lhe seobed qnd hqn-
dle I0 MMcm I d ol gqs. The technology will help increqse recov'
ery from lhe field by 22 MMboe (o 4"/" rise).
Statoil and partner Petoro will have to invest around
US $490 million in this technology for Gullfaks South,
with the aim of completing it in 2015 (the same year as
planned. for the completion of its Asgard gas compres-
sion project) to extend the Gullfaks field's production
plateau. The main Gullfaks field itself began producing
26 years ago.
The natural pressure in the Brent reservoir on the Gull-
faks South field will be decreasing considerably by 2015, it
is estimated, which is when the compression project will
kick in. Although not quite on the same scale as Asgard,
the scale is still massive, involving fi,vo 5-megawatt (MW)
gas compressors installed in a subsea template in 135 m
(143 ft) water depth. Together thev rvill handle a flow rate
of 10 MMcrn/ d of gas. Thev lill be tied in to existing
templates and pipeline svstems aroLtnd 15 km (9 miles)
from the Gullfaks C platform facilin; rvhere power and
control modules will be integrated.
80
Schlumberger's Framo Engineering is carrying out
the engineeritg, procurement, and construction of the
compressor station, includitg the topsides power and
control systems for Gullfaks C.
Margareth Avrurn, Statoil executive vice president,
Technology, Projects, and Drilling, said in a press state-
ment, "Innovation and technology development are
essential to improved oil and gas recovery and extende cr
life for the fields on the Norwegian Continental Sheif
The development of subsea cornpression and processilL:
is a central part of Statoil's technology strategy for lons-
terrn production growth. "
The subseo fqctory
It is essentially also a central part of the company's lonq-
stated ambitions to achieve what it dubs the "subsea fac-
tory" by 2020, just five years after it achieves the platttre'-
startup of its subsea gas compression technology on
Asgard and Gullfaks South. Statoil wants to achieve all
the elements it needs, including subsea gas compre s-
sion, to be able to install subsea factories on the seabe c
in challenging frontier areas such as the Arctic (quickL'
being opened up offshore Norway in the Barents Sea t .,
well as in remote deepwater regions around the world
On top of this, the company also sees the applicatiorr
of subsea wet gas compression as a typical solution for
small and medium-sized fields on its continental shelf.
where it can downsrze what is a flexible concept and
apply it on both new and brownfield developmentS. \r-rl---
several such candidates already identified.
With seabed gas compression and the wider seabed
processing spectrum of technologies becomitg increas-
ingly viable, Statoil's subseafactory vision is driving it
inexorably toward the eventual application of more
sophisticated gas processing on the seafloor (gas s\feel-r--
irg and gas dehydration) and also toward the develop-
ment of local, potentially renewable power generatiotl
concepts.
As pumping and compression technologies contin rte
to evoh,e, more robust and simplified systems also rrrll
becont e avanlable that are capable of greater presstlre
boost u'hile handling liquids without the need for
upstream scrubbing. Separation systems will become
more sophisticated, and new materials - includitg 1la1--
otechnologr'- will play their part.
All these are seen by Statoil as technologies that call
enable it to achieve its goal of economically developirl.
fie1ds r-rsing its subsea factory concept by 2020, anC
pione ering rr'et gas compression projects like Gullfak-.
Sor-rth rrill be a rital proving ground on the road tort ar.-
that goa1"
August 20LZ I EPmagi,colri
 OFFSHORE
IOR/EOR
Mobile gas lift and well unloading
units combine best of both worlds
The gool of qll oil componies must be not only to find new reserves but to moximize
whqt they con extroct from existing moture ossets.
A common occurrence in mature oil fields around the
Aworld, is that many wells are no longer prod-ucitg.
This means these are either idle or producing next to no
oil, not only necessarily due to depleting reserves but also
because of declining reservoir pressure. Continuous
efforts are being made in the E&P sector to ensure incre-
mental production from these fields is optimtzed and the
maximum amount of recoverable oil extracted.
One innovation is being employed by Chevron on its
mature assets in the northern Pattani basin in the Gulf of
Thailand. The Benchamas field has 20 platforms and hun-
dreds of wells, with production processed on separate pro-
cessing platforms and oflloaded to the FSO Benchamas
Exptorer. Benchamas and its satellites have produced more
than 360 MMboe since first oil flowed in 1997.
An inevitable result on oil fields such as these is that
a high number of wells eventually lay idle or shut in
because their economics are not good enough to justi$z
the installation of a conventional gas lift compressor or
electrical submersible pump (ESP) to bring the well back
on production. Space and weight restrictions on many of
the existing wellhead platforms are other limiting factors.
Two qrtificiql lift techniques combined
Chewon and its partners have achieved a dramatrc
improvement in production levels in the field ateaby
combinitg two production enhancement methods for oil
wells into one system - mobile well unloaditg units with a
gas lift compressor system. It is the combination of these
two forms of artificial lift techniques acting simultaneously
that makes the system effective in mitigatitg the inherent
problem in many mature oil wells, which is the rapid
decline in reservoir pressure and increase in water pro-
duction leading to short well life. Both of these produc-
tion enhancement techniques are widely used in the
industry, but each has its own inherent challenges off-
shore, where cost and space are such limiting factors.
For gas lift compressors these factors are a big hurdle: a
typical gas lift compressor usuallv reqnires more than US
82
The FSO Benchomqs Explorer hqs been receiving produclion
from multiple plotforms on the Benchqmqs field in the Gulf ol
Thqilqnd since 1999,wiih oil produclion levels slill strong
becquse of Chevron's etforls to enhqnce lecovery rcles from
ils exisiing reservoirs. (Photo courtesy of Tqnker Pocific)
$2 million of investment and has a large topsides foot-
print, making it unattractive for low-cost operations such
as those in the Gulf of Thailand.
The well unloaditg unit and compressor (WUUC) sr s-
tem, however, has a smaller footprint offshore than pre\l-
ous portable compressors and is therefore much more
mobile. For example, each piece of equipmentweighs less
than 8 metric tons and can be lifted with standard plat-
form cranes.
Pilot test
In 2009, a small portable gas compressor was built after slr
months of studies and design work. The system began a
pilot test inJuly that year on the remote REX wellhead plai-
form on the Benchamas field in the 2,460-sq-km (950-sq-
mile ) BB / 32 block, where many wells had been shut in as
these no longer flowed hydrocarbons to surface naturallr
The svstem underwent a successful trial on the field.
allorring n ells to be subject to very low backpressure at srril.-
face u-hile also being gas-lifted using captured gas from
the unloading system that would otherwise be vented,
A three-phase separator and surge tank are incolporztf rr.
ro separare fluids from the production stream, with an irlle -
pressure as lorv as 30 psi. Liquids are pumped back into tht
procir,rction pipelin e atsystem pressure while the associate '
:
gas { arorind 2 MMcf/ d) is captured from the producion
August LOLZ I EPmag, corn
stream in a three-stage recipro cat- rate of more than 1,000 b/d of oil
ing compressor, compressed to riore than two years after the
approximately 1,100 psi, and \\I UC pilot system began, far
directed to a gas lift manifold that exceeditg expectations.
distributes the gas to four oil wells Cherron said the development
for injection into the annulus for of the \AUUC system has taken this
gas lifting. Using the pilot system, drilling project from a sub-eco-
F +r
ftis added 2,100 b/ d of incremen- u -J,-+ nomic program to a m{or success,
tal oil production from the wells, The Benchomqs field is locoted iinr tslo'cks B,8i 32 ond more than tripling the predrill
rr-hich can be both flowing to the B9A in the norlhern Pqtton[ tsosiirr ofiishcre Thoillqnd. re co\-erv estrmates.
\\UU separator (20 psi to 50 psi (Mqp courlesy of Ktis En'etgy') The system also now underpins
sr-rction pressure) and gas-lifted at tirture development drilling in this
dre same time, creating a closed-loop gas lift system. r- r. -:1-r:i lte accessing of reserves that other-
----,- . r'r-rraineC untapped because of poor fluid
Outstqnding resulls - - - -- l'ecor-eties, long distances from the
The production results and system reliability have beet-r - :::-r-. *'-e:lorlTi. and the economic constraints
outstanding, accorditg to Chewon. After two and a half -: - : :]irr:rnal gas lift compressor and/ or
\-earsof operation, the unit has had 97% reliabilitv and
added 903,000 bbl of incremental oil in total from the -- -:.- -,-- 1 e n-tiron mental benefit of the system
four wells. Those wells continue to produce at a combine cl i - ,,-- : :--\,'e nted the release of more than 1.5

EPrnag. corn I Augu st 2012 83

 OFFSHORE
IOR/EOR

Bcf of greenhouse gas that would otherwise have been
vented to the atmosphere.
System rnobility o key qspect
The.system's mobility also is a unique aspect, according to
the companf, because it is modular and carr be rigged up
or down in a single 12-hour shift offshore. This enables
the unit to service multiple wellhead platforms for maxi-
mum usage, supporting a low-cost "pay-as-you-go" rental
model for the equipment.
This is a vital aspect in the Gulf of Thailand where the
subsurface environment is highly complex and difficult to
image on seismic. Reservoir volumes and future produc-
tion rates are hard to predict, and designitg artificial lift
systems can be challenging. These subsurface factors
make the above business model more attractive by mini-
mizing financial risk and enabling flexibility to mobllize
the unit when required.
Its small footprint offshore (80 sq m or 861 sq ft) also
allows the flexibility to perform work activities such as
slickline and electric line simultaneously while operatirg
the unit. Again, this is said. to be critical by Chewon in off-
shore environments like the Gulf of Thailand where fre-
quent well interventions are required.
At a total operating cost during the pilot trial of
$7,000 /day, and based on the production gains achieved.
this equates to a total cost of ff7 /bbl over the pilot period.
making it a highly economic venture.
There are now three WUUC units operating on
Chewon's Gulf of Thailand oil fields, and numerous
additional candidate platforms will benefit from the
installation of such systems.
The \MUUC system has the potential to be applied in
multiple offshore locations globally, adding significant oi1
production and unlocking reserves while reducing green-
house gas emissions.
Editor's Note: Excerpts for this articl"e haue been taken from OTC
2012 FaFs, 23079 presented by Jarrad fuxilius, Tipparat
Wamanon, and Akshay Sahni of Chnron.

LA$T!
Relief Valve
No fluid irnpingement on the
seat, piston or seal.

Opens at a preci$e $et

retracting the piston to
shelter in rnitlisecond$.

Change the pin or pin set point

in less than a minute.

A pressure range from

500 psig to 15,000 psig

Over 1.200 servrce.

: 1,3. 7,+,1?.ieS,j" FAx 4*5.f*-t.i?4 ?

:..+ 5: - ilkl*fi#n:* trt"y"'*K F3:?&
=:-

84 August 2012 | EPmag.corn"

 OILFIELD
CHEMICALS

MEOR improves
oil and gas recovety
The use of microbes rother thon chemicols brings mony benefits.

TABIE l. Crude composition oflen chonges qfter lreotmeni rol' 3d

hours. (Doto courlesy of Sepcor)

icrobial enhanced oil recovery (MEOR) is the con-

cept of using microbiological technology in oil Untreoted 29.27% 47,6X",

reservoirs to improve the recovery of oil and gas trapped Treoted 22.91% 54.53'"
in the porous media of the formation. This technique of % Chqnge 287" decline 147" increo s:
using nature to improve oil and gas production is an old
and seldom-used technology. Through the 'B0s and '90s This treatment has many advantages over con\ e r--
several formulations were used in an attempt to reduce tional chemic al treating and hot oiling. Primarih . :: -
viscosity, paraffins, and asphaltenes. The results were use of microbes reduces downtime, treating the rc - -

mixed. Not every oil or gas well treated showed irnprove-
ment. This was primarily due to the nature of the
microbes used at tlrat time.
Microbial formulations of that period were simply not
robust enough to thrive and grow in the varying condi-
tions of the different oil and gas fields. Today this issue
has been solved through long-term research in the study
of cultures designed for survival in various crude and
well conditions. Microbes have been selected from a
variety of environments of hot sulfurous deposits, oil
cause of the problem by digesting long-chain hr Cr -:
bons while cleaving them into shorter molecules. 5---.
cell organisms proliferate and adapt quickly in the
presence of asphaltenes and long-chain waxy param-- '
while producing errryrrres, surfactants, alcohols. ar,, j
polysaccharides. The organisms are chosen to rriths -,
high temperatures and pressures and to survive ira r. -
ety of conditions, includirg changing hydrocarbon -
positions and acidities. This reduces downtime. rrc : -j
the root issue, impacts the long-term viability of thr - -

pits, underwater samples, river water, and sewage treat- has better economics, and is a sustainable gre en tec---
ment plants and cultured to produce the most robust nology that does not require hazardous chemical sr - --
strains that can survive in a multitude of environments. age or disposal.
Microbial formulations in 2012 are designed to survive
in a large range of temperatures, acrdtty, crude composi-
tion, and viscosities. Current microbial solutions are
proving to be consistent in improving well conditions
and production rates.

New formulEtions
These new formulations use a combination of
autotrophic, heterotrophic, aerobic, and anaerobic
microbes. Autotrophic bacteria use inorganic materials
as a source of nutrients, such as carbon dioxide and
nitrogen. Fleterotrophic bacteria met abohze organic
materials, such as hydrocarbons (saturated and unsatu-
rated), organic acids, and amines. Aerobic bacteria use
dissolved oxygen in the respiraton'process. Anaerobic
bacteria live in the absence of oxvgen by decomposing
chemical species containing ox\-gen, such as sulfate. TABLE 2. over o four-monih period in q wyoming oil field, pro,c'-ro:
carbon ate, phosph ate, and nirrates. tion increcsed 6,8% ofter lreqlmenl.

86 September 2012 | EPmag E rrs.

 OILFIELD
CHEMICALS

TABIE 3. MEOR cqused chonges in crude composilion qnd properlies in this

lest. than 100 ppm. Using specialrzed strains. c,--
spills, halogen-containing compounds. an,-:
TPH are controlled through the clearing _

68-450 A 497" 18% 18% hydrocarbons to smaller and smaller piece s

69-455 1trO/ Emulsions are broken by the strength o: --
B 417" tJ/o 1 67"
microbes in the oil /water interface, sllrfac.-,,
63-471 327" 277" 13"/"
production, and elimination of free ox\-q-r-
This happens through the reduction of si-"r.--
Applicqlion tension at the otl/water interface by surfactants. c,e ---' -

Administered downhole, the microbes are dispersed irg of the naphthenic acid chain by digestion, re Cr. -- ,-
throughout the well bore and mixed with the produced of inte rfacral tension between oil and water, anC ba r - -

fluids. As the regenerating biochemical multiplies, it res- ial ingestion of salt. This effect either reduces or rc . -

olubili zes crystallized paraffin / asphaltene molecules to
prevent costly deposition. Paraffin/ asphaltene also is
resolubilized in surface equipment by inhibitirg the for-
mation of deposits throughout the pumping system,
includirg flowlines, heaters, and storage tanks.
Changes to crude composition and properties are sig-
the need for costly demulsifiers in breaking tough r--
sions. The product rnay be used in oil/water separa:
weirs, or waste effluents or in a:ny water / oil-u,ate r -\.,-: .:
where emulsions are a problem.
Microbial technology's annual treating costs are 1 --
compared to a chemical treating program and prcrrl -

nificant after treatment rn 24 hours (Table 1) . Typical many additional benefits. It can be part of a gree n -rr-
gains in oil production through several test wells aver- sustainable prograrn with benefits of increasing pr'_ -.
aged a 25% tncrease in production over an untreated tion and extendirg the life of the wells.
well (Table 2).
Microbial treatment of crude oil results in significant
changes in composition and properties. The decrease in
the viscosity, asphalt content, and cloud point leads to
significant savings in production and pumping costs
(Table 3).
The polysaccharides produced during treatment and
colonizatrort end up coating metallic surfaces. This pro-
duces a protective film over metal surfaces, protecting
against corrosion. Water quality at knockouts went from
1,000 ppm with chemical treatmenrs to 98 ppm with
microbial treatments. Excess water was less than 10 ppm
total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), easily conforming
to Department of Environmental Quality discharge stan-
dards. Injection pressure was reduced by I0%, allowing
an additional 1,500 b/d of water to be reinjected. Grind-
outs at knockout went from 1.5% to 3 % to less than I7o.
Weight loss coupon measurement at knockout went
from 5.5 mils per year (-py, a measurement of lost
thickness due to corrosion) to 1.5 -py.
Microbes can be combined with chemical treating
programs for corrosion and optimized for maximum
protection. Though not compatible with quaternary
amines, they are very compatible rvith gluteraldehyde-
based chemicals.
Other benefits of MEOR include reducing HrS
through digestion, encapsulation. and conversion to
stable sulfur salts. In man\- cases. the effect is significant.
In test cases, HrS was reduced from 1,600 ppm to less

88 Septernber 2012 | EPmas ;: n

SURFACE SYSTEMS
& SOLUTIONS
COzcompression
solutions advance
The qpplicotion of new technology extends the reoch of CO, compression'
Tn enhanced oil recovery (E,OR) and carbon capture
Iuna storase (CCS), the trad.itional approach to CO,
compression has been to use catlng
.t'.'t
compressors, but recent inve aled this
technology has several limita the sig-
nificant restriction of Volume flows due to their rnechan-
ical design.
For this reason, centrifugal systems have become a
promisirg solution for future CO, projects. Centrifugal
compressors fall into one of two technology groups,
namely single-shaft centrifugals and multi-shaft integral-
gear centrifugals.
In EOR, lvhen water injection is used to push the
remainirg oil out of a reservoir, it leaves a significant
residue behind.. CO, flooding is a significantly more
effective method. Oil and CO, mix above a pressllre
known as rhe minimum miscibility pressure (MMP) . Canacla and encls at EnCana's \A/eyburn oil field. rr-1-i.'
At or above the MMB CO, acts as a solvent, sweepitg
the reservoir ancl leaving very little residue behind. At
pressures below the MMP, CO, also assists oil production
by srvelling the oil and reducing its viscclsitl'.
This technique also can be used in natural gas fle -' "
to recover ad,d.itional gas from exploited fields' Tjre
elimination of coo frorn the atmosphere is a rr-elcLrlr- :
side effect.
Gompression benchmqrk
In2006,MANDiese1&Turbodeliveredthethirdltt;...
an eight-stage integrally geared compressor for corlli- :'
irg CO, to 187 bar, a record achievement for this te rr-
ogy in the gasification ind,trstry. Two prototypes of tl-L-' !
tlpe compressor had been in continuous operatloll i
the same customer in North Dakota since 2001.
The clelivery consisted of a full package, inclr"rdin:
compressor core unit, driver, proCeSS gas coolers' ltit' -
oil system, process plplng and auxiliaries, and the T-
-
bolog control sYstem.
In this project, CO, is compressed to 187 bar auci ^.
into a 330-km (205-mile) pipeline that runs north ir-.
-
it is injectecl into the field. The results at \AreYbttrtr h:'
been spectacular. The field currently is producir-rs
28,000 b/ d of oil. This represents an 18,000 b/ d
The GO, lrom Dqklolq Gqsificotion Co. is tronspcfie':
lo the WeYburn field in Conccr;
 r - ?FACE SYSTEMS
1 SCLUTIONS

rncrease over the 10,000 b/ a that would be produced

rr-ithout the CO, flood.

Trqditionql qpproqch
The traditional approach to Co, compression has been
ro use high-speed reciprocating compressors, with the
rrain reasons being:
' Flexibility with regard to pressure ratio and capacrty
(if equipped with variable speed drive or valve
unloaders);
o Short delivery times;
. Lightweight skid-mounted units that can be relo-
cated at will; and
' Famiharrty of the field operators with these
machines and their suppliers.
By comparison, centrifugal compressors offer:
. Higher capacity volume flows;
. Superior efficiency;
. Oil-free compression;
' Higher speed that is betrer matched ro rhe high-
speed driver commonly used in the 10-40 MW Chollenges for offshore CO2 compression
range; and overall, for volume flows >L2 kg/s and pressures up to
o Extended intervals between overhauls.
250 bar, integral-gear compressors have a definite advan-
tages over reciprocating or supersonic technologies and
Cenlrifugol options inline centrifusals in most CO2 service. Inline compres-
\\'ithin the centrifugal compressor markets, there are sors require approximately twice the number of stases
nvo technologies, namely single-shaft (in line, between that integral-gear compressors require, leadirg to one
bearings) centrifugals and multi-shaft integral-gear cen- or two additional casings. Another advantage of integral-
trifugals, both of which have been manufactured by gear compressors is their higher efficiency, which they
\L\N and have been used in CO, service. deliver without addi tional maintenance requirements.
The company has come to the conclusion that, for For future offshore CO, compression systems to be
rnost high-flow onshore Co, applications, the multi- installed more regularly on platforms, FPSOs, and sub-
shaft integral-gear design offers higher efficiency. The seainstallations, several challenges will have to be over-
reasons include: come. These include space restrictions, yaw and roll on
t optimum impeller flow coefficient because opti- FPSOs, and a need for high reliability and very high
mum speed can be selected for each pair of pressure levels.
impellers; To date, most compressor manufacturers have pre-
. Axial in-flow to each stage; ferred to use inline barrel compression systems for off-
. The ability to use shrouded or unshrouded shore high-pressure CO, applications and in situations
impellers; rvhere the pressure is >250 bar. One example of the off-
o Smallhub/ tip ratio; shore installation of this type of compression system at
o Intercooling after each stage (impeller) ; these presslrre levels is on an FPSO that will be produc-
o External connection after each stage. rr-hich allorrs
ing offshoreBrazrl in a 550-bar COrcompression train"
more flexibility in selecting the pressure ler-el for the \\hile there has been some application of this technol-
dehydration system if applicable: og\- offshore. future research work will have to be done
o Practically no limit to the possible number of srages
to effectir-elv transfer experience from onshore CO, sys-
in one machine; and terns to the offshore environment and improve the exist-
. The ability to direct-drive b) a for,rr-po1e electric ing compressor design.
motor on the bull-gear or a stealll trirbine rln (lrf e
of the pinions. Includes excerpts -fro* OTC Brasil paper 22559.

E Prnag. corn I lanu ary 2012

63
 STIMULATION
TECHNOLOGY

letting technology
irnproves production
Hydrojetting odvonces improve SqudiAromco's gos well performonce.

timulating horizontally drilled producing

Q
tJ gas wells is a necessity for operatirg com-
panies as their output is regularly impacted
by either drillirg damage or lower than
expected reservoir qualiry. Stimulation, how-
ever, presents a considerable challenge as
wellbore accessibility is difficult in wells
drilled in deeper formations with relatively
low permeability and HP /HT characteristics.
Nternative techniques, based on hydrajet-
ting technology, have been applied by Saudi
Aramco on a number of horizontal gas pro-
ducers. The results so far have encouraged
the company to push ahead with work on This chqrl shows q compqrison of hydroulic frqcluring treqlments in 'wuerllis mtffni
enhancing its ability to effectively stimulate similqr reservoir chorqcierisfics. Wells D, E, qnd F were perforoted with
complex and difficult-to-access multilateral tionql perforoting guns qnd chorges, while Wells A, B, qnd C were sloilliilec
completions. o hydrojetting lool. Well B is in both sides of the plol becquse, qs wos @rrsc 'h
Conventional perforating and stimulation cqse in Well D, no odequole injectivily wqs reqched during cqlibrcriiolr"l
methods such as bullheading acid at high lhe jobs were qborled. The plol shows lhqt in lhe slotled wells the h
pressure and rate conditions and performing were implemenled per design, while lhe opposile wqs lrue in oll of ttre
coiled tubing (CT) acid washes had nor been pedoroled wells. (lmoges courlesy of Squdi Aromco)
as successful as expected when applied in sin-
gle and dual-lateral completions.
This was not entirely surprisirg given the
difficulty of placing treatment fluids in tar-
geted zones needing stimulation; along
lengthy openhole horizontal completions;
and in the presence of thief zones, rvashouts,
and highly heterogeneous reservoir condi-
tions. The problems associated r,vrth initiating
and extendirg hydraulic fracturing treat-
ments in these wells, drilled in some of the
tightest formations and perforated lith con-
ventional methodologies, led to the search for
new methods of overcoming the high fractlrre
initiation pressure experienced.
Saudi Aramco decided to field tesr a hr-dra-
jetting tool for the first time in a verrical gas This chorl compores pre- ond posl-slimulqtion rqles qnd flowing wellill'rrrm
producer rvith reservoir characteristics similar sures for wells in which hydrojetting lechnology wqs used.

72 Septernber 20ll I EPui"srrg;'

l$

tr

tr STIMULATION
tr
TECHNOLOGY
ff

ffi

ffi

to other wells where attempts to perform proppan -

hydraulic fracturing treatments had resulted in prr---,-*

ture screenouts. It also was used to perform prop:r ."--
and acid stimulation treatments in a number of rrlr r:"-
performing vertical and horizontal openhole pr-*_*t. : '

fi
with excellent results.

Breqking new ground

il
HydraSetting itself is not a new technology - its ach-r*-- -rrr,,'.ri
began to be recognized and developed in the late l: l, .
The technology applies a high-velocity stream *-,, -l , I

carrying small abrasive particles to create slots alt-:--. r" rt

horizontal section of a well prior to performing p,r--:r rlrl

acid stimulation treatments. The acid is displaceC -- r'

zones most in need of stimulation, resulting in inl:: ' r

well productivity.
A typical bottomhole assembly run on CT and r,rsot .,iir
itg the operation comprises a hydrajetting tool. a LT rr,'
nector, a motor head assembly, an anchor to prevet . i- -,.,J
movement, a multicycle incremental tool to set nr-rlr_:.,
precisely on target, and ajetting sub with multrple r- :-"'ir.l
The jetting velocity of the type of tool used on Sr
Arabia's gas fields ranges from 6,100 m/sec ro 9.1_'_-
m/sec (20,000 ft/ sec to 30,000 ft/sec) and eXe rLS ; r " r, *
sure of approximately 4 million psi. The tool is des,<- ,r'r,
to withstand differential pressure greater than 1tJ. * r * ,,,i,

and has a temperature rating of about 177"C (35r_ 'F

Field triqls
In the first field trial, the hydru3etting technolos ,,,":.:
tested in a vertical exploration well drilled in a dej- " :,";.:r ir.

stone reservoir to a depth of more than 4,900 m ^'. i' ,ri

ft). The well required hydraulic fracturirg stimuxa: .

and had similar reservoir characteristics to other l'r-,-l

conventionally perforated wells. In the convenrior-.'- -
perforated wells, the hydraulic fracturirg attemplS ----L Lrr

be aborted when the maximum allowable dorrnht-,'-6 - ",*-

sure was reached either before initiating a fractLlre - I i;
screenirg out prematurely early into the treatmen:
A hydrajetting tool was used to create long large-,-:-"r
ter slots using an abrasivejetting slurry, which reCt:- -,
the fracture initiation pressure. The jetting-indr-rce ; , ,ii
achieved deep and clean penetration with a minin,:
crushed zone effect as the jetting slurry cut thror-t'-r:- " ,,
forrnation and circulated debris out through the C T
annnlus. A proppant hydraulic fracturirg treatrnei-- - , *
then performed. The well flowed at a post-fracrure -- r"
nercial gas rate and opened the door for further xtr - -- r u,,,

og) applications.
\fter this test, Saudi Aramco undertook another ---r,-'
on a highlv deviated well drilled into a tight sand-.r - :- -

74 September 201I I EPuaa$ *M.

 There is more

--' -,r a total measured depth of 4,560 m (14,960 The hydrajetting application also resulted in an esti-
, el1 \\-as perforated using conventionai perforat- mated 30% cost saving over the cost of perforating using
:ihead of a planned proppant fracturitg treat- conventional guns run on CT.
:- after conducting an injectivity test and
. -ire maximum allowable surface treatment Tbchnical information supplied courtesy of Saudi Aramco.
. : -l 12,000 psi at a maximum
--- rere of only 4bbl/rnin, the
:l ' -,b \ras aborted.
- -.11e tdng approach was used
: --rtelttion of overcoming the
:-- --,:lr,tced stress,
- -:,-rre Pressure effect, and
reducing the
Al I the right pieces in all the
- --: ',r ellbore communication
:-rr-oir. Eight zones were
-

:---,-L rhe planned proppant

".---
a :reatment was imple-
-:sr-rlting in a post-fracture
- 15 \IMcf/d.
:r:ing technology also was
- --- a highl;' slanted well com-
----. ch-ral casing strings. A
. . r irighly slanted cased gas
: - ! in Saudi Arabia have been
,- -1 r-rsing conventional perfo-
-- --rs rttn on wtreline or more
- -l CT. However, both
--,-s har-e proven challenging
: _,
,slr,r.grrireline, the most
--- rroblems encountered are Fugro Gravity & Magnetic $etvices.
- l',',idr the yo-yoing effect World's leading provider of potential field$ geolCIgic soXutions'
----rd bv the cable due to the
--- .ension changes found in
-rn{le or dogleg sections, At Fugro Gravity & Magnetic Services, we ensure that all the pieces of
your oil and gas exploration program fit per{ectly together with the most
---l l esult in stuck or experienced staff and the best solutions, such as:
- -able. In deep wells, the
-:ilrltot reach the targeted u FALCON'* - the world's highest resolution gravity data"
normally used. But this
r;-T is * MagGUBE'. - a new twlst on directional drilting accuracy.
. rme-consumi^g and costlY. * LCT SOFTWARH'* - 3D earth model simultaneous joint inversion.
- , fu a_letting approach was * DATA RICH - non-exclusive data and interpretations.
.--:e cl in Well K, a gas
:-- ilnlled with a total MD The difference is clear * enhancing the value of your
-- : 4 .570 m (15,000 ft) and seismic by providing a better geologic sclution and
ultirnately reducing risk. A per-fect fit.
- .-- -e angle . A27-rn (90-ft)
- -,le \\-as then slotted with a
- --u{ tool after completing 12
Acquisition * Prscessing . lnterpretatitln o $oftware . Nsn'Exclusive Data
- ::rEes in record time. A CT
, -i ',ras performed, and the well

production atan initial gas

-r-
- \I\Icfld with a flowing rvell-
, - llrrre of 2,500 psi.

I Septernber 2 0l I
*e4!l#

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 COMPRESSOR FIELD LOGSHEET
DATE : 14-Jun-12

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