6.

1 WINDMILLS

If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such as for a pump or grinding
stones, the machine is usually called a windmill.

6.2 WIND TURBINES

Wind turbines deliver their power through a revealing shaft, and in this respect, they are
similar to other prime movers such as diesel engine and steam turbines. A generator can be
coupled to this shaft and the electrical power delivered can be used to serve the multitude of
different purposes for which electricity is required today.

In practice, an important difference between the wind turbine and the power delivered by
engines and steam turbines is that the power delivered by wind turbines to the same extent
uncontrolled and unpredictable over very short periods of time. In most applications for
electricity, power is normally required on demand and not whenever available. Therefore, it
is important to have some storage or reserve supply. This requirement has been one of the
main limitations. If the mechanical energy is then converted to electricity, the machine is
called a wind generator.

6.4 WIND RESOURCES

Unfortunately, the general availability and reliability of wind speed data is extremely poor in
many regions of the world. Large areas of the world appear to have average annual wind
speeds below 3 m/s and are unsuitable for wind power systems; further, almost equally large
areas have wind speeds in the intermediate range (3–4.5 m/s), where wind power may or may
not be an attractive option. In addition, significant land areas have mean annual wind speeds
exceeding 4.5 m/s, where wind power would most certainly be economically competitive.

6.4.1 Worldwide Wind Energy Scenario in 2010

As per the World Wind Energy Report 2010, wind energy scenario in 2010 is summarized as
follows:
 1. Worldwide capacity reached 196,630 MW, out of which 37,642 MW were added in
2010, slightly less than the capacity in 2009.
2. Wind power showed a growth rate of 23.6%, the lowest growth since 2004 and the
second lowest growth of the past decade. All wind turbines installed by the end of
2010 worldwide can generate 430 TWh per annum; this wind power is more than the
total electricity demand of the United Kingdom, the sixth largest economy of the
world, and equalling 2,5% of the global electricity consumption.
3. China became number one in total installed capacity and the centre of the
international wind industry, and it added 18,928 MW within one year, accounting for
more than 50% of the world’s market for new wind turbines.
4. Major decrease in new installations can be observed in North America and USA lost
its number one position in total capacity to China.
5. Many Western European countries are showing stagnation, whereas there is strong
growth in the number of Eastern European countries.
6. Germany keeps its number one position in Europe with 27,215 MW, followed by
Spain with 20,676 MW.
7. The highest shares of wind power can be found in three European countries: Denmark
(21%), Portugal (18%), and Spain (16%).
8. Asia accounted for the largest share of new installations (54,6%), followed by Europe
(27,0%) and North America (16,7%).
9. Latin America (1,2%) and Africa (0,4%) still played only a marginal role in new
installations.
10. Africa: North Africa represents still lion share of installed capacity, while wind
energy plays hardly a role yet in Sub-Saharan Africa.
11. Nuclear disaster in Japan and oil spill in Gulf of Mexico will have long-term impact
on the prospects of wind energy. Governments need to urgently reinforce their wind
energy policies.
12. WWEA sees a global capacity of 600,000 MW as possible by 2015 and more than
1,500,000 MW by 2020.

6.4.2 Wind Energy in India

The Indian wind energy sector has an installed capacity of 14,158.00 MW (as on March 31,
2011). In terms of wind power installed capacity, India is ranked fifth in the world. Today,
India is a major player in the global wind energy market.

The potential is far from exhausted. Indian Wind Energy Association has estimated that
with the current level of technology, the ‘on-shore’ potential for utilization of wind energy
for electricity generation is of the order of 65,000 MW. The unexploited resource availability
has the potential to sustain the growth of wind energy sector in India in the years to come.

Wind in India are influenced by the strong south-west summer monsoon, which starts in
May-June, when cool, humid air moves towards the land; further, the weak north-east winter
monsoon, which starts in October, when cool, dry air moves towards the ocean. During
March-August, the winds are uniformly strong over the whole Indian Peninsula, except the
eastern peninsular coast. Wind speeds during November-March are relatively weak, although
high winds are available during a part of the period on the Tamil Nadu coastline. A notable
feature of the Indian programme has been the interest among private investors or developers
in setting up of commercial wind power projects. The gross potential is 48,561 MW (source
C-wet) and a total of about 14,158.00 MW of commercial projects have been established until
March 31, 2011. The break-up of projects implemented in prominent wind potential states (as
on March 31, 2011) is as given in Table 6.2.

Table 6.2 State-wise Wind Power Installed Capacity in India

Wind power potential has been assessed assuming 1% of land availability for wind farms
requiring at 12 hectare/MW in sites having wind power density in excess of 200 W/m 2 at 50
m hub-height.

6.5 WIND TURBINE SITE SELECTION

The selection of a wind farm site is complex and time consuming, and also it involves
multiple disciplines working on parallel paths. Financing, government permits,
meteorological studies, land use restrictions, and design have to be completed well along
before a site is approved and before the construction can begin. However, it is imperative in
all of the above-referenced steps that construction expertise be involved and consulted to
achieve maximum use of the approved site. Generally, there are three principle sources of
construction expertise participating in wind farm projects. They are the design team
responsible for conceptual and eventual site design, the developer or construction manager of
the project, and the wind turbine generator contractor.

Wind is the energy resource that drives a wind turbine. A windmill needs to be placed on a
high tower located in wind area. Not just any wind will do, a wind turbine needs air that
moves uniformly in the same direction. Eddies and swirls, ‘turbulence’ in short, does not
make good resource for a wind turbine. The rotor cannot extract energy from turbulent wind,
and the constantly changing wind direction due to turbulence causes excessive wear and
premature failure of turbine. This means that turbine must be placed high enough to catch
strong winds, and above turbulent air. Since the tower price goes up quickly with height,
there is a limit to what is practical and affordable.

6.5.1 Turbine Height

In general, wind turbines should be sited well above trees, buildings, and other obstacles.
When the wind flows over an obstacle like a building or a tree, the wind is slowed down and
turbulent air is created, and if a wind turbine is located in this zone of turbulence, the result
will be poor energy production and increased wear and tear on the turbine. One way to get
above the zone of turbulence is to put the wind turbine on a tall tower.

Figure 6.2 is an illustration of a simple rule of thumb that is often used to specify a
minimum tower height for a residential-sized wind turbine. The rule of thumb is to make sure
that the tower is tall enough so that the entire turbine rotor is at least 10 m above the tallest
obstacle within 150 m of the tower. Because trees grow and towers do not, the growth of
trees over the lifetime of the wind turbine (typically 20–30 years between major rebuilds)
should be considered in installation.

Figure 6.2 Installation of wind turbine (simple rule of thumb)

This should really be regarded as an absolute minimum for a wind turbine; at 10 m above
an obstacle, there will still be some amount of turbulence and additional clearance is highly
desirable. Changes in height of obstacles should be kept in mind as well. For example, if the
obstacle like trees that are expected to grow up to 20 m high, it is advisable to use a 33-m
tower.

Likewise, a 20-m tower should only be used when the terrain is very flat with no obstacles
in a wide area around; for example, at the edge of the sea, or on top of a cliff with a clear area
around it, or in the tundra. For most situations, a 20-m tower will only save a little money up
front, while short selling energy production in the long run. To go beyond the rule of thumb,
the airflow over any blunt obstruction, including a tree, tends to create a ‘bubble’ of turbulent
air of twice the height of the obstacle, extending 20 times the height of the obstacle behind it.
Therefore, your 10-m high house disturbs the air up to 200 m away. The tree line with 33 m
trees disturbs the air up to 70 m high at a distance of 300 m away (see Fig. 6.3). Wind turbine
may be located either upwind of the obstructions, or far enough downwind. Notice from
Figure (6.3) that preference should be given to a site upwind of obstructions, but keep in
mind that tall features downwind of the turbine can also influence the wind going through the
blades, as shown in Figure (6.3).

Figure 6.3 Installation of wind turbines

Upwind and downwind are relative to the prevailing wind direction, where the wind blows
from most of the time.

The airflow at the top of the cliff can be stronger than the average wind speed in the area,
but close to the cliff’s edge, it may also be very turbulent, making it a poor site for a turbine.

If there is a cliff edge on land and want to use it for installing a wind turbine, a 20 m high
tower should be used to get above the turbulent air.

Figure 6.4 Wind speed around a cliff

 Figure 6.5 Airflow at different levels of cliff

Weather data usually reports wind speeds at 10 m above the ground level, and the
spreadsheet can take care of translating that to a wind speed at turbine height. In order to
understand how changes in tower height affect the power in the wind for an unobstructed site,
the process is shown in Figure 6.5.

The energy in the wind increases with the cube of the wind speed (PαV3), and wind speed
increases with height. An increase of just 26% in wind speed means twice as much power
available in the wind, and your wind turbine will produce almost twice as much. By doubling
the wind speed, almost eight times as much power can be harvested. Therefore, a small
additional investment in tower height may be well worth it due to the increased energy
production (see Fig. 6.6).

Figure 6.6 Wind power versus tower height

6.5.2 Considerations and Guidelines for Site Selection

When looking for a place for a wind turbine, engineers consider factors such as wind hazards,
characteristics of the land that affect wind speed, and the effects of one turbine on nearby
turbines in wind farms. The following important factors need careful considerations:

1. Hill effect: When it approaches a hill, wind encounters high pressure because of the
wind that has already built up against the hill. This compressed air rises and gains
speed as it approaches the crest, or top of the hill. The installation of wind turbines on
hilltops takes advantage of this increase in speed.
2. Roughness or the amount of friction that earth’s surface exerts on wind: Oceans have
very little roughness. A city or a forest has a great deal of roughness, which slows the
wind.
3. Tunnel effect: The increase in air pressure undergoes when it encounters a solid
obstacle. The increased air pressure causes the wind to gain speed as it passes
between, for example, rows of buildings in a city or between two mountains. Placing
a wind turbine in a mountain pass can be a good way to take advantage of wind
speeds that are higher than those of the surrounding air.
4. Turbulence: Rapid changes in the speed and direction of the wind, often caused by the
wind blowing over natural or artificial barriers are called turbulence. Turbulence
causes not only fluctuations in the speed of the wind but also wear and tear on the
turbine. Turbines are mounted on tall towers to avoid turbulence caused by ground
obstacles.
5. Variations in wind speed: During the day, winds usually blow faster than they do at
the night because the sun heats the air, setting air currents in motion. In addition, wind
speed can differ depending on the season of the year. This difference is a function of
the sun, which heats different air masses around earth at different rates, depending on
the tilt of the earth towards or away from the sun.
6. Wake: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. As wind passes over the blades of
a turbine, the turbine seizes much of the energy and converts it into mechanical
energy. The air coming out of the blade sweep has less energy because it has been
slowed. The abrupt change in the speed makes the wind turbulent, a phenomenon
called wake. Because of wake, wind turbines in a wind farm are generally placed
about three rotor diameters away from one another in the direction of the wind, so that
the wake from one turbine does not interfere with the operation of the one behind it.
7. Wind obstacles: Trees, buildings, and rock formations are the main obstacles in the
installation of wind turbines. Any of these obstacles can reduce wind speed
considerably and increase turbulence.
8. Wind shear: It is the differences in wind speeds at different heights. When a turbine
blade is pointed straight upward, the speed of the wind hitting its tip can be, for
example, 9 miles (14 km) per hour, but when the blade is pointing straight downward,
the speed of the wind hitting its tip can be 7 miles (11 km) per hour. This difference
places stress on the blades. Further, too much wind shear can cause the turbine to fail.

Choosing the right site for wind turbine is the most important decision. Further, the location
plays a vital part in the performance and efficiency of a wind turbine. The following
guidelines can be followed to evaluate site for the installation of wind turbines:

1. Turbines work best when on high and exposed sites. Coastal sites are especially good.
 2. Town centres and highly populated residential areas are usually not suitable sites for
wind turbines.
3. Avoid roof-mounted turbines as there is no guarantee that these devices will not
damage property through vibration.
4. The farther the distance between the turbine and the power requirement, the more
power will be lost in the cable. The distance of the cabling will also impact the overall
cost of the installation.
5. Turbulence disrupts the air flow that can wear down the blades and reduces the
lifecycle of the turbine. It is recommended that installing a turbine may be considered
only when the distance between the turbine and the nearest obstacle is more than
twice the height of the turbine, or when the height of the turbine is more than twice
the height of the nearest obstacle.
6. Small turbines require an average wind speed of over 4.5 m/s to produce an efficient
level of electricity.
7. If site is in a remote location, connecting wind turbine to the national grid will be very
expensive and it may be worth considering an off-grid connection instead using
battery storage.

6.5.3 Wind Turbine Power Output Variation with Steady Wind Speed

Figure 6.7 gives the power output from a wind turbine variation with steady wind speed.

Figure 6.7 Wind turbine power output with steady wind speed

There are five important characteristic wind speeds and they are as follows:

1. Start-up speed is the speed at which the rotor and blade assembly begin to rotate.
2. The cut-in wind speed is the speed when the machine begins to produce power.
3. The design wind speed is the speed when the windmill reaches its maximum
efficiency.
4. The rated wind speed is the speed when the machine reaches its maximum output
power.
 5. The furling wind speed is the speed when the machine furls to prevent damage at high
wind speeds.

Cut-in speed is the minimum wind speed at which the wind turbine will generate usable
power. This wind speed is typically between 7 and 10 mph for most turbines. At very low
wind speeds, there is insufficient torque exerted by the wind on the turbine blades to make
them rotate. However, as the speed increases, the wind turbine will begin to rotate and
generate electrical power. The speed at which the turbine first starts to rotate and generate
power is called the cut-in speed and is typically between 3 and 4 m/s.

Rated speed At wind speeds between cut-in and rated, the power output from a wind
turbine increases as the wind increases. The output of most machines levels off above the
rated speed. Most manufacturers provide graphs, called ‘power curves,’ showing how their
wind turbine output varies with wind speed. As the wind speed rises above the cut-in speed,
the level of electrical output power rises rapidly as shown. However, typically somewhere
between 12 m/s and 17 m/s, the power output reaches the limit that the electrical generator is
capable of. This limit to the generator output is called the rated power output and the wind
speed at which it is reached is called the rated output wind speed. At high wind speeds, the
design of the turbine is arranged to limit the power to this maximum level and there is no
further rise in the output power. How this is done varies from design to design; however,
typically, with large turbines, it is done by adjusting the blade angles so as to keep the power
at the constant level.

Cut-out speed At very high wind speeds, usually around 25 m/s, most wind turbines cease
power generation and shutdown. The wind speed at which the shutdown occurs is called the
cut-out speed, or sometimes the furling speed. Having a cut-out speed is a safety feature that
protects the wind turbine from damage. Shutdown may occur in one of the several ways. In
some machines, an automatic brake is activated by a wind speed sensor. Some machines twist
or ‘pitch’ the blades to spill the wind. Still others use ‘spoilers,’ drag flaps mounted on the
blades or the hub that are automatically activated by high rotor rpms, or mechanically
activated by a spring-loaded device, which turns the machine sideways to the wind stream.
Normal wind turbine operation usually resumes when the wind drops back to a safe level. As
the speed increases above the rate output wind speed, the forces on the turbine structure
continue to rise and, at some point, there is a risk of damage to the rotor. As a result, a
braking system is employed to bring the rotor to a standstill.

6.5.4 Parts of a Wind Turbine

1. The nacelle contains the key components of the wind turbine, including the gearbox
and the electrical generator.
2. The tower of the wind turbine carries the nacelle and the rotor. Generally, it is an
advantage to have a high tower, since wind speeds increase farther away from the
ground.
3. The rotor blades capture wind energy and transfer its power to the rotor hub.
4. The generator converts the mechanical energy of the rotating shaft to electrical
energy.
5. The gearbox increases the rotational speed of the shaft for the generator.
6.5.5 Blade Count

The determination of the number of blades involves design considerations of aerodynamic

efficiency, component costs, system reliability, and aesthetics. Wind turbines developed over
the last 50 years have almost universally used either two or three blades. Aerodynamic
efficiency increases with number of blades but with diminishing return. Increasing the
number of blades from one to two yields a 6% increase in aerodynamic efficiency, whereas
increasing the blade count from two to three yields only an additional 3% in efficiency.
Further increasing the blade count yields minimal improvements in aerodynamic efficiency
and sacrifices too much in blade stiffness as the blades become thinner.

Component costs that are affected by blade count are primarily for materials and
manufacturing of the turbine rotor and drive train. Generally, the fewer the number of blades,
the lower the material and manufacturing costs will be.

The limitation on the available power in the wind means that the more the blades are, the
lesser the power each can extract. A consequence of this is that each blade must also be
narrower to maintain aerodynamic efficiency.

For this reason, most large machines do not have more than three blades. The other factor
influencing the number of blades is aesthetics: it is generally accepted that three-bladed
turbines are less visually disturbing than one- or two-bladed designs.