12 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO M A N U F A C T U R I N G P R O C E S S E S

1-4 MANUFACTURING
The definition of manufacturing as the making of goods and articles reveals little
about the complexity of the problem. A more specific definition is given by
CAM-I (Computer Aided Manufacturing International, Arlington, TX): "A
series of interrelated activities and operations involving design, materials selec-
tion, planning, production, quality assurance, management, and marketing of
discrete consumer and durable goods." This recognizes that, from the simple
beginnings when an artisan provided all the necessary mental and physical input,
manufacturing has grown to become a system with many components that
interact in a dynamic manner.

1-4-1 The Manufacturing System

Figure 1-7 summarizes the most important activities involved in manufacturing.
1 A manufacturing entity (a company or a branch of a larger corporation)
usually possesses some special strengths, such as specific technology, knowledge,
or equipment. Exploitation of these strengths requires that the appropriate
markets be identified, their magnitudes estimated, and the existing and poten-
tially emerging competition appraised. After the market and its future develop-
ment are projected, products are identified oi developed. The sales organization
then secures orders, sometimes with the aid of samples or prototypes, at other
times on the basis of specifications backed by an established record of perfor-
mance. Either way, the creative act of design is usually completed—at least in a
general sense—at this stage.
2 The product, whether it be a machine tool, household machine, building
product, computer, automobile, aircraft, chemical processing plant, power sta-
tion, oil drilling rig, cookware, or soft-drink container, is designed to fulfill its
intended function; that is, to operate satisfactorily over its expected life, subject
to a number of constraints:
a Industrial designers strive to create a visually appealing, functional product
that the customer will be willing to buy.
b Mechanical and electrical designers and analysts ensure that the product will
properly function. This requires the choice of appropriate materials, often in
cooperation with materials specialists.
c The product must serve the customer, with due regard to the physical
capabilities and limitations of operators or consumers. This way it will optimize
performance and ensure well-being in the workplace. These aspects are the
subject of the relatively new science of ergonomics which takes a general, holistic
approach to the relationship between people and machines.
d The product must fulfill its function at a reasonable cost. Therefore, neither
excess performance nor excess life are needed, and performance must be opti-
mized. In general, it is found that a product satisfying minimum requirements
 CHAPTER 1: I N T R O D U C T I O N TO M A N U F A C T U R I N G 1 3

© Process planning Process R&D

group technology process choice
process selection optimization
process design modeling
process parameters environmental etc.
tools and dies considerations
parts programming
jigs and fixtures
quality control Processing
parts manufacturing
sensing and corrective action
Production preparation
storing, moving, handling:
assembly drawings
materials
part drawings
make / buy decision parts
bill of materials tooling
jigs and fixtures
assembly
Product design
industrial design
mechanical j design Production control
electrical and routing
materials 'analysis scheduling
(product R & D production tracking
machine load monitoring
inventory,
© Sales (order processing)
parts
T Shipping materials
Product concept inventory in-process
T invoicing purchasing
Market forecast
T accounting receiving
maintenance
Market research quality assurance:
standards
(To) Recycling inspection
Disposal stat. proc. contr.

FIGURE 1-7
Manufacturing entails a large variety of activities, many of which have become specialities on
their own. More properly, manufacturing is regarded as a system with interdependent activi-
ties. Interaction can be strengthened by the use of the computer, leading to computer-
integrated manufacturing (CIM).

can be produced at some minimum cost. Performance can often be increased—and

thereby the selling price substantially raised—with relatively little increase in the
cost of manufacturing. Further improvements may lead to much higher manufac-
turing cost and only marginally increased customer appeal; thus, the selling price
cannot be raised proportionately. Consequently, there is always a point beyond
which performance cannot be economically improved. This point is determined
through the cooperation of marketing, design, and manufacturing teams.
e The product must be easy to maintain over its intended life. It must be
readily disposed of or recycled at the end of its life, in a safe and ecologically
14 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO M A N U F A C T U R I N G PROCESSES

acceptable way. This often calls for ease of disassembly or separation by some
mechanical or chemical means.
f Most importantly, all the above criteria must be satisfied while also
ensuring ease of manufacture. This requires not only close cooperation between
industrial, mechanical, and electrical designers and manufacturing specialists, but
also demands that all designers should be aware of the manufacturing conse-
quences of their decisions. Seemingly minor changes may often present (or
remove) enormous manufacturing problems, thus affecting the cost, quality, and
reliability of the product.
g An important consideration is the number of units to be produced, in one
production run (batch size) and over the projected life of the product, because
this will enter into process choice.
h The performance of products can often be ensured only by product
research and development activities. These activities are essential when a company
desires to secure a competitive position by introducing new products or impro-
ving established product lines.
A comprehensive treatment of the many facets of design is given by Dieter.*
3 Once a product is designed, production drawings (or computer data bases)
are prepared of the assembly and of all parts other than standardized, mass-pro-
duced components. Decisions can then be made on what parts should be bought
from outside suppliers and what parts should be produced in-house. A bill of
materials is prepared which, in many ways, is central to the manufacturing
process.
4 For components produced in-house, process design is carried out: The best
process is selected and process parameters are chosen to optimize the quality and
properties of the finished product. Dies are designed, tooling is chosen, and, if the
tool must follow a prescribed path, this path is selected and programmed.
Fixtures are designed to hold the workpiece in the correct position in relation to
the machine tool or to hold several workpieces in the correct position relative to
each other. Jigs perform a similar function but also incorporate guides for the
tool. Activities in this group are often described in the narrower sense as
manufacturing engineering. For components produced by a vendor, these func-
tions are usually performed by the vendor, ideally in cooperation with the
purchaser. Again, process design is not an isolated activity. For example, it must
facilitate inspection for quality control.
5 The choice of the appropriate manufacturing technique and its optimiza-
tion are important functions. A strong competitive position also requires that
new processes be developed and old ones improved through process research and
development. New processes often make it possible to develop new products, thus
further increasing competitiveness. Process development on the production scale
can be very expensive. Therefore, the fundamentals of processes are often
explored in the laboratory. Models of a process can be used to explore the

* Engineering Design: A Materials and Processing Approach. McGraw-Hill. New York, 1983.
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING 15

influence of process parameters. Two approaches are possible:

a In physical modeling the process is conducted on a reduced scale or
simulating materials are used that are easier and cheaper to work with than the
real materials.
b In mathematical modeling equations are set up that express the response of
the process to changes in process parameters. Such models usually require
lengthy computations which are made off-line (in the laboratory).
Whichever modeling approach is used, a sound understanding of the physical
realities is essential for success.
In choosing and developing processes, their impact on the environment (air
and water pollution, noise, vibration, etc.) and on the safety and health of
operators and other people must be considered. Manufacturing often involves
high temperatures, molten metal, highly stressed tooling, flammable or toxic
liquids, and involves activities that generate noise, smoke, fumes, gases, or dust.
It is imperative that appropriate precautions and remedial measures are taken.
Beyond the social responsibilities of the engineer and technologist, there are also
legal requirements, such as the regulations of the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) and the Occupational Health and Safety Act (OSHA) in the USA
and corresponding measures in other countries.
6 The actual process of production takes place on the workshop floor, which
is arranged according to some plant layout. In the course of production, critical
characteristics of processes are observed; the dimensions, quality, etc., of parts
are systematically checked and, when needed, corrective actions are taken. The
most important auxiliary function is the timely movement of raw materials,
partly finished parts, tooling, and jigs and fixtures. Finally, manufactured and
purchased parts are assembled into products which, after checking, are ready for
shipping. All these functions are still in the domain of manufacturing specialists,
many of whom are formally trained as industrial engineers.
7 The complex sequences of production require a strong manufacturing
organization. Raw materials, parts, and tools must be routed to their destination
and scheduled to arrive when required. The status of production must be known.
Formal methods of quality assurance must be established, together with a plan
for preventive maintenance of equipment. An up-to-date inventory of parts in
process, combined with inventories of purchased materials and parts must be
maintained to ensure that no shortages develop that could delay production and
assembly. For a running analysis of performance, machine loading (utilization)
and machine and labor performance are monitored. Many of these activities are
in the domain of industrial engineering, while others are regarded primarily as
management tasks. Superior organization, even of existing technology, can lead
to substantial competitive advantage.
8 The completed products are shipped; inventory control feeds information
back to the production process on the basis of sales performance.
9 Field service ensure? the continuing performance of products delivered to
the customer. It is here that the information loop is finally closed: Feedback is
valuable in sharpening production practices and, if necessary, changing design.
16 I N T R O D U C T I O N T O M A N U F A C T U R I N G PROCESSES

10 At the end of its useful life, the product is disposed of in an ecologically

and economically acceptable manner, or it is recycled to reclaim the materials of
construction. This aspect has assumed great significance since the tightening of
energy supplies. For most materials, recycling of scrap requires much less energy
than production from raw materials.

1-4-2 Impediments to Systems Approach

Even this very brief and in some ways incomplete discussion of the manufactur-
ing system indicates the complexity of the problem. Efficient and competitive
manufacturing requires close cooperation between the various activities, so that
they truly become parts of an interacting, dynamic system. Unfortunately, this
ideal has seldom been reached for a number of reasons.
1 Companies are often organized into departments clearly separated accord-
ing to functions. Such organization hinders interaction between the design,
manufacturing, and production-control departments and supporting departments
such as maintenance, quality assurance, purchasing, etc.
2 Excessive specialization has prevented people from appreciating the manu-
facturing consequences of their decisions. Once a problem is solved from the
narrow point of view of one specialist, it is passed on to the next specialist to
solve both the underlying problem and problems added by the "solutions"
introduced at earlier stages.
3 The study of manufacturing has been neglected in universities and colleges,
especially in the English-speaking world; hence, many people involved in manu-
facturing have lacked the background that would have allowed them to make
well-informed decisions.
4 The complexity of the problem increases with every "solution." Documenta-
tion requires a vast flow of paperwork, with diminishing probability that all parts
of the system will be consistent. The number of potential errors increases:
Changes made at one point in the system fail to diffuse through the organization,
and contradictory measures surface too late, when their reconciliation involves
vast effort and cost.
The traditional approach views manufacturing essentially as a sequential
activity. The shortcomings of this view became painfully evident when, in
response to competitive pressures, many companies attempted to rationalize their
operation. Fortunately, a powerful tool for improvement has become available in
the form of the computer.

1-4-3 Computers in Manufacturing

Computers have been used in manufacturing, as in other businesses, since the
1960s for bookkeeping, accounting, purchasing, and inventory control functions.
Gradually, with the rapidly increasing speed of operation, larger memories, and
decreasing costs, the use of computers has spread to provide a number of other
 CHAPTER 1: I N T R O D U C T I O N TO M A N U F A C T U R I N G 1 7

functions:
1 All phases of product design can take place on a computer, with the design
displayed on a VDT (video-display terminal), most often a CRT (cathode-ray
tube). With the aid of geometric modeling and analysis, the designer can explore a
number of options and analyze them with the aid of software packages (including
those for finite-element analysis, FEM). Design can be optimized in a much
shorter time, rapid design changes become possible, and changing consumer
demands can be satisfied. Both assemblies and parts can be designed with
assurance that they will properly fit together. A library of standard components
can be built up. The bill of material is also generated and, if required, drawings
can be prepared by driving a pen under the commands of the computer. Thus,
activities indicated in blocks 2 and 3 of Fig. 1-7 are performed in what has
become known as CAD (computer-aided design).
2 Computers can be used for programming the machine-tool motions neces-
sary for generating the geometric shape of the part. Beginning with the 1950s,
information contained in drawings could be transformed into digital form for the
numerical control (NC) of machines. When the part geometry is created by CAD,
the data base already exists and can be directly employed in NC. Exchange of the
graphic data base between various systems is still a problem but standard formats
are being developed.* Beginning with the 1970s, the computer has been used also
for process optimization and control, materials management, material movement
(including transfer lines, robots, etc.), scheduling, monitoring, etc. This entire
field is now generally called CAM (computer-aided manufacturing)', it encom-
passes blocks 4, 5, 6, and 7 in Fig. 1-7.
3 The benefits of CAD and CAM can be fully realized only if an effective
interface is established between them, creating what is usually referred to as
CAD/CAM. Information flow in both directions ensures that parts and assem-
blies will be designed with the capabilities and limitations of materials and
manufacturing processes in mind. Superior products can be created and
tremendous competitive advantages attained. A company that uses integrated
CAD/CAM can develop new products more rapidly and at a lower cost, thus
increasing its market share at a time when product life cycles are declining and
efforts required to develop new products are increasing; it can be more respon-
sive to customer requests both in providing quotations and in accommodating
special needs; it can reduce the effort spent on design and process changes by
ensuring that such changes are entered in the common data base and are thus
immediately recognized at all stages of design and production. An important
benefit is that the introduction of CAD/CAM forces a review and improvement
of existing design and manufacturing practices and production planning.
4 The critical tasks of inventory management are also facilitated by the
computer. Material requirements planning (MRP) is based on the master produc-

*For example, IGES, "Initial Graphics Exchange Specification," American National Standards
Institute ANSI Y14.26M.
18 INTRODUCTION T O M A N U F A C T U R I N G PROCESSES

tion schedule, the bill of materials, and inventory records relating to raw
materials, purchased components, parts to be delivered, in-process materials and
parts, finished products, and tools and maintenance supplies. With this informa-
tion as the input, MRP manages the inventories with due regard to the timing of
material requirements. In detail, it provides notices for releasing orders, schedul-
ing and rescheduling, cancellation, inventory status, performance reports, devia-
tions from schedules, etc. A good MRP system results in reduced lead times,
minimum inventory, faster response to customer requests, and increased produc-
tivity. A further development is manufacturing resource planning (also called
MRP-II or closed-loop MRP) which integrates a complete manufacturing control
system. Production planning, master scheduling, capacity requirements planning,
and functions necessary for executing the production plan (including vendor
schedules and dispatch lists) are incorporated, and provisions are made for
continuous updating.
5 The management aspects of manufacturing lend themselves to computeriza-
tion even without CAM, and are often regarded as elements of a management
information system (MIS). More recently, MIS is taken to stand for manufacturing
information system.
6 Most recently, manufacturing has come to be treated as a single system
comprising hardware and software (as in Fig. 1-7) in which the complex interac-
tions are followed with the aid of the computer. In such computer-integrated
manufacturing (CIM) all actions take place with reference to a common data
base. Data base management is a complex but not insurmountable task. Draw-
ings serve only to visualize the geometry of parts; no changes are allowed to be
made on them. If changes in design, process, scheduling, bill of materials, quality
standard, etc. are to be made, they are made in the data base; thus they reflect
throughout the organization. The data base is continuously updated by most
recent information on production, sales, etc. For many industries, total CIM is
still in the future, but beginnings have been made.
One of the major remaining tasks is modeling of the manufacturing process.
Many of the most successful processes are largely based on experience and
intuition, and formalization of knowledge in a form useful for computer control
will take considerable time. A significant development is the modeling of the
entire manufacturing process by the IDEF methodology. It was developed by
SofTech, Inc. (Waltham, MA) under the sponsorship of the U.S. Air Force in the
Integrated Computer Aided Manufacturing (ICAM) program. IDEF stands for
ICAM Definition System, and incorporates a model of the manufacturing system
in a hierarchical form, using a graphical representation in which the manufactur-
ing functions are shown (together with the inputs, mechanisms, controls, and
outputs) by the gradual expansion of diagrams into lower level diagrams. An
exposition of the approach is given by Harrington in Understanding the Manufac-
turing Process.
In the forseeable future, much of manufacturing will still be conducted under
human control, and it is important to recognize that linking a process to a
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING 19

computer or some microelectronic device does not automatically guarantee ad-

vantages. A process that is ill-conceived, inapplicable, or outdated will not
become competitive by such computerization. Only a truly systems view can be
productive. For this, the physical basis of processes must be understood, the
variables of importance identified, and a control strategy established. If neces-
sary, better, more competitive processes must be introduced. Only then can the
mechanical, electrical, and electronic devices and software be linked into a
functioning system. The magnitude of the undertaking must not be underesti-
mated, but a complete review of the manufacturing system often proves profita-
ble because problem areas that can be resolved even without the aid of the
computer are revealed.
The purpose of this book is to provide the physical understanding; in doing so,
opportunities for and difficulties in the application of computers and microelec-
tronics will also be shown. For readers who have only a passing familiarity with
computers, necessary terms are introduced in Appendix A.

1-4-4 Control of Manufacturing Processes

We will discuss this topic again in Chap. 11, after gaining a closer acquaintance
of processes. However, we have to clarify a few terms at this point so that the
potential of process control can be pointed out throughout the discussion of
individual processes.

Control Strategies The different approaches to control can be best explained

by reference to a simple example, that of turning a cylindrical component on a
lathe. The principles apply to any process.
1 To understand what task a control system is expected to perform, we must
first examine some of the actions of a skilled lathe operator. Let us assume that
the part to be machined has been mounted in the chuck and the cutting speed
and the feed (the axial movement of the tool during each revolution of the
workpiece) have been set. The task to be followed is that of maintaining the
diameter of the finished part between specified minimum and maximum values
and to ensure that the surface finish satisfies specifications.
The trained and experienced operator possesses knowledge that allows a
decision on the depth of cut (the thickness of layer removed in one cut). Operator
knowledge is often supplemented or even replaced by instructions provided on
the basis of past experience or published data. The important point is that
information is stored in some form.
Next, the operator checks the setting of the cross slide by reading the
micrometer dial (Fig. l-8a). In other words, the current status of the machine is
sensed.
The operator then determines what changes are needed and makes logical
decisions.
 20 I N T R O D U C T I O N TO M A N U F A C T U R I N G PROCESSES

Data input
,Workpiece
Digital (part program)
readout
Toolpost

eft)/ Controller

/ Dial

WUL wm • f / M
Cross slide 1
Ballscrew
A"
Drive
(a)
Data input Main
MCU Input data and
(part program) motor
constraint
parameters for
Tool Adaptive adaptive control
changer control unit

Controller (MCU)
Vibration, force,
etc., transducer

W / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / A W777W/.
\
i
Position tmm/mm w/m//<
transducer
(c) (c0
FIGURE 1-8
All manufacturing processes must be controlled. The example is for cutting on a lathe, under
(a) manual, (b) open-loop, (c) closed-loop, and (d) adaptive control. Adaptive control takes
actions in a manner a highly skilled machinist would.

The operator communicates these decisions to the system by actuating the

screw to set the position of the cross slide. At this point, a correct part will be
made, assuming that the dial is correctly calibrated and machine deflections are
negligible.
A skilled operator will go further and stop the machine after the beginning of
the cut, check the part diameter, and make necessary adjustments.
A highly skilled operator will observe the surface produced, listen to the sound
of the machine, and, generally, sense changes that are often difficult to describe
accurately. For example, under given conditions, vibration (chatter) may develop
which causes the surface finish to vary in a periodic manner, resulting in an
objectionable surface finish. The operator will then change cutting conditions
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING 21

(speed, feed, support of the part or tool) until the undesirable condition disap-
pears. The operator will also compensate for tool wear, change the tool when
needed, and will make sure that the machine tool is not overloaded.
A control system will take over several or all of the functions of the operator.
2 In open-loop control an action is taken without verifying the results of this
action. Actuators may be mechanical (cam, lever, linkage), electromechanical (dc
or ac motor, stepping motor), or hydraulic or pneumatic (motor or cylinder). For
example, the cross slide of the lathe may be moved by a cam, stepping motor, or
hydraulic cylinder to a predetermined position. The setting will be repeated for
each part, but it still takes an operator or setup person to confirm that the part is
within tolerance and, if not, to reset the cam, mechanical stop, microswitch, or
change the program instruction (Fig. 1-86).
3 In closed-loop control, sensors provide feedback to the system. In the
simplest case, a high-resolution position transducer is added to confirm that the
intended position of the cross slide has indeed been reached (Fig. l-8c). The
signal from the transducer is processed by a comparator that compares it with the
control signal and then issues an error signal to correct the position. In other
applications, the control would maintain a speed or other parameter at a set level
(as mentioned, the oldest example of closed-loop control is a purely mechanical
device, the centrifugal governor invented by Watt in 1788 for maintaining a
preset speed on a steam engine, irrespective of the load imposed on it). A simple
closed-loop control system is ignorant of possible secondary inputs to the system
and will go on producing parts even with a worn or broken tool or under
conditions of chatter.
4 Adaptive control is the highest level of control which, in its fullest develop-
ment, can replace the operator entirely. Sensors are used to provide feedback of
secondary inputs (in the case of the lathe, in-process measuring devices check the
diameter of the part, load cells measure forces, vibration transducers give signals
characteristic of the existing cutting conditions, etc.). The feedback signal is then
processed so that the control unit can take appropriate corrective action (Fig.
1-8d). Obviously, the corrective action will accomplish its intended purpose only
if the effect of process variables on the finished part are known. Interrelations
between process variables can be extremely complex, and full adaptive control
can be successful only if a sufficiently quantitative model of the process can be
formulated. Even if a simple model is used, the constraints of the process or
system (maximum force, speed, etc.) must be obeyed (adaptive control with
constraints, ACC). A more complex model allows optimization (adaptive control
with optimization, ACO), for example, for maximum production rate.
5 The power of the computer can be used to endow the control with some
measure of artificial intelligence (AI). As the name implies, the control program is
designed to solve a problem the way humans solve it; it is capable of some
reasoning, can learn from experience, and, ultimately, can do some self-program-
ming. Alternatively or additionally, elements of expert programs may be incor-
porated in the control system.
22 INTRODUCTION T O M A N U F A C T U R I N G PROCESSES

Automation The word automatic is derived from the Greek and means
self-moving or self-thinking. The word automation was coined to indicate a form
of manufacturing in which production, movement, and inspection are performed
or controlled by self-operating machines without human intervention. In general,
one may distinguish between several levels of automation. Here we will make a
distinction between:
1 Mechanization. This means that something is done or operated by machin-
ery and not by hand. Feedback is not provided; thus, one deals with open-loop
control. An example would be the use of a cam to move the cross slide in Fig.
2 Automation. This will imply closed-loop control and, in its advanced form,
adaptive control. Automation utilizes programmable devices, the flexibility of
which can be quite different:
a Hard automation refers to methods of control that require considerable
effort to reprogram for different parts or operations. For example, a limit switch
could be manually reset if a cylinder of different diameter had to be machined.
b Soft or flexible automation implies ease of reprogramming, usually simply
by changing the software.
An important aspect of automation in manufacturing is automation of material
movement. We shall come back to this topic in Sec. 11-1; however, we have to
give here some brief definitions: Manipulators are mechanical devices for the
movement of materials, tools, and parts, and robots are programmable manipula-
tors.

Numerical Control Electrical controls may be analog, as when the voltage

generated by a transducer is compared to the control voltage. However, the
greatest advances in manufacturing control have been made by the introduction
of numerical control (NC). In the most general sense, NC is the use of symboli-
cally coded instructions for the automatic control of a process or machinery.
Various forms of NC have been developed:
1 The hardware for basic NC includes the machine control unit (MCU, Fig.
1-8), which contains the logic required to translate information into appropriate
action; actuators', and, if control is closed-loop, feedback devices and associated
circuits. The plan of action is provided to the MCU in the form of a program on
a punched tape or magnetic tape or disk. Programs are usually prepared by a
programmer or the machine-tool operator, and are read into the MCU, incremen-
tally, by a tape reader. The MCU is hard-wired to perform various functions. For
example, the machine tool or other mechanical device may be expected to move
from one point to another. This may be accomplished in several ways:
a If the machine tool is equipped with two actuators arranged in xy coordi-
nates, the simplest MCU moves first the jc then the y actuator by the prescribed
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO MANUFACTURING 2 3

(a) (to) (C)

FIGURE 1-9
Control methods may provide (a) simple position or point-to-point control or (to) control over
tool or workpiece movement in a straight cut or (c) along a contour.

distances, without controlling the motion itself (point-to-point or positioning

system, Fig. 1-9a)\ when the programmed position is reached, the operation is
performed (say, a hole is drilled). A slightly more complex system also moves first
in one and then the other direction, but this time with full control of the rate of
movement (straight-cut system, Fig. 1-9b) while an operation such as cutting,
milling, or welding takes place.
b NC is particularly valuable when a complex contour is to be followed (Fig.
l-9c). In contouring systems the MCU is programmed to break up the contour
into shorter segments and to interpolate between the endpoints of segments.
Linear interpolation approximates the curved profile in small straight lengths;
better approximation is obtained with circular paths.
Information is read in blocks, and a buffer memory (buffer register) prevents
discontinuity of operation which, in the case of machining, welding, etc., would
result in visible stop marks on the surface.
2 In computer numerical control (CNC) the functions of the MCU are partly
or fully taken over by a dedicated computer (a mini- or microcomputer assigned
to the machine tool, Fig. l-10a). The entire program is read into memory. Since
computers can be readily reprogrammed, much greater flexibility of operation is
obtained. For example, it is possible to trace a complex curve without any breaks
in continuity, and thus attain the closest approximation to the desired contour.
Furthermore, programs can be added that provide technological functions,
perform adaptive control, and incorporate some elements of a process model.
The microprocessors used in place of the hard-wired NC circuits are more
reliable and can have self-diagnostic features. In general, the part or process
program is still received on tape or disk, although many CNC systems allow
direct programming. The computer has sufficient memory to serve not only as a
buffer but also to store the programs necessary for extended operation.
Both NC and CNC raise productivity and reproducibility, thus raising accu-
racy, quality, and reliability of the end product. CNC minimizes the errors
24 I N T R O D U C T I O N T O M A N U F A C T U R I N G PROCESSES

CAD data
base Blueprint Blueprint

Part Computer-aided Print

programming design Display

_ Stock
Plant control, etc.
computer
Manaqement
information

Work Part-
monitoring program
Reporting schedule

Minicomputer

NC machine tool

(a) (6)
FIGURE 1-10
M a n y N C m a c h i n e s , w i t h s t r u c t u r e s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e s h o w n in Fig. 1 - 8 , a r e n o w c o n t r o l l e d b y
( a ) a d e d i c a t e d m i c r o c o m p u t e r ( C N C ) o r ( b ) by a h i e r a r c h y of c o m p u t e r s ( D N C ) .

introduced by the tape reader since the tape is read only once; it also reduces
overhead relative to NC.
3 In direct numerical control (DNC) several machine tools are connected to
one larger, central computer which stores all programs and issues the NC
commands to all machines (Fig. 1-10b). No machine tool must ever wait for an
instruction; therefore, there are often satellite control computers interposed
between the central computer and smaller groups of NC units, and the central
computer is used only to store, download, edit, and monitor programs, and to
provide supervisory and management functions. Such hierarchical control breaks
down even very complex tasks into manageable elements. The task of real-time
computation and sensory processing is allocated to the first-level computers. The
NC units may be of the conventional hard-wired type, with the tape reader
replaced by a direct communication line to the central computer (behind-the-
tape-reader systems), or specialized units which, like CNC units, use a minicom-
puter as the MCU. Obviously, the latter allow much greater flexibility.
 CHAPTER 1: I N T R O D U C T I O N TO M A N U F A C T U R I N G 2 5

It should be noted that, to exploit all the benefits of computer control, it is

usually necessary to improve the mechanical performance of the system (see Sec.
8-7-3). The integration of mechanical and electronic aspects is sometimes termed
mechatronics.
NC Programming Programming of the machine tool has been greatly sim-
plified over the years and has spread from machining to other processes.
Programming starts by defining the optimum sequence of operations and the
process conditions for each operation. The geometric features of the part are then
used to calculate the tool path. The resulting program can be quite general and
must be converted, with the aid of a program called the postprocessor, into a
form acceptable for the particular machine tool control. The output is a punched
tape or other storage medium. An important step is tape verification which
reveals programming errors and ensures the production of correct parts. Basically
there are four approaches:
1 Manual programming: All elements of the program are calculated by a
skilled parts programmer who puts them into standardized statements. Program-
ming is laborious and is now largely limited to simple point-to-point programs.
2 Computer-assisted programming: The programmer communicates with a
software system in a special-purpose language that uses English-like words. The
most comprehensive of these languages, APT (automatically programmed tools)
was developed in the 1950s at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology under
U.S. Air Force sponsorship, and was expanded in the 1960s, under sponsorship
of a consortium of users, at IIT Research Institute, and then at CAM-I. Many
simplified languages and languages designed for specific processes have since
been developed. Programming languages translate the input into a form under-
standable to the computer so that it can perform the necessary computations,
including compensation for tool dimensions (cutter offset in machining). Tape
verification must be done on the machine tool or a drafting machine.
3 CAD/CAM: When parts are designed by CAD, the numerical data base can
be used to generate the program on the graphics terminal, either by a pro-
grammer or by the designer of the part with the aid of the CAD/CAM software.
The program can be immediately verified by viewing on a VDT the path of the
tool relative to the part. Programming is fast and relatively inexpensive, justifying
its use even for single parts or, as it is often called, for one-off production.
4 Manual data input: Many CNC machine tools are equipped with a CRT
display and a powerful software that prepares the part program. In response to
queries, the operator enters data to define the part geometry, material, and
tooling. Standard English words are used, and the software does the rest. The
technique is particularly suitable for CNC lathes, and it is highly economical
when it allows programming while another job is running.
With the spread of CNC and manual data input, the trend is to entrust more
programming to the machine-tool operator; however, conventional computer-
26 I N T R O D U C T I O N T O M A N U F A C T U R I N G PROCESSES

assisted and CAD/CAM programming is still performed in programming de-

partments.

1-5 SCOPE AND PURPOSE OF BOOK

With the proliferation of computer applications in manufacturing, it is tempting
to conclude that knowledge of the physical principles is losing significance and
that information processing—taken in the narrower sense of data processing—is
becoming the central activity in manufacturing. Nothing could be further from
the truth. Information processing is very important indeed, but it is still only a
tool; a tool that in itself cannot ensure competitiveness unless applied to a
physically sound process. Even the ultimate computerization of a process will be
of no avail if a more original mind meanwhile develops a new process that wipes
out the competitive advantages of the old one. Computer control of a given
process can be effective only if the role of process variables is understood and if
at least an elementary yet physically sound model of the process can be
formulated. For all these reasons, this book is devoted to developing an under-
standing of the physical background of the various unit processes that are used
for the manufacture of parts. One must, of course, recognize that parts will have
to be assembled into finished products, but these assembly operations will be
touched upon only briefly.
In choosing the particular approach adopted in this volume, the guiding
principle was that fundamental, general principles are more powerful than
details. The number of manufacturing processes in existence defies enumeration,
let alone description, in a single volume. There are already a number of
encyclopedic books available in which details on individual processes can be
found.
Thus, the purpose is not to give detailed information, but to impart a
knowledge of principles which can then be used to improve existing processes,
create new ones, and interpret the information presented in books and, increas-
ingly, computer data bases. To quote Sherlock Holmes: "a man should keep his
little brain attic stocked with all the furniture that he is likely to use, and the rest
he can put away in the lumber room of his library, where he can get it if he wants
it."*
In dealing with principles, it is recognized that many engineers and technolo-
gists are needed to make up a manufacturing team. Some team members may be
specialists in manufacturing, but others are experts in materials, mechanical,
industrial, or systems engineering and technology. Some students may embark
upon their exploration of manufacturing after taking a course in the properties of
materials and in the strength of materials; others may have no more preparation
than high school physics and chemistry courses. The book is constructed so as to
cater to both groups. Those who have the appropriate preparation may simply

*A. Conan Doyle, Adventure of the Fire Orange Pips. Crown Publishers, New York, 1976.