ST.

THERESE MARITIME TRAINING CENTER – COLLEGES

Tigbauan Site
Tan Pael, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines

Name: Yaoki O. Galaraga Course & Year: BSMT 2-Irreg

PRELIM RESEARCH TOPICS

1. The important of passage planning

Passage planning is a critical aspect of maritime navigation that involves the careful
consideration of various factors to ensure the safe and efficient movement of vessels from
one point to another. It is an essential process that helps mariners to identify potential
hazards, plan routes, and make informed decisions about navigation. The importance of
passage planning is that it helps reduce the risk of accidents at sea, protect human lives,
and safeguard the environment. A well-planned passage takes into account factors such as
weather conditions, currents, tides, vessel traffic, and navigational aids. This information is
used to determine the best course of action for a vessel's journey. Effective passage
planning requires collaboration between ship's officers and shore-based personnel who
work together to gather information and develop a comprehensive plan. The process
involves continuous monitoring and adjustment based on changing conditions. In addition to
ensuring safe navigation, passage planning also helps vessels comply with international
regulations such as SOLAS (Safety Of Life At Sea) and MARPOL (Marine Pollution). These
regulations require vessels to have detailed plans in place before embarking on a voyage.
Therefore, passage planning is an essential element in ensuring safe navigation at sea. It
requires careful consideration of various factors to minimize risks associated with maritime
transportation. Seafarers must prioritize this process as it can mean the difference between
a successful voyage and a catastrophic incident.

2. Stages of passage planning

Passage planning is a vital process that ensures the safety of a vessel and its crew.
It involves the preparation of a plan for a voyage, taking into account various factors such
as weather conditions, navigational hazards, and the availability of resources. The stages of
passage planning include appraisal, planning, execution, and monitoring.

1. Appraisal

The appraisal stage is considered the information-gathering stage. This is the

process of gathering all information relevant to the proposed passage, including
ascertaining risks and assessing its critical areas. In this stage, the ship’s captain will
discuss with the chief navigating officer (usually the Second Mate), as to how he intends
to sail to the destination port. This involves information extracted from publications as
well as those within the chart. An overall assessment of the intended voyage should be
made by the master, in consultation with the navigating officer and other deck officers
who will be involved, after all relevant information has been gathered. This appraisal will
provide the master and his bridge team with a clear and precise indication of all areas of
danger, and delineate the areas in which it will be possible to navigate safely taking into
account the calculated draught of the vessel and planned under-keel clearance. Bearing
in mind the condition of the vessel, his equipment and any other circumstances, a
balanced judgement of the margins of safety which must be allowed in the various
sections of the intended voyage can now be made, agreed and understood by all
concerned.

2. Planning

Once a full appraisal has been carried out the navigating officer carries out the
planning process which is acting on the master’s instructions. The detailed plan should
cover the whole voyage, from berth to berth, and include all waters where a pilot will be
on board. The plan should be completed and include all the relevant factors. The
appropriate charts should be marked clearly showing all areas of danger and the
intended track taking into account the margins of allowable error. Where appropriate,
due regard should be paid to the need for advanced warning to be given on one chart of
the existence of a navigational hazard immediately on transfer to the next. The planned
track should be plotted to clear hazards at as safe a distance as circumstances allow. A
longer route should always be accepted in preference to a shorter more hazardous
route. The possibility of main engine or steering gear breakdown at a critical moment
must not be overlooked.
 ST. THERESE MARITIME TRAINING CENTER – COLLEGES
Tigbauan Site
Tan Pael, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines

3. Execution

This stage entails the actual execution of the passage plan and the evaluation of
any emerging considerations when determining deviations from the plan during the
passage. Execution of the finalized the voyage plan should be carried out taking into
account all the factors. The Master should take into account any special circumstances
which may arise, such as changes in weather, which may require the plan to be
reviewed or altered.

4. Monitoring

Monitoring is a dynamic risk assessment and a continuous process of monitoring

the vessel’s progress along the pre-planned track. The officer of the watch, whenever in
any doubt as to the position of the vessel or the manner in which the voyage is
proceeding, should immediately call the master and, if necessary, take appropriate
action for the safety of the vessel. The performance of navigational equipment should be
checked prior to sailing, prior to entering restricted or hazardous waters and at regular
and frequent intervals at other times throughout the voyage. This stage is a very
important stage wherein all the deck officers contribute their part to execute the plan.
This calls for personal judgement, good seamanship and experience.

3. SOLAS Chapter V Reg. 19 and 34 IMO Resolution A. 893(21)

Regulation 19 - Carriage Requirements for Shipborne Navigational Systems and

Equipment

1 Application and requirements

Subject to the provisions of regulation 1.4:

1.1 Ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002 shall be fitted with navigational systems and equipment
which will fulfil the requirements prescribed in paragraphs 2.1 to 2.9.

1.2 Ships constructed before 1 July 2002 shall:

.1 subject to the provisions of paragraphs 1.2.2, 1.2.3 and 1.2.4, unless they comply fully with this
regulation, continue to be fitted with equipment which fulfils the requirements prescribed in
regulations V/11, V/12 and V/20 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974
in force prior to 1 July 2002;
.2 be fitted with the equipment or systems required in paragraph 2.1.6 not later than the first
survey* after 1 July 2002, at which time the radio direction-finding apparatus referred to in V/12(p)
of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 in force prior to 1 July 2002
shall no longer be required;.3 be fitted with the system required in paragraph 2.4 not later than
the dates specified in paragraphs 2.4.2 and 2.4.3; and
.4 be fitted with the system required in paragraph 2.2.3, as follows:
.1 passenger ships irrespective of size, not later than the first survey* after 1 January 2016;
.2 cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards, not later than the first survey* after 1
January 2016;
.3 cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 3,000 gross tonnage, not later
than the first survey* after 1 January 2017; and
.4 cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 500 gross tonnage, not later
than the first survey* after 1 January 2018.

The bridge navigational watch alarm system shall be in operation whenever the ship is underway at
sea.

The provisions of paragraph 2.2.4 shall also apply to ships constructed before 1 July 2002.
1.3 Administrations may exempt ships from the application of the requirement of paragraph
1.2.4 when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two years after the
implementation date specified in subparagraphs 1.2.4.1 to 1.2.4.4.

2 Shipborne navigational equipment and systems

2.1 All ships, irrespective of size, shall have:

.1 a properly adjusted standard magnetic compass, or other means, independent of any power
supply, to determine the ship's heading and display the reading at the main steering position;
.2 a pelorus or compass bearing device, or other means, independent of any power supply, to take
bearings over an arc of the horizon of 360°;
.3 means of correcting heading and bearings to true at all times;
.4 nautical charts and nautical publications to plan and display the ship's route for the intended
voyage and to plot and monitor positions throughout the voyage. An electronic chart display and
 ST. THERESE MARITIME TRAINING CENTER – COLLEGES
Tigbauan Site
Tan Pael, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines

information system (ECDIS) is also accepted as meeting the chart carriage requirements of this
subparagraph. Ships to which paragraph 2.10 applies shall comply with the carriage requirements for
ECDIS detailed therein;
.5 back-up arrangements to meet the functional requirements of subparagraph .4, if this function is
partly or fully fulfilled by electronic means;**
.6 a receiver for a global navigation satellite system or a terrestrial radionavigation system, or other
means, suitable for use at all times throughout the intended voyage to establish and update the
ship's position by automatic means;
.7 if less than 150 gross tonnage and if practicable, a radar reflector, or other means, to enable
detection by ships navigating by radar at both 9 and 3 GHz;
.8 when the ship's bridge is totally enclosed and unless the Administration determines otherwise, a
sound reception system, or other means, to enable the officer in charge of the navigational watch to
hear sound signals and determine their direction;
.9 a telephone, or other means, to communicate heading information to the emergency steering
position, if provided.

2.2 All ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size shall, in
addition to the requirements of paragraph 2.1, be fitted with:

.1 a spare magnetic compass, interchangeable with the magnetic compass as referred to in

paragraph 2.1.1, or other means to perform the function referred to in paragraph 2.1.1 by means of
replacement or duplicate equipment;
.2 a daylight signalling lamp, or other means, to communicate by light during day and night using an
energy source of electrical power not solely dependent upon the ship's power supply.
.3 a bridge navigational watch alarm system (BNWAS), as follows:
.1 cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size
constructed on or after 1 July 2011;
.2 passenger ships irrespective of size constructed before 1 July 2011, not later than the first
survey* after 1 July 2012;
.3 cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2011, not later than
the first survey* after 1 July 2012;
.4 cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 3,000 gross tonnage constructed
before 1 July 2011, not later than the first survey* after 1 July 2013; and
.5 cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 500 gross tonnage constructed
before 1 July 2011, not later than the first survey* after 1 July 2014.

The bridge navigational watch alarm system shall be in operation whenever the ship is
underway at sea;

.4 a bridge navigational watch alarm system (BNWAS) installed prior to 1 July 2011 may
subsequently be exempted from full compliance with the standards adopted by the Organization, at
the discretion of the Administration.

2.3 All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size shall, in
addition to meeting the requirements of paragraph 2.2, be fitted with:

.1 an echo-sounding device, or other electronic means, to measure and display the available depth
of water;
.2 a 9 GHz radar, or other means, to determine and display the range and bearing of radar
transponders and of other surface craft, obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational marks to
assist in navigation and in collision avoidance;
.3 an electronic plotting aid, or other means, to plot electronically the range and bearing of targets to
determine collision risk;
.4 speed and distance measuring device, or other means, to indicate speed and distance through the
water;
.5 a properly adjusted transmitting heading device, or other means, to transmit heading information
for input to the equipment referred to in paragraphs 2.3.2, 2.3.3 and 2.4.

2.4 All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards engaged on international voyages and cargo ships
of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on international voyages and passenger ships
irrespective of size shall be fitted with an automatic identification system (AIS), as follows:

.1 ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002;

.2 ships engaged on international voyages constructed before 1 July 2002:
.2.1 in the case of passenger ships, not later than 1 July 2003;
.2.2 in the case of tankers, not later than the first survey* for safety equipment*** on or after 1
July 2003;
.2.3 in the case of ships, other than passenger ships and tankers, of 50,000 gross tonnage and
upwards, not later than 1 July 2004;
.2.4 in the case of ships, other than passenger ships and tankers, of 300 gross tonnage and
upwards but less than 50,000 gross tonnage, not later than the first safety equipment survey****
after 1 July 2004 or by 31 December 2004, whichever occurs earlier; and
 ST. THERESE MARITIME TRAINING CENTER – COLLEGES
Tigbauan Site
Tan Pael, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines

.3 ships not engaged on international voyages constructed before 1 July 2002, not later than 1 July
2008;
.4 the Administration may exempt ships from the application of the requirements of this paragraph
when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two years after the implementation
date specified in subparagraphs .2 and .3;
.5 AIS shall:
.1 provide automatically to appropriately equipped shore stations, other ships and aircraft
information, including the ship's identity, type, position, course, speed, navigational status and
other safety-related information;
.2 receive automatically such information from similarly fitted ships;
.3 monitor and track ships; and
.4 exchange data with shore-based facilities;
.6 the requirements of paragraph 2.4.5 shall not be applied to cases where international agreements,
rules or standards provide for the protection of navigational information; and
.7 AIS shall be operated taking into account the guidelines adopted by the Organization.***** Ships
fitted with AIS shall maintain AIS in operation at all times except where international agreements,
rules or standards provide for the protection of navigational information.

2.5 All ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the requirements of
paragraph 2.3, with the exception of paragraphs 2.3.3 and 2.3.5, and the requirements of paragraph
2.4, have:

.1 a gyro compass, or other means, to determine and display their heading by shipborne
nonmagnetic means, being clearly readable by the helmsman at the main steering position. These
means shall also transmit heading information for input to the equipment referred in paragraphs
2.3.2, 2.4 and 2.5.5;;
.2 a gyrocompass heading repeater, or other means, to supply heading information visually at the
emergency steering position if provided;
.3 a gyrocompass bearing repeater, or other means, to take bearings, over an arc of the horizon of
360°, using the gyrocompass or other means referred to in subparagraph .1. However, ships of less
than 1,600 gross tonnage shall be fitted with such means as far as possible;
.4 rudder, propeller, thrust, pitch and operational mode indicators, or other means, to determine and
display rudder angle, propeller revolutions, the force and direction of thrust and, if applicable, the
force and direction of lateral thrust and the pitch and operational mode, all to be readable from the
conning position; and
.5 an automatic tracking aid, or other means, to plot automatically the range and bearing of other
targets to determine collision risk.

2.6 On all ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards, failure of one piece of equipment should not
reduce the ship's ability to meet the requirements of paragraphs 2.1.1, 2.1.2 and 2.1.4.

2.7 All ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the requirements of
paragraph 2.5, have:

.1 a 3 GHz radar or, where considered appropriate by the Administration, a second 9 GHz radar, or
other means, to determine and display the range and bearing of other surface craft, obstructions,
buoys, shorelines and navigational marks to assist in navigation and in collision avoidance, which
are functionally independent of those referred to in paragraph 2.3.2; and
.2 a second automatic tracking aid, or other means, to plot automatically the range and bearing of
other targets to determine collision risk which are functionally independent of those referred to in
paragraph 2.5.5.

2.8 All ships of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the requirements of
paragraph 2.7 with the exception of paragraph 2.7.2, have:
.1 an automatic radar plotting aid, or other means, to plot automatically the range and bearing of at
least 20 other targets, connected to a device to indicate speed and distance through the water, to
determine collision risks and simulate a trial manoeuvre; and
.2 a heading or track control system, or other means, to automatically control and keep to a heading
and/or straight track.

2.9 All ships of 50,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the requirements of
paragraph 2.8, have:

.1 a rate-of-turn indicator, or other means, to determine and display the rate of turn; and
.2 a speed and distance measuring device, or other means, to indicate speed and distance over the
ground in the forward and athwartships direction.

2.10 Ships engaged on international voyages shall be fitted with an Electronic Chart Display and
Information System (ECDIS) as follows:

.1 passenger ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1 July 2012;
.2 tankers of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1 July 2012;
 ST. THERESE MARITIME TRAINING CENTER – COLLEGES
Tigbauan Site
Tan Pael, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines

.3 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1
July 2013;
.4 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 10,000 gross
tonnage constructed on or after 1 July 2014;
.5 passenger ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2012, not later than
the first survey* on or after 1 July 2014;
.6 tankers of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2012, not later than the
first survey* on or after 1 July 2015;
.7 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 50,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July
2013, not later than the first survey* on or after 1 July 2016;
.8 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 20,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 50,000 gross
tonnage constructed before 1 July 2013, not later than the first survey* on or after 1 July 2017; and
.9 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 20,000 gross
tonnage constructed before 1 July 2013, not later than the first survey* on or after 1 July 2018.

2.11 Administrations may exempt ships from the application of the requirements of paragraph 2.10
when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two years after the implementation
date specified in subparagraphs .5 to .9 of paragraph 2.10.

3 When "other means" are permitted under this regulation, such means must be approved by the
Administration in accordance with regulation 18.

4 The navigational equipment and systems referred to in this regulation shall be so installed, tested
and maintained as to minimize malfunction.

5 Navigational equipment and systems offering alternative modes of operation shall indicate the
actual mode of use.

6 Integrated bridge systems shall be so arranged that failure of one sub-system is brought to the
immediate attention of the officer in charge of the navigational watch by audible and visual alarms
and does not cause failure to any other subsystem In case of failure in one part of an integrated
navigational system, it shall be possible to operate each other individual item of equipment or part of
the system separately.

REGULATION 34 - Safe navigation and avoidance of dangerous situations

1. Prior to proceeding to sea, the master shall ensure that the intended voyage has been lanned
using the appropriate nautical charts and nautical publications for the area concerned, taking into
account the guidelines and recommendations developed by the Organization.*

2. The voyage plan shall identify a route which:

.1 takes into account any relevant ships' routeing systems;
.2 ensures sufficient sea room for the safe passage of the ship throughout the voyage;
.3 anticipates all known navigational hazards and adverse weather conditions; and
.4 takes into account the marine environmental protection measures that apply, and avoids as far
as possible actions and activities which could cause damage to the environment.

3. The owner, the charterer, or the company, as defined in regulation IX/1, operating the ship or any
other person, shall not prevent or restrict the master of the ship from taking or executing any decision
which, in the master's professional judgement, is necessary for safe navigation and protection of the
marine environment.

4. How position and direction related

Position and direction are two essential elements that are closely related in
navigation. A navigator must have a clear understanding of their current position and the
direction they need to travel in order to reach their destination. Position refers to the
location of an object or person relative to other objects or landmarks. In navigation, position
is determined using various tools such as maps, GPS systems, compasses, and sextants.
Once a navigator determines their current position, they can then plan their route by
calculating the distance and direction they need to travel. Direction refers to the path that an
object or person is moving towards. In navigation, direction is determined using a compass
or other directional tools. By knowing their current position and desired destination,
navigators can determine the correct direction they need to travel in order to reach their
goal. The relationship between position and direction in navigation is essential because
knowing one without the other can lead to disastrous consequences. For example, if a
navigator knows their position but not their direction, they may end up going in circles or
getting lost. Similarly, if they know their direction but not their position, they may miss their
destination entirely. In conclusion, by understanding these concepts and utilizing
appropriate tools, navigators can successfully navigate through unfamiliar terrain and reach
their desired destinations with ease.
 ST. THERESE MARITIME TRAINING CENTER – COLLEGES
Tigbauan Site
Tan Pael, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines

5. The measurement of direction.

Direction is usually measured relative to the location of North or South Pole.

Directions determined from these locations are said to be relative to True North or True
South. The magnetic poles can also be used to measure direction. However, these points
on the Earth are located in spatially different spots from the geographic North and South
Pole. The North Magnetic Pole is located at 78.3° North, 104.0° West near Ellef Ringnes
Island, Canada. In the Southern Hemisphere, the South Magnetic Pole is located in
Commonwealth Day, Antarctica and has a geographical location of 65° South, 139° East.
The magnetic poles are also not fixed overtime and shift their spatial position overtime.

6. The errors of the compass

1) Latitude error

Latitude (or damping) error This error is present in a compass which is damped in tilt. A
compass damped in tilt always settles east of the meridian and above the horizon in NH,
and vice-versa. Its magnitude depends on the observer’s latitude, Sin (error) α Tan
(latitude), At equator, the error is nil.

The error is eastward in all northerly latitudes, and vice-versa. For the purpose of damping
error, a latitude rider / adjuster is provided with the gyro compass which shifts the lubber
line equal to the amount of error in the appropriate direction.

2) Speed Error (Course, Speed and Latitude Error)

The gyro compass settles in the N/S direction by sensing Earth’s spinning motion. Same
gyro compass when placed on a ship also senses the ship’s motion. And therefore, the axis
of gyro compass settles in a direction which is perpendicular to the resultant of the Earth’s
surface speed and the ship’s velocity. The direction in which the compass settles, is
therefore, different to the direction of the True North and depends on ship’s course, speed
and latitude of the observer.

This error also increases as the observer’s latitude increases. The error is westward on all
Northerly courses and vice-versa. In exactly E-W courses, the error is nil. In exactly N-S
courses, the error is maximum.

To compensate for steaming error, a speed rider is provided, which in association with the
latitude rider, shifts the lubber line equal to steaming error in the appropriate direction.

3) BALLISTIC DEFLECTION ERROR

A temporary oscillatory error of the gyro compass introduced when the north-south
component of the speed changes as by speed or course. Change, An accelerating force
acts upon the compass, causing a surge of mercury from one part of the system to another
in the case of the non-pendulous compass, or a deflection of a mass in the case of a
pendulous compass.

4) BALLISTIC DAMPING ERROR

A temporary oscillatory error of a gyro compass introduced during changes of course and
speed as a result of the means used to damp the oscillations of the spin axis.

5) GIMBALLING ERROR

This is due to the tilt of the compass rose. Directions are measured in the horizontal plane.
If the compass card is tilted, the projection of the outer rim in the horizontal is an ellipse,
and the graduations are not equally spaced. For normal angles of tilt, this error is small and
can be neglected.

7. The function of gyro and magnetic compass

The gyro and magnetic compass are two essential instruments used in navigation.
The gyrocompass is a device that uses the Earth's rotation to determine true north, while
the magnetic compass uses the Earth's magnetic field to determine magnetic north. Both
 ST. THERESE MARITIME TRAINING CENTER – COLLEGES
Tigbauan Site
Tan Pael, Tigbauan, Iloilo, Philippines

instruments have their unique functions and applications. The gyrocompass is highly
accurate and reliable, making it ideal for use in ships, aircraft, and submarines. It provides
continuous readings of true north, which helps navigators maintain their course even in
adverse weather conditions or when there is no visible landmark to guide them. The
gyrocompass also eliminates errors caused by local variations in the Earth's magnetic field.
On the other hand, the magnetic compass is simple and inexpensive but less accurate than
the gyrocompass. It is still widely used in small boats, airplanes, and land vehicles as a
backup instrument or for general navigation purposes. In conclusion, both instruments play
an essential role in navigation. While the gyrocompass provides precise readings of true
north, the magnetic compass serves as a reliable backup instrument for general navigation
purposes.

8. The importance of course and bearing

Course and bearing are two essential concepts in navigation. Course refers to the
direction in which a vessel is moving, while bearing refers to the angle between the vessel's
heading and a fixed point on land or sea. Both these concepts are crucial for safe and
efficient navigation. The importance of course and bearing lies in their ability to ensure that
vessels reach their intended destination without any mishaps. A clear understanding of
these concepts allows navigators to chart a safe and direct route, avoiding obstacles such
as rocks, reefs, or other vessels. Furthermore, course and bearing help navigators maintain
accurate records of their voyages. By tracking their progress using these concepts, they
can calculate distances traveled, estimate arrival times, and make necessary adjustments
to stay on course. In conclusion, course and bearing are fundamental principles that every
navigator must understand. They provide guidance for safe navigation at sea while also
helping sailors keep track of their progress. Without a clear understanding of these
concepts, navigating the open waters would be much more challenging and dangerous.