HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT OF CHRISTIANITY

"But when the time had fully come, God sent his Son." - Paul, Galatians 4:4, c. 53 AD
"Through the instrumentality of the Romans, the world is at peace. As a result, we walk on the highways without fear, and
we sail wherever we want." - Irenaeus, Against Heresies 4.30.3, c. 180 AD

The Christian religion was born in Palestine, a small stretch of land on the eastern Mediterranean Sea. The
Jews considered Palestine their Promised Land, but because of its desirable location it had been ruled by a
succession of foreign powers for most of its history. Egypt and Assyria fought over it for centuries, then
Babylon conquered Assyria and Palestine with it. Next came the Persians led by Cyrus, who allowed the
Jews to return to Palestine from exile, then the Greeks under Alexander the Great around 400 BCE. Rome
took Jerusalem in 63 BCE, and Palestine was still under Roman rule at the time of Jesus' birth. Despite the
centuries of conflict in the region, Christianity developed in an atmosphere very conducive to the spread of
religion. The earliest Christians noticed this, affirming that God had sent his Son "in the fullness of time."
The Pax Romana (Roman Peace) initiated by Caesar Augustus quelled crime, allowed for the development
of roads throughout the Empire, and gave citizens the leisure to think about religious matters.

Christianity entered an environment already rich with religious diversity. First-century Roman Palestine
offered the ancient religion of Judaism, the political religion of the Roman state, the personal religion of
the mystery cults, and the intellectual and ethical schools of Greek philosophy.

Jewish Context of Christianity

The immediate religious context of Christianity was Judaism. Jesus, the apostles, and the earliest converts
to Christianity were Jews and their teachings were presented in a Jewish context. The Judaism of Jesus'
time was characterized by strict monotheism, a gradual shift from temple ritual to personal ethics,
restlessness under foreign domination, a strong sense of community, and expectations of the coming of a
messiah. Christianity began as a movement within Judaism at a period when the Jews had long been under
foreign influence and rule and had found in their religion (rather than in their politics or cultural
achievements) the linchpin of their community. In Palestinian Judaism the predominant note was
separation and exclusiveness.

Several Jewish groups had formed by the time of Christ that held varying views on religious authority,
certain theological issues, and the response to the Roman occupation. The Sadduccees were the most
conservative group. They rejected the Oral Torah (the Talmud and other Jewish tradition and commentary)
along with the doctrine of bodily resurrection, much of the beliefs about angels and demons held by other
groups, and the doctrine of predestination. They focused on the temple ritual that had been practiced for
centuries and tended to be on friendly terms with Roman authorities. The Pharisees acknowledged the
authority of both the Written and Oral Torah and focused on personal obedience of the Law over temple
ritual. Though given a bad reputation due to Jesus' rebukes in the New Testament, the Pharisees were
among the most observant and religious Jews of the time, and many were very pious. The Essenes were a
much smaller sect, but they have become well known since the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls that they
are believed to have authored. The Essenes were an apocalyptic and ascetic group that emphasized
extreme personal purity and remained separate from the rest of the Jewish community.

Various other small groups existed as well. Despite this diversity, however, the Judaism of Jesus' time was
essentially unified by a devotion to one God, adherence to the Bible, emphasis on both Temple and Law,
and eschatological hopes.
Pagan Context of Christianity
Also highly significant to the religious context of Christianity were the pagan religions and philosophies of
the Roman Empire. With the exception of Judaism, religion in the Greco-Roman world was marked by
syncretism - that is, the easy exchange and borrowing of ideas and rituals between religious groups - so
many of the pagan religions in existence in the time of Christ shared common characteristics with one
another. Nevertheless, distinct threads of pagan religious thought are clearly identifiable, the most
prominent being the cults of the Roman state, the mystery religions, and the schools of Greek philosophy.

Cults of the Roman State

The Roman state cults were adopted from the Eastern pattern of deifying emperors and honouring the
gods of individual cities. The cult of the emperor, which began with Augustus, was organized by the state
and used primarily to reinforce and test political loyalty. Statues of Augustus were erected and rituals were
developed to honour him, but the cult generated little religious feeling or personal belief.

The primary significance of the state cult for early Christianity was in its political uses, for many Christians
(and Jews) refused to offer a sacrifice in honour Caesar and were persecuted heavily for it. Although actual
personal belief in the divinity of Caesar was of little to no importance to Roman authorities, the
unwillingness of monotheists to go through the ritual motions was taken as evidence of disloyalty to the
Roman Empire.

Mystery Religions
The pagan mystery religions, named for their focus on secret knowledge and rituals available only to
initiates, met the need for personal religious devotion that the state cult could not. Mystery religions had
become quite widespread by the time of Christ, but their characteristics are not entirely known due to
their secretive nature and the lack of writings associated with them. What is known of the mystery
religions has primarily been deduced from artwork, remains of temples and other archaeological
discoveries. A variety of mystery religions were practiced throughout the Empire, but most of them held in
common a heavy element of secrecy, the use of syncretism in their belief and practice, and a focus on the
death and resurrection of a saviour-god.

Though some similarities are clear between these religions and Christianity (death and resurrection of a
god, a ceremonial meal, etc.), scholars differ as to the level of influence the mystery religions exerted on
early Christianity. Part of the difficulty is that the bulk of our knowledge of these pagan religions dates
from the second century onward, and the mystery religions may have been influenced by Christianity by
then. Also, the two religious movements flourished in the same cultural context, so it is possible their
similarities are best explained not by dependence but in terms of parallel development.

Greek Philosophy
Especially as Christianity expanded beyond Palestine, it also came into contact with Greek philosophy,
especially of the Platonic and Stoic varieties. Hellenistic thinking would become a significant influence on
Christian thought, for most of the early church fathers were Greek-speaking Gentiles who had been trained
in classical philosophy. Like the Hellenistic Jews before them, they believed classical philosophy to be
compatible with the ancient teachings of Semitic monotheism, and even more with the teachings of
Christianity.
 - http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/context

CHRISTIANITY’S HISTORIACAL CONTEXT

The Judaism that developed in the late fourth century B.C.E. in the wake of Alexander the Great
incorporated Greek cultural views, just as Jews have always been influenced by the countries in which we
live. Thus, we find in the centuries leading up to the Maccabean revolt in the second century B.C.E. an
increasing penetration of Greek thought within Jewish communities.  This synthesis of earlier Jewish
tradition and new ideas is called “Hellenism,” and it is in the crucible of Hellenism, supported by the
Roman Empire that gained control over Israel in 63 B.C.E., that Christianity was conceived.

Hellenistic Influences
We can see the influence of Hellenism in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. For
example, the Greek translation of Isaiah 7:14 mentions that a “virgin” would conceive a child who would be
called “Immanuel” (the Hebrew means “God with us”). This verse is cited in the New Testament’s Gospel
according to Matthew as being fulfilled by the birth of Jesus. Otherwise put, some of the attributes
accorded Jesus by his earliest followers make sense when seen in a Jewish, Greek-speaking context.
Actually, the underlying Hebrew is not “virgin,” but “young woman.”

By the early first century C.E., more than just Greek language had fully impacted Jewish life and thought in
Israel and the Western Diaspora. Retelling their traditional stories in Hellenistic and Roman terms, many
Jews began to think of their ancient heroes such as Moses and Abraham, as well as less well known figures
such as Enoch and Melchizedek, as divine men. Moses and Melchizedek were attributed miraculous births;
Abraham became known, along with prophets Elisha and Elijah, as a miracle worker; Enoch, transported
into heaven, took on the role of future judge of the world. The Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria
spoke of the manifestation of God on earth; he called this the “Logos” (Greek for “word”), which is the
same term some early Christians applied to Jesus (as in the opening words of the Gospel of John, “In the
beginning was the word”).

Wonder Workers & Messianic Figures

At the same time, Jewish wonder workers began to appear: Honi the Circle-drawer, who could make it rain;
Haninah ben Dosa, whose prayers could cure the sick. Accompanying this intensification of the miraculous
and marvellous was an increasing attention to the afterlife. The Pharisees promulgated the idea that
during the Messianic Age the dead would be raised; hundreds of Jews went into the Judean desert by the
caves of Qumran to await the final battle between the “sons of light” and the “sons of darkness” (as we
know from the Dead Sea Scrolls); a Jewish prophet named John (the Baptist) began to immerse fellow Jews
in the Jordan River as testimony to their having repented of their sins and in preparation for the coming
Messianic Age. (From the Greek term for immerse comes the term “baptize.”)

This period in Judaism not only witnessed speculation about the Messianic Age or the “world to come”–the
time when the prophetic vision of universal peace would arrive–it also saw the rise of several claimants to
be the inaugurator of that age. One first-century C.E. candidate, named Theudas, announced that a new
era had arrived (Rome executed him); another, called “the Egyptian,” proclaimed that the walls of
Jerusalem would fall (although he escaped, Rome killed many of his followers). In the early second century
C.E., Rabbi Akiba proclaimed the Jewish military leader, Bar Kokhba, the Messiah. (Rome killed them both).
That Jews in Israel might follow a visionary and a healer who spoke of the Kingdom of God should not be
unexpected; nor should that visionary’s execution by the Roman Empire.

Enter Jesus
It is also not surprising–it is in fact quite “Jewish”–that those who followed Jesus saw him as a wonder
worker, recognized that his birth signalled something special, and even believed that after his death he was
raised from the dead. If he was the Messiah, surely he would be raised. Jewish messianic belief at the time,
and even now, incorporated the idea that the Messianic Age is marked by the resurrection of the dead.
Although it has been argued that the disciples stole Jesus’ body and invented the resurrection (the Gospel
of Matthew states that “this story has been spread among the Jews to this day”), the followers of Jesus
were neither hypocrites nor charlatans. That someone would experience such a vision in these times is
hardly surprising, especially in cases of extreme stress. These visionaries lived then with a missionary zeal
and commitment to their tradition, a tradition that happened to be Judaism. This is why many of Jesus’
first followers believed that shortly after the crucifixion and his resurrection, there would be a general
resurrection of the dead. When this did not happen, a number of these Jews probably returned to wait for
the Messiah.

For the most part, among Jews, the mission in the name of the crucified and resurrected man from
Nazareth was a flop. The majority of Jews at that time and subsequently did not find a need for Jesus in
their lives: He filled no gap in their souls; he was not needed to take away their sins; he did not bring about
the Messianic Age; they believed in resurrection already. Yet among gentiles the movement took hold: It
offered the antiquity (in antiquity, “old” was “good”), morality, and community of Judaism, and it also
offered what Jews already had: a covenantal relationship with heaven that would lead to eternal life.

Pagan Polytheism?
Was that direction toward the gentile world one of pagan polytheism and idolatry? Christians, of course,
would say “no,” as would most historians of the early church. Granted, it is not incorrect to think of
Christianity as having adopted numerous pagan practices, from setting the date for the birth of Jesus–
December 25, the day dedicated to the ancient sun god–to the adoption of Yule logs, Christmas trees, and
Easter bunnies. But adaptation of cultural practices is an important way that religions develop; we might
think of Jewish non-scriptural traditions, from jelly donuts and latkes at Hanukkah, to hamantaschen at
Purim, to whatever the latest bar mitzvah fad is. Showing a shared good taste, Jews and Christians both
have eggs for our spring festivals (respectively, Passover and Easter).

Jewish Practices
In terms of its relationship to Jewish practice, the earliest Christian movement had at first only one sacred
Scripture, the Bible of the synagogue (Torah, Nevi’im, Ketuvim, or Torah, Prophets, and Writings).
However, rather than insisting that all gentiles who joined the new movement convert to Judaism, the
church after some debate concluded that this was unnecessary. Gentiles were not to be obligated to
perform any distinctly Jewish practice. Thus, gentile Christians were not bound by
circumcision, kashrut [dietary laws], etc. That decision itself, however, was quite kosher: Resident aliens in
Israel were not bound by these laws; the few scriptural statements about the “world to come” do not
indicate that gentiles must convert to Judaism.

Further, during the Hellenistic period, Judaism developed the idea of the Noahide Laws–seven laws given
to Noah and hence binding all humanity, not just Jews. Gentiles who followed these laws (prohibi tions of
murder, sexual sins, theft, idolatry, blasphemy, eating the limb from a living animal; the establishment of
courts of justice) were considered “righteous” (as today we have the category of the “righteous gentile”)
and accordingly were worthy of eternal life. Thus, gentiles in the church were required to conform to basic
moral precepts only.

Intercessors
As for polytheism, the earliest Christian texts, which were written by Jews (such as Saul of Tarsus, a
Pharisee who came to be known as St. Paul), do not encourage one to pray “to” Jesus. Rather, one prayed
“through” him to God (the Father). This is also the role of the Saints and the Virgin Mary in some church
teachings (most notably, the Roman Catholic Church). These figures are not “divine,” but are viewed as
having special intercessory powers.
The idea that the righteous have a special pipeline to God is not unknown in Judaism. Not only is it
anticipated in Second Maccabees, a similar system can be seen in Israel today, where the pious pray at the
tombs of Jewish “saints.” Jesus himself, in the so-called “Lord’s Prayer,” speaks only of prayer to “our
father, who is in heaven.” (Throughout my grade school years in the Massachusetts public school system,
children recited the “Lord’s Prayer” every morning. I had no idea this was a “Christian” prayer; there’s
nothing in it a Jew could not say.)

The Holy Spirit

As for the “Holy Spirit,” this is the Jewish ruah, spirit–or “wind” or “breath” to give a literal translation to
this Hebrew word–used in Genesis when God hovered over the face of the deep, according to Bereshit
(Genesis 1). The idea of the Spirit coupled with the concept of Wisdom, as found in books such as Proverbs,
coalesced into the Christian Holy Spirit (the Greek term for “spirit,” pneuma, can also mean “wind” or
“breath”; hence, pneumonia). Later on, when this Jewish movement intersected with Greek philosophical
thought and as its adherents attempted to explain how God the Father, Jesus the Son, and the Holy Spirit
were related, the doctrine of the “Trinity” developed.

- http://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/christianitys-historical-context/#