DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HYBRID BIODIESEL-MAKING MACHINE FROM

RIPE ARATILIS FRUIT

A Project Proposal

Presented to the Faculty of the Mechanical Engineering

College of Engineering

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

The National Engineering University

Alangilan Campus

Alangilan, Batangas City

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree in Bachelor

Of Science in Mechanical Engineering

by

EVANGELISTA, NATHAN S.

EVANGELISTA, RYSEL DOMINIC C.

LASHERAS, KENN JOHN LOYD R.

December 2022
 DECLARATION

The researchers hereby declare that the thesis paper entitled " DESIGN AND

DEVELOPMENT OF HYBRID BIODIESEL-MAKING MACHINE FROM RIPE ARATILIS

FRUIT" presented to the faculty of the Mechanical Engineering Department was

completed entirely by the researchers' own work and effort with the provisions and

assistance of Engr. Mary Joan Leacille M. Ilao, Research Methods instructor at Batangas

State University (The National Engineering University). In Partial Fulfillment Of the

Requirements for the Degree in Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering.

 APPROVAL SHEET

This project study entitled “DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF HYBRID BIODIESEL-

MAKING MACHINE FROM RIPE ARATILIS FRUIT” prepared and submitted by

Nathan S. Evangelista, Rysel Dominic C. Evangelista, and Kenn John Loyd R.

Lasheras. In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of

Science in Mechanical Engineering has been examined and is recommended for oral

examination.

Mary Joan Leacille M. Ilao

Adviser

Approved by the Committee of Oral Examination with a grade of

Panel of Examiner

Chairman

Member Member

Accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the

Degree Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering.

December 2022 DR. REYNATO A. GAMBOA

Date Dean, CoE

 DEDICATION

This research is proudly dedicated to our beloved parents, who have been a

source of inspiration and strength when the researcher felt like giving up, and who

continue to provide moral, spiritual, emotional, and financial support.

To our brothers, sisters, classmates, mentors, and circle of friends who gave the

researchers’ words of wisdom and encouragement to complete this study.

Finally, the researcher dedicated this book to the Almighty God, expressing

gratitude for his guidance, strength, mental power, and protection as well as for providing

us with a healthy life.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The culmination of this humble work would not be possible without the intellectual,

moral, and financial assistance of the following generous individuals to whom the

researchers express their sincere gratitude.

To the beloved Families of the researchers, for their moral and financial aid as

well as the everlasting support;

To Engr. Mary Joan Leacille M. Ilao, research teacher, for her constant help,

provisions, and assistance, for her lasting patience in leading and directing the

researchers, and for staying in times of difficulty and struggle in the study.

To Dr. Micheal A. Aloria, previous research method instructor, for his guidance

and advice, valuable comments, and suggestions that benefited the researcher.

Sincere appreciation is also given to all people who remained anonymous but

shared their time and talents to make this work a reality.

And above all, to the Great Provider, Our Almighty God, for his unstoppable love

and guidance as this study progresses.

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1

Introduction 1

Background of the Study 2

Research Questions 3

Research Objectives 4

Importance of the Study 5

Scope and Delimitations of the Study 7

Definition of Terms 7

CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW 10

Conceptual Literature 10

Research Literature 18

Synthesis 51

CHAPTER III. DESIGN AND METHODS 53

Conceptual Framework 53

Technical Design and Procedure 55

Equipment/Facilities/Programs 58
 Data Collection and Treatment 63

Budget Requirements 71

Expected Output 72

Gantt Chart 74

BIBILIOGRAPHY 75

APPENDICES 103

Schematic Diagram 103

Curriculum Vitae 105

 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

Opportunities and challenges associated with biodiesel production and use 16

Biodiesel production technologies 22

Examples of oil sources for biodiesel 28

FFA range in different oil feedstocks 29

Common fatty acid in waste vegetable oil 30

General properties of WVO 32

Biodiesel Production from Waste Vegetable Oil 32

Summary of reaction conditions and performance of various catalysts 41

Opportunities and challenges of calcined CaO catalyst 42

Impurities effects on Biodiesel 43

Overview of Budget Requirements for the Proposed Design 71

 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

Transesterification reaction 25

Base-catalysed transesterification mechanism 25

Acid-catalysed by a transesterification mechanism 26

Classification of catalyst 36

Schematic of ion-exchange mechanics 44

Research Paradigm of the Study 55

Process Flow Diagram 59

Input-Output for PLR Control System in Project 63

Isometric view with parts of Hybrid Biodiesel Making Machine 74

Gantt Chart of the Proposed Project 74

 LIST OF EQUATIONS

EQUATION PAGE

Production Rate (PR) 65

Percent Fuel Oil Yield (PFY) 66

Energy Efficiency (E) 67

Density (ρ) 67

Kinematic Viscosity (KV) 68

Energy Consumption (EC) 69

Annual Energy Consumption (AECC) 70

Total Annual Cost (TAC) 70

Annual Profit (AP) 71

Benefit-Cost Ratio 71
 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the introduction, background of the study, research

questions, objective of the study, scope and delimitation of the study, and importance of

the study.

Introduction

As the community progressively embraces the integration of technology into

contemporary life, compromises are in order to meet such a standardized demand.

Moreover, one commodity experiencing a gradual rise in demand is fossil fuels. These

types of commodities are essential in some technologies in order to perform their

functions efficiently with little to no human intervention. Fossil fuels, such as gasoline and

diesel, continue to be highly sought after as the contemporary community continues to

innovate technologically advanced applications for them.

However, fossil fuel is a non-renewable resource. This would imply that acquiring

the volume of these fuels for technology would eventually compromise the future of the

community. Presently, the communities in the Philippines are experiencing an inflation in

diesel fuel as the demand for them continues to increase while the supply continues to

decrease. Consequently, the price of diesel becomes unbalanced with the volume of fuel

it purchases. This in turn creates a dilemma for community members in the acquisition of

diesel fuel. On one end, the current situation of diesel prices would mean buying more

fuel would generate a greater expenditure. On the other end, buying less fuel would mean

an insufficient supply for a particular use. Furthermore, most of the middle class finds it

1
difficult to afford a high-priced commodity, so this would also suggest that the middle class

will be the most affected by the diesel price hike.

To counteract the exhaustion of this non-renewable resource, previous efforts were

made to process and produce alternative sources of fuels that originate from abundant,

renewable sources. In a tropical country such as the Philippines, an invasive yet very

abundant source of bioethanol is the aratilis fruit. However, in light of the fuel crisis on

diesel, the problem to be addressed is the production of biodiesel utilizing the supply of

aratilis fruit through the design and development of a machine to achieve such.

Background of the Study

Diesel fuel is used in a variety of industries as a source of combustible renewables.

These commodities are particularly useful in the provision of thermal, electrical, and

mechanical energies to various systems. In turn, diesel became a necessity in the

effective operation of industrial systems and machines.

However, as the depletion of these commodities continues to reflect on the

progressively increasing price of the fuel, a number of efforts are made to develop a

method that produces the same fuel source using more readily available resources as a

way to attain the same output using a more sustainable means. In this case, this thesis

project aims to design and develop a system that produces biodiesel to be used for diesel-

powered machines. It also aims to address the economic strain it causes on the middle

classes in the Philippine demographic as this would provide them with alternative sources

for some of their technological lifestyle.

2
 Additionally, part of the background is the target beneficiaries of the study. As

stated, this thesis project largely benefits the middle class as this would provide them with

a cost-efficient alternative to achieve the same performance on diesel-powered

technology. Part of this middle class is companies that use diesel-powered backup

generators, and middle-class households that own diesel-powered backup generators.

This thesis project intends to use the araitilis fruit in the production of biodiesel as

a catalyst to convert bioethanol to biodiesel. This implies that the group intends to produce

bioethanol in the preparation phase and then process the byproducts to produce the

biodiesel. Moreover, the group intends to design and develop a biodiesel-making machine

to be automated through the use of performance sensors to monitor and regulate the

processing and production of biodiesel.

Research Questions

1. What are the parts and design of a hybrid biodiesel-making machine?

2. What should be considered in the preliminary testing of hybrid biodiesel-making

machines?

3. What should be considered in the performance of the biodiesel-making machine

to produce alternative fuel oil?

4. What are the properties of the fuel oil obtained, and how is it related to the

existing fuel oil?

5. How is obtaining biodiesel beneficial to the economy?

3
Research Objectives

The main objective of the study is to design and develop a hybrid biodiesel-making

machine to produce biodiesel out of ripe aratilis fruit

Specifically, this study aimed to:

1. Design a hybrid biodiesel-making machine that considered the following:

a) Mixing chamber

b) Reactor

c) Separation tank

d) Fermentation set-up

e) Distillation and Purification set-up

2. Conduct preliminary testing of the fabricated machine to establish the following:

2.1. operating temperature

2.2. operating time

3. Evaluate the performance of the biodiesel-making machine to produce alternative fuel

oil in terms of:

3.1. production rate

3.2. percent fuel oil yield; and

3.3. energy efficiency

4. Test and evaluate the properties of the fuel oil obtained, and

4
compare to the target existing fuel oil in terms of:

4.1. carbon content

4.2. density

4.3. flash point

4.4. kinematic viscosity

4.5. boiling point

4.6. cloud point

4.7. pour point

5. Perform a cost-benefit analysis to evaluate the economic viability of the machine in

terms of:

5.1. energy consumption

5.2. annual energy consumption cost (AECC)

5.3. total annual cost

5.4. annual profit

5.5. benefit-cost ratio

Importance of the Study

This study will focus mainly on the design and development of hybrid biodiesel-

making machines from ripe aratilis fruit for alternative fuel production.

Furthermore, this study will be beneficial for the following:

5
 To the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), this study will serve as a

stepping stone for future modification and integration of designing hybrid biodiesel-

making machines for an alternative production of fuels.

To the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), this study will

serve as an innovative method in proving the beneficial effects of green fuels and

minimizing the use of fossil fuels.

To the Department of Energy (DOE), this study will serve as additional research

for the utilization of biodiesel and will help for the conservation of non-renewable

resources.

To the farmers of Malalim Multi-purpose Cooperative, this study will serve as a

supplementary approach for the innovation of the production of biodiesel-making

machines to produce bio-fuels. Furthermore, biodiesel will be useful to the farmers in

producing biodiesel to meet their own needs by growing and harvesting an oil crop and

converting it into biodiesel.

To the researchers, this study will incorporate the theories and concepts learned

from the previous courses, by applying them in the design and development of the

proposed system.

To future researchers and readers, this study will serve as a source of information

for the innovation of existing projects on the design and development of biodiesel-making

machines for the production of alternative fuels.

6
Scope and Delimitations of the Study

This research focuses on the production of biodiesel from ripe aratilis fruits via an

automatic biodiesel-making machine. The research includes the design and development

of a biodiesel production machine.

This study only used Aratilis fruit as a feedstock in the production of biodiesel

because it is the only species in the genus native to the Philippines. In terms of raw

material availability in a tropical country such as the Philippines, a noxious but abundant

source of the aratilis fruit is the source of bioethanol. The researchers were only using the

aratilis fruit as a source of biodiesel.

Furthermore, this study will be limited to the design and development of biodiesel-

making machines and did not include the process of using them in diesel engines of

buses, trucks, and cars. biodiesel is only used to power diesel generators in this thesis

project. It primarily benefits the middle class by offering a more cost-effective alternative

to diesel-powered technology.

Definition of Terms

Annual energy consumption cost. The average daily energy consumption

multiplied by 365 (days per year) and expressed in kilowatt-hours per year.

Aratilis Fruit. Among unexplored fruits, Aratilis (Muntingia calabura) has latent

qualities that indicate the potential for ethanol production. It is one of the less well-known

and less prominent natural fruits that has been found to be extremely beneficial. Aratilis

fruit is a fast-growing tropical flowering tree native to the American mainland and other

warm Asian countries such as Southern Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America, South

7
America, Northern Argentina, Peru, and Bolivia. It is currently cultivated and naturalized

in Southeast Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines), Australia, and the Pacific

Ocean islands due to its edible fruit.

Biodiesel. Biodiesel is a fuel that is similar to conventional or "fossil" diesel.

Straight vegetable oil, animal oil/fats, tallow, and waste cooking oil can all be used to

make biodiesel.

Bioethanol. Bioethanol, also known as fuel alcohol, is ethyl alcohol produced by

plants. fermentation by microorganisms (as opposed to petrochemically-derived alcohol).

It is produced by distilling the ethanolic wash produced by fermentation of sugars derived

from biomass and can be used as a liquid fuel in internal combustion engines, either alone

or in gasoline blends It refers to this study. ethanol produced by fermenting and distilling

ripe aratilis fruits

Catalyst. Increases the rate of the reaction, thereby increasing the product yield

Various catalysts are used in the biodiesel transesterification process.

Cost-Benefit Analysis. The process of calculating the benefits of making a

decision or taking action minus the costs of doing so.

Density. One of the most important biodiesel properties is density because engine

injection systems (pumps and injectors) must deliver a precise amount of fuel to ensure

proper combustion while minimizing greenhouse gas emissions.

Efficiency. Biofuels are a viable substitute for gasoline. Biofuels not only burn

cleaner than gasoline while lowering GHG emissions, but they are also less expensive

due to improved farming methods.

8
 Energy Consumption. Refers to all the energy used to perform an action,

manufacture something or simply inhabit a building.

Flash Point. The lowest temperature at which fuel produces enough vapor to

ignite, resulting in flame formation The flash point of biodiesel is higher than that of

conventional diesel.

Cloud Point. the temperature at which a cloud of wax crystal first appears in the

oil when it is cooled.

Pour Point. the lowest temperature at which the oil sample can still be moved.

Fuel Oil. Any liquid fuel that is burned in a furnace or boiler to generate heat or

used in an engine to generate power is referred to as fuel oil.

Kinematic. Kinematics is a physics subfield derived from classical mechanics that

describes the motion of points, bodies, and systems of bodies without taking into account

the forces that cause them to move.

Percent Fuel Oil Yield. Represents the percentage of finished product produced

from crude oil input and net.

Production Rate. In the manufacturing industry, refers to the number of goods

that can be produced in a given amount of time.

Total Annual Cost. The sum of the normal cost plus the supplemental annual

cost.

9
 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter provides a discussion of relevant literature that will serve as a

foundation for the research study's development. It exhibits useful information and

materials that are relevant to the study's subject matter. It will compose of three

parts: the conceptual literature, research literature and the synthesis.

Conceptual Literature

This section presents the related topics and relevant theories from various

sources that contain information for a thorough understanding of the study.

Diesel and Biofuels

Diesel is a naturally occurring liquid composed of a complex mixture of

hydrocarbons with varying subatomic loads. which are responsible for its physical and

chemical properties (heating value, color, and viscosity). Diesel is purified and separated

from its crude material products, and 84% of the hydrocarbons in petroleum are converted

into energy-rich fuels such as gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, heating, and liquefied petroleum

gases, while the remaining oil is converted into pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers,

pesticides, and plastics (Chang, et. al, 2017). This is why, despite the fact that diesel

accounts for half of the world's primary energy, many countries continue to be concerned

about it (Martinez, 2018).

10
 The previous and current trends focused on biomass (bioenergy), as there is a

global interest in the production and use of biofuels (Prasad & Dhanya, 2019). Biomass

is organic waste produced by plants, animals, and even microorganisms. Where energy

is stored as a result of solar absorption (Vimeux et al,2019). Biomass fuel examples

include wood, crops, and algae. When something was burned, it released energy in the

form of heat. It can also be converted into other biofuels such as bioethanol and biodiesel

using raw materials such as corn, soybeans, willow switch grass, rapeseed, sugar beet,

palm oil, and sorghum. Biogas is produced by the anaerobic respiration of biomass,

whereas syngas is produced by gasification, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide

that can be converted to liquid fuels (Kumar, et.al, 2017). Biofuels are already the primary

source of energy for half of the world's population, accounting for more than 90% of

energy consumption in poor developing countries (Msangi, et.al, 2018).

Because of the scarcity of conventional fossil fuels, rising emissions of

combustion-generated pollutants, and rising costs, biomass sources will become more

appealing (Sensoz et al., 2000). Biomass use, on the other hand, in which many people

are already interested, has the properties of being both a biomass source and a carbon-

neutral source (Coyle, W, 2007). According to experts, current oil and gas reserves are

only enough to last a few more decades. Fuels such as biodiesel and bioethanol are at

the forefront of alternative technologies to meet rising energy demand and replace

diminishing petroleum reserves. As a result, biodiesel is a viable alternative for

compression-ignition engines.

Traditional energy sources such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas meet the majority of

energy demand. Petroleum-based fuel reserves are limited and concentrated in certain

11
parts of the world. These sources are nearing the end of their productive life. Because of

the scarcity of known petroleum reserves, renewable energy sources will become more

appealing ( Shen, F., 2017)

Society recognized the need for sustainable and environmentally-friendly energy

(Morais, et.al, 2017), so they placed greater significance to seek for alternative diesel to

meet environmental needs (Balat, M. & Balat H., 2018). Increased demands on

commercial diesel due to the rapid development of industry and automobile society also

leads to the exploration of alternative diesel such as biodiesel for transportation

(Demirbas, 2018). Biodiesel, which is classified as biofuel and bioethanol has been

considered the most promising alternative diesel to replace conventional diesel

(Demirbas, 2017). It has been shown to increase energy security and reduce carbon

emissions (Hammond, et.al, 2019) where more than 70% of global carbon monoxide (CO)

and 19% of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions will be lessened (Mohan, et. al, 2019).

However, diesel generated from consumable sources has aligned with major

environmental concerns such as food shortages and significant destruction of vital soil

resources, placing a heavy emphasis on the use of crop residue and other biomass rather

than the crops themselves (Pimentel, 2018). This could be accomplished by using

renewable biomass such as wood, fruit waste, agricultural and forest residues, or inedible

cellulose derived from plants (Kumar, et.al, 2018)

A diesel engine's fuel system is designed and calibrated so that it does not inject

more fuel than the engine can completely consume through combustion. If there is an

excess of fuel, the engine will be unable to consume it completely, resulting in black

smoke from incomplete combustion. The start of smoke production is referred to as the

12
Limit of smoking Most countries set exhaust smoke standards for high-speed, heavy-duty

engines. Under specified test conditions, the opacity of smoke in the United States may

not exceed 20% during engine acceleration mode or 15% during engine lugging mode.

Diesel fuel is used for a variety of tasks. Diesel engines in trucks, trains, boats, and barges

help transport nearly all of the products people consume. Diesel fuel is commonly used

in public and school buses. Diesel fuel powers the majority of farm and construction

equipment in the United States. The construction industry is also reliant on the power

provided by diesel fuel. Diesel engines can safely and efficiently lift steel beams, dig

foundations and trenches, drill wells, pave roads, and move soil. Diesel fuel is less

flammable and explosive than other fuels. Diesel engines are also less likely to stall than

gasoline engines. Diesel fuel is also used in diesel engine generators to generate

electricity. Many industrial facilities, large buildings, institutional facilities, hospitals, and

electric utilities have diesel generators for backup and emergency power supply. The

primary source of electricity in most Alaskan remote villages is diesel generators ( John

Bacha, 2017).

Global energy demand is increasing. Using alternative fuels is the most practical

way to meet this rising demand. Biofuel, specifically biodiesel, is one such fuel with great

potential (Fernando et al., 2006). The term biofuel can refer to a liquid or gaseous

transportation fuels derived primarily from biomass (Demirbas, 2006). Biofuels are used

for a variety of reasons, including energy security, environmental concerns, foreign

exchange savings, and socioeconomic benefits issues concerning the rural sector

(Reijnders, 2006). There is a growing trend in developed countries toward the use of

13
modern technologies and efficient bioenergy conversion using a variety of biofuels, which

are becoming cost competitive with fossil fuels (Puhan et al., 2005).

It is well known that transportation is almost entirely reliant on fossil-based fuels,

particularly petroleum-based fuels such as gasoline, diesel fuel, liquefied petroleum gas

(LPG), and natural gas (NG). An alternative fuel to petrodiesel must be technically

feasible, economically competitive, environmentally acceptable, and easily accessible.

The current alternative diesel fuel is known as biodiesel. Biodiesel use may improve some

pollutant emissions while worsening others. However, In order to quantify the impact of

biodiesel, several other factors must be considered, such as raw material, driving cycle,

and vehicle technology. The use of biodiesel will allow a balance to be sought between

agriculture, economic development, and the environment (Meher et al., 2006).

Biodiesel

Biodiesel is utilized in numerous nations:nations of the United States of America

(including Brazil);Europe (Germany, Italy, and France);and Asian nations (Malaysia,

Indonesia).Nearly 85% of biodiesel is produced in Europe, where production has

increased from 15,000 barrels per day in 2000 to 289,000 barrels per day in 2008 (Atabani

et al.,2012).The type of feedstock, geographical location, and fluctuation in seasonal crop

production all influence the price of biodiesel fuel.In developed nations, the price of

biodiesel fuel is 1.5 to 3 times higher than the price of fossil diesel fuel (Yusuf et al.,2011).

As of now there are four principal focuses in volume of biodiesel utilized on the

lookout (Yusuf et al.,2011):

14
 • Pure B100:this is the unadulterated biodiesel gotten after cleaning with a

convergence of 100 percent biodiesel, exceptionally intriguing available;

• Mixtures (B20-B30):fuel containing 20-30% biodiesel, the most widely available

fuel;

• B5 additive:fuel containing 5 percent biodiesel without requiring engine

modification;and

• B2 with lubricity-addition:fuel containing biodiesel at a concentration of 2%.

Depending on the oil used, biodiesel typically consists of five main saturated and

unsaturated methyl esters:1) C17H34O2 methyl palmitate;2) C19H36O2 methyl

stearate;3) C19H34O2 methyl oleate, and 4) C19H30O2 methyl linoleate;and 5)

C19H30O2 methyl linolenate (Herbinet et al.,2008;Grana and other,2012).According to

Ong et al., biodiesels that contain a lot of methyl oleate, which is a monounsaturated fatty

acid, exhibit excellent characteristics in terms of ignition quality, fuel stability, and flow

properties at low temperatures.2013).Different investigations on the characterisation

properties of biodiesel have recommended that the presence of unsaturated fat

organization disrupts the fuel properties and nature of biodiesel like virus stream

properties (pour point and cloud point), cetane number and oxidation solidness (Yusuf et

al.,2011;Ong and other,2013).Due to the absence of a double bond, saturated chains

typically raise the cloud point, cetane number, and stability of methyl esters (Ong et

al.,2013).

There are a number of promising properties and applications that biodiesel has

demonstrated. However, there are some limitations that make its application difficult

(Table 2.1).

15
Table 2.1: Opportunities and challenges associated with biodiesel production and

use (Yusuf et al., 2011)

Application of Diesel and Biodiesel

Biodiesel production is expected to escalate in the coming years. Biodiesel

provides the promise of numerous benefits related to energy security, economics, and

agricultural sector expansion as well as a reduction in pollutant emissions. Despite its

numerous benefits as a renewable alternative fuel, biodiesel has a number of issues that

must be addressed before it can be considered more appealing as an alternative fuel to

substitute for petroleum diesel. Biodiesel, which is abundant in raw materials and has

excellent dynamic properties, has a number of countries that have expressed interest in

it, and it is environmentally friendly. These are the advantages of biodiesel that will

16
continue to ensure that there is a sizable market for this appealing alternative to

conventional diesel fuel derived from petroleum (Daming Huang, Haining Zhou, Lin Lin,

2018).

Biodiesel is a significant alternative vehicle fuel. It has excellent properties as a

diesel engine fuel. It can thus be used in diesel engines with compression ignition.

Biodiesel has the potential to be derived from a variety of vegetable oils or animal fats

feedstock. Direct use of vegetable oil and animal fat as diesel fuel engines is constrained

by two major factors: low volatility and high cost. An alkali-catalyzed reaction is used in

traditional processing. process, but it is difficult for low-cost, high-free fatty acids. Soap

formation produces an acidic feedstock. Biodiesel, also known as a clean fuel, does not

contain carcinogenic substances and has a lower sulfur content than petro-diesel.

Biodiesel's high biodegradability and superior performance. When used in compression

ignition engines, it has a lubricating property. This makes it an excellent fuel. Furthermore,

its renewability and physicochemical properties similar to petro-diesel revealed its

potential and practical usability as a fuel for the replacement of petro-diesel in the near

future (Boey PL, Gaanty PM, Shafida A,2017).

Biodiesel as a diesel fuel substitute could only be used successfully in

compression-ignition diesel engines if its physical and chemical properties meet the

international biodiesel standard specifications. The cetane number, density, viscosity,

cloud and pour points, flash point, copper corrosion, ash content, distillation range, sulfur

content, carbon residue, acid value, free glycerine content, total glycerine content, and

higher heating value distinguish biodiesel fuels. The viscosity of vegetable oils drops

17
dramatically after the transesterification reaction (Sharma YC, Singh B, Upadhyay SN,

2018).

Biodiesel is an oxygenated mono-alkyl ester-based fuel that burns cleanly. Fuel is

derived from natural, renewable, and long-term sources such as well as vegetable oils,

used cooking oils, and animal fats. The bodily and chemical properties of biodiesel fuel

have been demonstrated to be similar to and compatible with petro-diesel fuels. It has

been demonstrated that using it on diesel engines increases the It improves engine

performance and reduces greenhouse gas emissions. The biggest advantage of using is

that it reduces gas emissions. Biodiesel fuel is used in diesel engines (Avinash K, 2017).

Research Literature

Bioethanol to Biodiesel Conversion

Countries that want to reduce their energy dependence on petroleum-exporting

nations are developing alternative energy sources like biofuels in order to meet the rising

demand for energy, the depletion of fossil fuel resources, and the environmental issues

caused by fossil fuel use. Mr. Rudolph Diesel created the first biofuels using vegetable

oils in compression ignition engines as early as the 19th century. Vegetable oils can be

made quickly and easily by simply pressing biomass that contains oil prior to decanting

and filtering. However, some issues arise when vegetable oils are used in diesel engines

designed to run on diesel fuel. Indeed, vegetable oils are more challenging to pump,

inject, and ignite in diesel engines than diesel fuel because of their low cetane number

and their high viscosity. In addition, depending on the nature of the biomass used

upstream and the pressing temperature, using vegetable oils may result in the

18
accumulation of gums in the inner parts of the diesel engine due to the presence of

phospholipids in the fuel. The engine must therefore undergo some modifications. The

modifications aim to maintain a high temperature of vegetable oil in order to reduce

viscosity, improve ignition, and guarantee long-term engine operation. Vegetable oils are

an excellent fuel choice for static engines. After being started, that kind of engine is

designed to run continuously at high temperatures and a high-temperature range.

Vegetable oil, on the other hand, is difficult to use in vehicle engines because of the wide

temperature ranges in the combustion chamber caused by the large load variations.

One alternative is chemically modifying vegetable oils through transesterification

to produce biodiesel, which avoids adopting vehicle engines. The characteristics of this

biofuel are comparable to those of diesel fuel. Therefore, it doesn't require any significant

engine modifications to use it as a standalone fuel or in combination with diesel fuel in

diesel engines. Because biodiesel is an excellent rubber solvent, only a few seals or hose

modifications may be required. As a result, biodiesel is an intriguing alternative to diesel

fuel. In comparison to diesel fuel, it reduces greenhouse gas emissions without sacrificing

engine performance, both of which contribute to sustainable development. Firstly, It

makes it possible to use locally available, renewable resources. And secondly, it reduces

greenhouse gas emissions. Glycerol is produced as a byproduct of the transesterification

reaction, which transforms vegetable oils' triacylglycerides—also known as

triglycerides—into fatty acid alkyl esters known as "biodiesel."The transesterification

response continues by and large with an impetus to speed up. Depending on the

mechanism, catalysts used in the transesterification of triacylglycerides are typically

categorized as homogeneous, heterogeneous, or enzymatic.

19
 Biodiesel is primarily produced industrially from methanol, which is a residue from

a refinery and is therefore primarily produced from fossil fuels. Therefore, the carbon in

the resulting biodiesel is not entirely vegetable. In industrialized nations, technologies for

synthesizing biodiesel from methanol have been extensively studied and improved in

response to the growing interest in biofuels over the past two decades. This led to

processes that are only cost-effective on a large scale and have become increasingly

efficient. The ones with a continuous flow are the most popular because they require

fewer investments and lower operating costs.

In today's world, an ever-increasing number of stakeholders in developing nations

that do not have petroleum refineries to obtain methanol are attempting to develop their

own biodiesel processes using straightforward technologies that make use of resources

that are available locally. As a result, there is a lot of interest in replacing methanol with

ethanol in a more environmentally friendly biodiesel production process. As a result,

processes that employ homogeneous catalysis appear to be the most promising because

they do not necessitate highly refined technology and use less energy and alcohol.

However, future stakeholders should keep in mind that the additional purification steps

that homogeneous catalysts necessitate outweigh the environmental and financial

advantages they offer over heterogeneous catalysts.

Ethanol can be obtained locally as a reactant for the production of biodiesel

because it is produced through alcohol fermentation from renewable agricultural

resources that are abundant in sugar or starch. As a result, the carbon in ethyl esters that

are made is entirely vegetable. It has better solvent properties than other solvents, but

there are some technical limitations, which aren't too bad if the reaction parameters are

20
set up right:I) the presence of emulsions in the last response medium, ii) and the

troublesome recuperation of ethanol. Additionally, secondary reactions can result from

the presence of water in bioethanol as a result of the 95/5 ethanol-water azeotrope formed

during rectification, which can lower yields.

In order to circumvent these limitations, numerous researchers are attempting to

optimize the process because they are aware of the opportunities for developing local

biodiesel production with ethanol and the associated socioeconomic and environmental

benefits.

Biodiesel Production Technologies

From vegetable oils and animal fat, there are four primary methods for producing

biodiesel (Demirbas, 2005;Arjun and other,2008;Zhang and others,2010;Atabani and

other,2012):

• Direct use and blending (dilution) with diesel fuel: mainly vegetable oil is diluted

with diesel to reduce the viscosity and improve the performance of engines;

• Micro-emulsion (supercritical) with a solvent such as methanol, ethanol or other

alcohols;

• Thermal cracking (pyrolysis) by means of heat or by heat with the aid of catalyst:

this method is a thermal decomposition of organic matter in the absence of oxygen

and presence of catalyst; and

• Transesterification, also called alcoholysis, with short chain alcohols in the

presence of catalyst: mixture of oil, catalyst and alcohol with the objective of

reducing the viscosity of oil and producing high quality biodiesel. This is the most

21
 commonly used method and is regarded as the best method among all others, due

to its economic feasibility and simplicity (Vyas et al., 2010; Endalew et al., 2011;

Atadashi et al., 2011; Lin et al., 2011; Atabani et al., 2012).

Atabani and et al. (2011) compared the advantages and disadvantages of various

approaches to the production of biodiesel (Table 2.2).

Table 2.2: Biodiesel production technologies (adapted from Atabani et al., 2012)

Transesterification Process in Biodiesel Production

The process of allowing oil that is not edible to chemically react with alcohol is

known as transesterification or alcoholysis. Due to their low cost and availability, methanol

and ethanol are the alcohols that are utilized the most frequently in this reaction. This

reaction has been widely used to turn triglycerides into ester and reduce the viscosity of

22
non-dairy oil. There are two ways transesterification can be accomplished: noncatalytic

as well as catalytic transesterification. Transesterification is typically used to produce

biodiesel fuels (Fukuda et al.,2001;Vincente et al.,2007;Sharma and other,2008;Yang et

al.,2013), a direct method utilizing animal fat or vegetable oil with an acid, base, or

enzyme catalyst (Figure 2.1) (Demirbas, 2005; Yagiz et al., 2007; Vincente et al., 2007;

Aderim & Hameed, 2009; Asakuma et al., 2009; Lee et al., 2009; Oletoye & Hamed,

2011).

As early as 1846, castor oil was used for transesterification through ethanolysis,

which was later started in South Africa in 1979 (Demirbas, 2005). (Figure 2.1a) depicts

the process as the reaction of triglycerides (fat and oil) with alcohol to produce biodiesel

(alkyl esters) and crude glycerol. In the absence of catalysts or supercritical conditions,

this reaction does not proceed (Sharma et al.,2008;Ejikeme and other,2010;Vyas and

co.,2010;Tariq et al.,2012). Because the reaction can be reversed, it is challenging to

achieve 100% conversion (Oletoye et al.,2011;Tariq et al.,2012;Pathak, 2015). One

molecule of ester is produced in each of the three reversible reactions that make up the

transesterification process (Sharma et al.,2008;Tariq et al.,2012). (Figure 2.1b) shows

that triglycerides (TG) are first converted into diglycerides (DG), then diglycerides are

converted into monoglycerides (MG), and finally monoglycerides are converted into

glycerol(Sharma et al., 2008; Ejikeme et al., 2010; Tariq et al., 2012).

Numerous researchers have described a variety of transesterification

mechanisms. Base-catalyzed transesterification and acid-catalyzed transesterification

are the most frequently used ((Knothe et al., 2005; Sharma et al., 2008; Ejikeme et al.,

2010; Tariq et al., 2012; Pathak, 2015). Base-catalyzed transesterification generally

23
operates in four steps (Ejikeme et al.,2010). First, the base makes the alcohol more

nucleophilic by removing a proton from it, catalyzing the reaction (Figure 2.2). Second,

the nucleophilic attack of the alkoxil on the carbonyl group of the triglyceride results in the

formation of a tetrahedral intermediate (Figure 2.2). Thirdly, the alkyl ester and

diglyceride's corresponding anion are created. Finally, the active species is regenerated

after the catalyst is deprotonated, initiating a second alcohol molecule-reacting catalytic

cycle (Figure 2.2).

In contrast, strong acids catalyze the reaction by giving the carbonyl group a proton

to make it more electrophilic (Figure 2.3). The protonation of the carbonyl gathering

prompts the carbocation, which, after the nucleophilic assault of the liquor, creates the

tetrahedral moderate. As a result, alcohol is eliminated, forming ester, and the catalyst H’

is regenerated (Figure 2.3) (Ejikeme et al., 2010; Pathak, 2015). In order to increase the

yield of fatty acid alkyl esters (biodiesel) and enable phase separation from glycerol,

excess alcohol is frequently used in the production of biodiesel (Demirba, 2005; Banerjee

& Chakraborty 2009; Ejikeme et al., 2010; Kumar et al., 2010; Oletoye et al., 2011). The

reaction yields three moles of alkyl ester from one mole of triglyceride, and the

stoichiometric ratio of triglyceride to alcohol is three (Figure 2.1a) (Sharma et al., 2008;

Lee et al., 2009). In practice, the ratio should be slightly higher than the stoichiometric

ratio in order to achieve maximum ester yield (Sharma et al.,2008). See below for Figures

2.1 to 2.3.

24
 Figure 2. 1: Transesterification reaction: (a) general equation; (b) three

consecutive and reversible reactions (adapted from Tariq et al., 2012)

Figure 2. 2: Base-catalysed transesterification mechanism (adapted from Ejikeme

et al., 2010)

25
 Figure 2. 3: Acid-catalysed by a transesterification mechanism (Ejikeme et al.,

2010; Pathak, 2015)

Due to its low cost and high reaction rate, methanol is the alcohol that is used the

most frequently in the transesterification process (Zhang et al., 2003; Demirba, 2005;

Sharma et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2009; Borges & Diaz, 2012). However, because it can be

derived from agricultural products, is renewable, and is biologically less harmful to the

environment, ethanol is the alcohol of choice for the transesterification process (Demirba,

2005). According to Brito et al., the transesterification process aims to decrease the oil's

viscosity, density, and volatility in the biodiesel product.(Brito et al., 2007; Vyas et al.,

2010). According to Brito et al., this promising method of producing biodiesel makes use

of methanol, ethanol, propanol, and butanol.

The following parameters have an impact on the transesterification reaction (Demirbas,

2005; Atabani et al., 2012):

• reaction temperature and time;

• water content and free fatty acid content;

26
 • type of alcohol and molar ratio of alcohol-to-vegetable oil;

• choice of catalyst and catalyst concentration; and

• rate of mixing, intensity and stirring mode.

Of the previously mentioned, choice of catalyst is the initial step for planning a

transesterification cycle (Lee et al.,2009).

Biodiesel Feedstock

Liquid feedstock (animal fat, edible oil, and non-edible oil) and alcohol feedstock

(methanol, ethanol, and propanol) are examples of feedstock for biodiesel production

(Issariyakul et al.,2014) and should satisfy two conditions:low cost of production and large

scale of production (Atabani et al.,2012). There are more than 350 known oil crops,

however, not all of them can be used to make biodiesel (Zhang et al.,2010). (Table 2.3)

provides examples of oil sources that are thought to be potential feedstock for the

production of biodiesel. These can be broken down into the following four groups (Zhang

et al., 2010; Atabani et al., 2012):

• Edible vegetable oil: this has less FFA and doesn't need a pre-treatment method,

but it puts the availability of food at risk.

• Non-edible vegetable oil: this kind of oil isn't good for human food, has more FFA

(2-50% more than waste or recycled oil), and using it usually means deforestation

is going to happen.

• Waste or recycled oil: depending on the oil used, this has a high FFA content (2%-

40%) and may require pre-treatment when used with homogeneous catalysts to

prevent the formation of soap and water.

27
 • Animal fats: this kind of oil is expensive, so it is rarely used to make biodiesel.

Table 2.3: Examples of oil sources for biodiesel (adapted from Atabani et al.,

2012)

According to Lee et al., each feedstock source has a unique composition of fatty

acids (Table 2.4), which varies depending on the application of the oil and the chemical

characteristics of FFA, which are described by the carbon number and the degree of

unsaturation (Table 2.5). Triglycerides make up the majority of oils and fats, (Figure 2.1)

shows that triglycerides have a glycerin backbone with fatty acid radicals attached in

place of the hydroxyl. The properties of a particular triglyceride are determined by the

relative amounts of the various fatty acid radicals (Canakci et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2004;

Semwal et al., 2011).

28
 Table 2.4: FFA range in different oil feedstocks (adapted from Lin et al., 2011)

The majority of waste oils contain 10 to 25 percent FFA, which cannot be converted

via transesterification into biodiesel (Canakci et al., 2001; Kyong-Hwan et al., 2008)

.According to Demirbas (2005), the composition of FFA decreases both the production

yield and the effectiveness of the catalyst. Therefore, in order to lessen the acidity and

get rid of other debris, waste vegetable oil must be treated prior to the transesterification

process; if not they may unfavorably influence the biodiesel yield.

The FFA content will determine the WVO pretreatment (Table 2.4). According to

Kyong-Hwan (2008), a homogeneous alkali catalyst like NaOH can be used to treat FFA

below 2.5%, while H2SO4 or other acids can be used to treat FFA above 2.5%. 16-18

carbon chains make up more than 90% of FFAs. WVO contains two types of free fatty

acids with 12 to 22 carbons: 1) saturated fatty acids with one carbon bond and 2)

unsaturated fatty acids with one or more polarized carbon-to-carbon double bonds (Table

2.5). The following are common fatty acids found in biodiesel: linolenic acid, oleic acid,

palmitic acid, and stearic acid (Lee et al., 2009; Talebian- kiakalaieh et al., 2013). Due to

its structure, oleic acid is the most prevalent type of FFA found in oils (Shu et al.,2010).

29
The cloud point, cold filter plug point, and pour point of biodiesel fuel can be affected by

the various saturation levels.

Table 2.5: Common fatty acid in waste vegetable oil (adapted from Santonri et al.,

2012)

Waste Vegetable Oil

The properties of WVO vary worldwide (Yaakob et al.,2013). They are gathered

from households, large-scale food processing facilities, and service facilities. According

to Glasic et al. (2014), European and American nations, such as the United States of

America, Brazil, France, and Italy, produce 10-15 million gallons of WVO daily. Household

and industrial sources of WVO have increased in quantity and availability as a result of

30
increased food consumption (Agarwal et al., 2012; Issariyakul et al., 2014), which resulted

in the environmental crisis caused by the growing difficulty of waste disposal (Torres et

al.,2013). Certain undesirable and unknown compounds are produced when used

vegetable oil undergoes various physical and chemical transformations. Oil's volatility is

decreased and the molecular mass of the compounds formed during frying is increased.

When left untreated, these pose a threat to the environment (Luis et al.,2009).

This disposal-related environmental problem may be alleviated by using WVO as

a substitute feedstock (Canakci et al., 2001; Sharma et al., 2008; Agarwal et al., 2012).

The availability, composition of a higher proportion of saturated fatty acids, and

renewability of better oxidation stability of waste oil over edible vegetable oil are additional

benefits (Sharma et al.,2008;Agarwal et al., 2012). However, the problem with WVO is

that it typically contains impurities and a lot of FFA, making it difficult to convert directly

into biodiesel with alkaline catalysts (Canakci et al., 2001; Demirba, 2005; Kyong-Hwan

et al., 2008). Marchetti (2012) found that WVO contains 350 times more impurities than

virgin oils and has a high acid number (Zhao et al., 2012).2013). As a result, some pre-

treatments (such as steam injection, column chromatography, neutralization, and vacuum

filter) will probably be required before WVO can be used (Talebian-kiakalaieh et al.,2013).

The low volatility and high viscosity of WVO can have a negative impact on the

conversion efficiency. The various impurities (solid particles and sulfur content) that are

present in WVO account for its high viscosity (Marchetti, 2012). The ASTM recommends

that the viscosity of WVO range from 1.9 to 6 mm2/s (Table 2.6) (Hamamre et al.,2014).

31
 Table 2.6: General properties of WVO (adapted from Birla et al., 2012)

Birla et al. (2012) used CaO and waste oil as catalysts. At 60°C, with an 8.45:1

methanol-to-oil ratio and a catalyst concentration of 2wt% within seven hours, the

biodiesel production process was characterized by a conversion rate of 99.58% and a

yield of 87.28%. Wanget al. (2007) used two-step catalysis (esterification followed by

transesterification) to produce biodiesel from waste oil with a high acid value (75.92

0.036mgKOH/g) with a yield of 97.02%. Moreover, Omar et al. (2011) produced biodiesel

using waste cooking palm oil and a Sr/ZrO2 catalyst, achieving a 29:1 methanol-to-oil

ratio at 115.5°C and a yield of 79.7% in 87 mins (Table 2.7).

Table 2.7: Biodiesel Production from Waste Vegetable Oil

32
Alcohol (Ethanol)

In the production of biodiesel, alcohol is one of the starting materials(Demirbas,

2005; Yusuf et al., 2011; Li-Wang et al., 2013). Alcohol is used in transesterification to

shift the equilibrium of the reaction to the right side of the product, and excessive alcohol

is typically used in the production of biodiesel to ensure that the oil is completely

converted to biodiesel in a short amount of time (Demirbas, 2005; Tang et al., 2013). An

alkali-catalyzed reaction can yield a 98% conversion at a 6:1 alcohol-to-oil ratio

(Issariyakul et al.,2014). The polarity of the reaction mixture increases when too much

alcohol is used, making it easier for glycerol to dissolve back into the ester phase. This

causes a reverse reaction between glycerol and ester, which reduces the amount of ester

produced (Issariyakul et al.,2014).

In the production of biodiesel, various types of alcohol are utilized:butanol, ethanol,

methanol, amyl alcohol, and propanol. The reaction performance is affected by the type

of alcohol used in transesterification. Methanol and ethanol are typically the alcohols used

in transesterification of biodiesel production, and they are chosen based on their cost and

properties (Velickovie et al.,2012; Marchetti, 2012). Due to the fact that sugar crop

feedstock accounts for sixty percent of global ethanol production at the present time

(Yusuf et al.,2011;Torres et al., 2013). Due to its easy fermentation from renewable

resources, ethanol is less harmful (Yusuf et al.,2011). Ethanol, on the other hand, has the

disadvantage of having a lower ethoxide reactivity than methanol (Issariyakul et al.,2014).

Additionally, recovering ethanol from the process is more challenging, making it more

challenging to separate and purify ethyl ester.

33
Factors Affecting Biodiesel Production

Effect of temperature on biodiesel production. Biodiesel yield and reaction rate

are both affected by temperature during transesterification (Kotwal et al., 2009; Babajide

et al., 2010). Depending on the oil used, transesterification can occur at various

temperatures (Meher et al.,2006;Babajide et al.,2010).To prevent excessive vaporization,

the reaction temperature must be lower than alcohol's boiling point (Tariq et al.,2012).

Temperature increases both the conversion of FFA and the production of biodiesel (Shu

et al., 2010;Babajide et al.,2010). A high temperature is required to encourage the

nucleophilic attack of methanol on triglyceride (Shu et al.,2010). Brito et al. (2007)

discovered that the viscosity of the product decreased with an increase in temperature

when biodiesel was produced using WVO at temperatures ranging from 200 to 476 °C.

Babajide et al. (2010) demonstrated that sunflower was converted using KNO3 fly ash at

200°C and 160°C, respectively, with conversion rates of 89.34 percent and 87.12%. Omar

and Amin (2011) produced biodiesel with waste palm oil cooked with Sr/ZrO2 at a

temperature 115.5°C higher than the boiling point of methanol, resulting in a yield of

79.7%. According to Omar & Amin (2011), increased ethyl ester yield and FFA conversion

were the result of lower mass transfer limitation at high reaction temperatures. According

to what has been reported in the literature, the temperature ranges that are utilized the

most frequently are those between 25°C and 150°C for a homogeneous catalyst and

between 40°C and 200°C for a heterogeneous catalyst (Endalew et al.,2011;Issariyakul

et al.,2014).

34
 Molar ratio. One of the most significant factors affecting the yield of biodiesel is

the molar ratio, which is related to the kind of catalyst used (Birla and

others,2012;Khemthong et al.,2012). During the process, the molar ratio of alcohol to oil

increases the yield of biodiesel (Demirbas, 2005). Alcohol and oil have a 3:1

stoichiometric molar ratio, facilitating the completion of the reaction and the production of

additional products (Hu et al.,2011). Due to the increased solubility of the mixture, an

excessive molar ratio of alcohol to oil hinders the separation of glycerol; Consequently,

the ideal alcohol-to-oil ratio must be empirically determined (Demirbas, 2005;Meher et al,

2006).

Catalyst

The rate of the reaction is sped up by the presence of a catalyst, which also raises

the product yield. In order to produce biodiesel, the transesterification process makes use

of a variety of catalysts. As stated, the catalysts used for the transesterification reaction

are divided into group. Homogeneous catalysts and heterogeneous catalysts are some

of the main categories(Shan et al.,2018;Akubude and other,2019), which can further be

broken down into various subgroups.

Alcoholysis or transesterification can be catalyzed either homogeneously or

heterogeneously. Reactions that are catalyzed homogeneously typically proceed more

quickly and require less loading than those that are catalyzed heterogeneously. The

complicated and frequently prohibitive separation of homogeneous catalysts from the

medium is one major disadvantage of these catalysts. Consequently, reusing these is

frequently impossible.Aside from that, a number of washing steps necessary to remove

the catalyst from the product use deionized water and generate a significant amount of

35
wastewater (De Lima et al.,2016). In contrast, heterogeneous catalysts are in a phase

distinct from the reaction system, allowing for catalyst removal at various stages. After

that, these can be used again without requiring a lot of washing.In addition, homogeneous

catalysis yields significantly less dissolved ions than high-purity catalysis, allowing for

further application in industrial processes. Over the past ten years, transesterification with

heterogeneous catalysts has received more attention because of the aforementioned

benefits(Lam et al.,2010;Ling and Co.,2019). However, the applicability of these catalysts

is hindered by partial leaching of the active sites, destruction of the catalyst

microstructure, and organic deposition from the reaction mixture (Zhang et al.,2020). In

this way, the union of dynamic reusable heterogeneous impetuses is an extraordinary

test in biodiesel creation.

According to Pathak (2015), the transesterification of biodiesel can be

accomplished with one of three distinct categories of catalysts: acid catalysts, base

catalysts, and biocatalyst shown in (Figure 2.4).

Figure 2. 4: Classification of catalyst (adapted from Pathak, 2015)

36
Homogeneous Catalyst

A series of reactions is catalyzed by a chemical that is in the same phase as the

reaction system in homogeneous catalysis. Because they are easy to use and take less

time to complete a reaction, homogeneous catalysts are the catalyst of choice for the

production of biodiesel. This group includes both basic and acidic catalysts. The majority

of the time, homogeneous catalysts are dissolved in a solvent that is in the same phase

as all of the reactants.

Homogeneous base impetuses are a soluble fluid like salt metal-based hydroxides,

to be specific, sodium or potassium hydroxide;salt metal-based oxides, for example,

sodium and potassium methoxides;carbonates and in transesterification, base catalysts

exhibit high activity (Endalew et al.,2011). Due to their lower prices, metallic hydroxides

are frequently utilized as catalysts. However, their activity is typically lower than that of

alkoxides. The rate of a base-catalyzed reaction is 4,000 times faster than the rate of an

acid-catalyzed reaction (De Lima et al.,2016). The fact that oil containing significant

amounts of FFA cannot be completely converted into biodiesel but instead remains as

soap in large quantities is a known drawback (Helwani et al.,2009). An alkali catalyst can

still catalyze the reaction with up to 5% FFAs, but more catalyst is needed to make up for

the catalyst lost to soap (Gerpen, 2005). For biodiesel production with the homogeneous

catalyst, the majority of studies recommend a FFA content of less than 2 weight percent.

Bronsted acids, preferably sulfonic and sulfuric acids in addition to hydrochloric

acid, act as catalysts for the esterification process (Schuchardt et al.,1998). In alkyl

esters, these catalysts yield extremely high yields. However, the process is economically

challenging because of the increased energy requirements because the reactions are

37
slower than alkali-catalyzed reactions (Silitonga et al.,2020). Homogeneous corrosive

catalysis is coldhearted toward FFA content and can catalyze both esterification and

transesterification responses. Homogeneous acid catalysis has the same separation

issues as homogeneous base catalysis, despite of its additional advantages.

II. Heterogeneous Catalyst

The reactants and heterogeneous catalysts are in different phases or states.

During a reaction, these are the kinds of catalysts that frequently produce active sites with

their reactants (Melero et al.,2009). Because it occurs in a three-phase system with a

solid (heterogeneous catalyst) and two immiscible liquid phases (oil and methanol), the

heterogeneously catalyzed methanolysis reaction is extremely complex. Methanolysis is

also accompanied by some side reactions like the saponification of glycerides and methyl

esters and the neutralization of FFA's by a catalyst. Higher oil-to-alcohol ratios and higher

temperatures are the main drawbacks of this catalysis compared to homogeneous

catalysis. Separation and purification are also made easier, the catalyst is better reusable,

and so on. There are two types of heterogeneous catalysts: acid and base catalysts.

According to Di Serio et al., these catalysts can be categorized as Lewis or Bronsted

catalysts. However, both kinds of sites might be present in some instances.

Consequently, some of the catalysts can act as catalysts for both types of reactions.

The goal of a heterogeneous base catalyst is to get around limitations like

saponification, which prevents glycerol from being separated from the methyl ester layer

when a homogeneous base catalyst is used. Under mild conditions, these catalysts also

exhibit superior catalytic activity (Calero et al.,2014). Additionally, these catalysts are

environmentally friendly, non-corrosive, and pose fewer disposal issues. Additionally,

38
they can be designed to provide higher activity, selectivity, and a longer lifetime for the

catalyst and are simple to separate from the reaction environment (Liu et al.,2008). For

the transesterification of oils, numerous metal-based oxides, such as alkali metal, alkaline

earth metal, and transition metal oxides, have been utilized as catalysts. Positive metal

ions (cations) with Lewis acid properties and negative oxygen ions (anions) with Bronsted

base properties make up the structure of metal oxides (Di Serio et al.,2008;Zabeti and

other,2009). In order to make catalysts, two or more kinds of metal oxides are sometimes

combined. Boron group-based and waste-based catalysts are two additional types of

catalysts that primarily function as base heterogeneous catalysts (Semwal et al.,2011).

Heterogenous base catalysts (metal oxide)

There are currently a number of heterogeneous-base catalysts available for the

production of biodiesel.CaO, CaZrO3, Al2O3-SnO, Li/MgO, Al2O3/KI, KOH/Al2O3,

KOH/Nay, and supported K2CO3 made of alumina and silicate (Shu et al.,2010). When

compared to processes that are catalyzed by acids, base-catalyzed transesterification

results in faster rates and a higher yield (Christopher et al.,2014). According to Hattori's

classification for solid base catalysts, these catalysts are divided into six categories:

Hydrotalcites, alkaline earth metals, supported alkali, mixed metal oxide, single metal

oxide, and organic base solids are the six categories. Single metal oxides are the most

widely used (Lee et al.,2009). In single metal oxides, reaction rates are directly correlated

with the oxide's basicity, particularly its strong base site. For the transesterification of

biodiesel, a variety of single metal oxides, such as magnesium oxide (MgO), calcium

oxide (CaO), and strontium oxide (SrO), have been used as catalysts (Supper et al., 1999;

Sharma et al., 2011). Liu et al. (2008) calcined SrCO3 for 5 hours at 1200°C and used

39
SrO metal oxide as a catalyst for the transesterification of soybean oil. At 65°C, a 3

percent catalyst, and a 12:1 molar ratio of methanol to alcohol, a 95 percent yield was

achieved.

Due to its low cost, excellent catalytic properties, high basic strength (H_=26.5),

minor toxicity, and low environmental impact due to its low solubility in methanol and high

availability (Table 2.8), CaO is the most popular and promising metal oxide for biodiesel

synthesis from an economic and ecological point of view (Rezaei et al., 2013; Tang et al.,

2013). CaO has been used as a heterogeneous catalyst for a long time because it can

be produced from a variety of sources:chicken eggshell, mollusk shell, bones, brilliant

apple snail shell, mussel shell, clam shell, meretrix venus shell and mud crab shell (Boey

et al.,2011;Jazie et al.,2013). . Activities of various catalysts are summarised in Table 2.8.

40
Table 2.8: Summary of reaction conditions and performance of various catalysts

Calcium oxide cannot be found naturally on earth, as it is made from calcination of

calcium carbonate at a high temperature. Calcination of limestone to produce lime has

been practised since antiquity by cultures all around the world. Usually, calcination of

CaCO3 takes place at 500–600°C. However, using higher temperatures (>700°C at

atmospheric pressure) has proven to enhance the performance of the catalyst and lead

to a complete decomposition of CaCO3, as shown in Equation 2.1 (Wei et al., 2009;

Sharma et al., 2010; Birla et al., 2012; Navajas et al., 2012; Rezaei et al., 2013):

41
 The production of CaO from CaCO3 might increase the cost of catalyst preparation

on industrial scale (Chakraborty et al, 2010).

Table 2.9: Opportunities and challenges of calcined CaO catalyst

Purification

According to Humphrey et al.,(2019), the product mixture is left to settle after the

transesterification reaction has finished. The product mixture is typically divided into two

layers based on the difference in density; biodiesel always occupies the upper layer, while

glycerol occupies the lower layer. However, the product mixture is then divided into three

layers when an ionic liquid catalyst is utilized (Koort et al, 2019. The biodiesel purification

unit can be used at different points throughout the production process. In point of fact,

according to a comprehensive literature review, a purification unit can be performed either

before or after the separation phase(Humphrey et al.,2019. However, recent research

has shown that purifying biodiesel after separating it from glycerol has advantages that

are more effective and efficient. In light of this, the volatile and impurities found in the

crude biodiesel that results from the separation of glycerol have a significant impact on

the biodiesel's performance. In point of fact, the performance of biodiesel is significantly

42
influenced by the stability, purity, and cleanliness of its storage. The stability of biodiesel

is measured by exposing it to oxygen and high temperatures, observing color change,

and observing changes in viscosity. Impurities have an impact on biodiesel's performance

and properties, as shown in the Table 2.10 below.

Table 2.10: Impurities effects on Biodiesel

Ion-exchange resins

Another dry washing biodiesel purification method is an ion exchange resin, also

known as an ion-exchange polymer. A resin that serves as a physical medium for the

interchange of ions is known as an ion exchange resin. It is made of organic polymer

substrates and tiny beads with a radius of 0.25 to 0.5 millimeters (Dugan J, 2007).The ion

exchange resin's beads are typically porous and have a large surface area (Dugan J,

2007). Adsorbing the ions from the ion exchange fluid and replacing them with ions of the

same charge is the purification procedure. This reversible mechanism is shown in the

Figure. The ion exchange particle is surrounded by a film diffusion layer in the adsorption

of sodium ion Na+ and hydrogen ion H+ shown in the figure. In this instance, the ion

43
exchange adsorption process involves diffusing hydrogen ions from the diffusion film to

the fluid via the same diffusion film layer while sodium ions are transported from the fluid

to the ion exchange particle (Arden, 2019).

Figure 2.6: Schematic of ion-exchange mechanics

There are five distinct types of manufactured ion exchange resins: Chelating

resins, strong and weak acid cation exchange resins, and strong and weak base anion

exchange resins. For the biodiesel refinement process, the sort utilized is major areas of

strength for the cation type (SAC) (Arden T, 2019). The sulphonation of styrene-divinyl

benzene copolymers results in the production of this kind of ion exchange resin (Arden

T, 2019). The microporous resin and gel are the two most common forms of the strong

acid cation (Arden T, 2019). Purolite, Rohm & Haas, and Thermax gel resins have a bright

appearance and low cross-link bonds (Berrios et al.,2008). After settling and removing

the glycerol, the ion exchange resins can be used to purify the crude biodiesel of its

impurities.

44
Distillation

Biodiesel can also be distilled to remove contaminants, impurities, and volatile

substances. Azeotropic distillation, MD distillation, and extractive distillation are three

types of distillation techniques that can be used to efficiently refine biodiesel. Not to

mention the traditional distillation (Sraein et al.,2017). After separating crude biodiesel

from glycerol and excess methanol, crude biodiesel is passed through a distillation

column at a high temperature—sometimes as high as 120°C (Bateni et al., 2017). One

more method for directing the biodiesel refinement is to carry out a sub-atomic refining

(MD) under high-vacuum by making dissipation and consolidating cycles (Able et al.,

2017). A separation yield of 98% can be achieved using distillation. However, this method

of purification necessitates extremely high temperatures.

Properties of Biodiesel

Prior to the use of the biodiesel, an analysis of the chemical and physical properties

is required to assess suitability for use in diesel engines. These properties are usually

compared against standards like those of the American Society for Testing Materials

(ASTM), European Union Standard for biodiesel fuel (EN 14214), Germany (DIN 51606),

Austria (ON) and Czech Republic (CSN). The most popular international standard

specifications applied are the American Standard for Testing Materials (ASTM) and

European Standard (EN 14214), as shown in Table 2.10.

Biodiesel is characterised by different physical and chemical properties depending

on the feedstock used in the manufacturing process: Acid number, cetane number,

oxidative stability, viscosity, flash point, cloud point, pour point, density, free and total

45
glycerol moisture content, phosphorus content, sulphated ash test and carbon residue.

Since biodiesel can be made from different feedstock, some properties differ from one

product to another.

Carbon Content: According to the ASTM chart (Atabani et al., 2012), biodiesel

has a carbon content percentage of 77%. The group can use this through the confirmation

of the properties of the product biodiesel in a laboratory specialized for analyzing and

identifying chemical makeup.

Density: A fuel's density is the mass per unit volume of a fuel calculated in

vacuum. Because the density of a fuel is a temperature dependent property, the quality

standard requires that the density of a fuel be measured at 15 degrees Celsius. Knowing

that the following properties of the fuel are strongly related and affected by the density of

the fuel, such as the heating value, kinematic viscosity, and cetane number, the

performance of any fuel is directly affected by the density of the fuel. The amount

determines the power of the diesel engine. The density of the fuel affects the effective

volume of the air-fuel mixture combusted in the combustion chamber because diesel

engine fuel systems measure the amount of fuel by volume measurement, which is a

composition of the effect of the density and the mass of the delivered fuel for combustion.

A change in density will directly affect the amount of fuel mass available for mixing with

air. As a result, the density of the fuel influences the power delivered after combustion.

Given that the density of the fuel clearly affects the performance of the fuel in an engine,

the density must be considered in the manufacture, delivery, distribution, and storage of

biodiesel. Temperature and storage time usually change the density of the fuel, increasing

atomization and negatively affecting the lubrication of the injection system's components.

46
Biodiesel has a higher density than conventional petrol diesel fuel, which is determined

by the acid composition and level of purity.

Flashpoint: The temperature at which the fuel ignites due to the formation of a

homogeneous mixture of fuel vapour and air above the fuel surface is referred to as the

flash point. The methanol content influences the flash point, an important parameter to

consider when storing and handling fuel (Hamamre et al., 2014). Biodiesel has a higher

flash point than petroleum diesel, making it less volatile and safer to transport (Buasri,

2009; Atabani et al., 2012). According to ASTM, the flash point of biodiesel must be

between 100 and 170°C (Table 2.10). Hamamre et al. (2014) demonstrated that

increasing the methanol content by 0.5% reduces the flash point of biodiesel by 50°C.

Kinematic Viscosity: Viscosity is a metric used to assess the efficiency and

completeness of biodiesel production. Viscosity is one of the compliance specifications

for biodiesel production. The product with the lowest viscosity has the highest total FAME

content (Babajide et al., 2010). High viscosity fuel tends to form large droplets on the

injection pump, resulting in poor combustion and increased smoke and emission

(Hamamre et al., 2014). Because of its large molecular mass and chemical structure,

biodiesel has a viscosity that is 10-15 times that of petroleum diesel (Atabani et al., 2012).

According to ASTM D445, the maximum viscosity limit in biodiesel varies between 1.9-

6.0mm2/s and 3.5-5mm2/s in EN ISO 3104. (Table 2.10).

Cloud point: Fuels are typically expected to function at temperatures as low as

their cloud point, which is the most common measurement of low temperature

operability.The cloud point of biodiesel derived from animal fats or waste oil is higher than

that of refined oil.The cloud point of conventional diesel is typically lower than the cloud

47
point of biodiesel, which begins to get colder as the temperature drops.The fuel's type

and quality of impurities, like monoglycerides, are largely responsible for cloud

point.According to the ASTM standard, the values for conventional diesel range from -35

to 5°C, while those for biodiesel range from -3 to 15°C (Table 2.10) (Atabani et al.,2012).

Pour point: The temperature at which a fluid begins to flow under particular

conditions is known as the pour point. This property is directly related to the viscosity of

the crude oil.Different feedstock biodiesel may have distinct pour points, making it

superior to conventional diesel.The pour point of biodiesel is higher than that of

conventional diesel, which ranges from -35 to -15 °C (Table 2.10) (Atabani et al.,2012).

Aratilis (Muntingia calabura) Fruit as a Source of Bioethanol

There is a developing interest worldwide to discover new and low-cost

carbohydrate sources for bioethanol production (Mohanty, et.al, 2009). Apart from all

conventional sources, the assorted variety of non-edible and less edible fruits is

accessible in various biodiversity areas. Since bioethanol is being created by ethanol

fermentation of rural harvests, commonly corn, potatoes, sugar beet, sugar cane, and so

forth., the consumable and non-palatable classifications of fruit cultivars are of incredible

concern (Galbe & Zacchi, 2012). A novel methodology is fundamental to utilize these

inexhaustible substrates, for example, underutilized or under-investigated fruits. Among

underexplored fruits, Aratilis (Muntingia calabura) has latent qualities showing potential

in the creation of ethanol (Kourkoutas, et.al, 2005). It is one of the less-known and less

prominent natural fruits which is observed to be exceptionally encouraging (Dhurjati,

2014).

48
 Muntingia calabura, the sole species in the genus belonging to the Muntingiaceae

family (Kourkoutas, et.al, 2005), is a tropical fast-growing flowering tree local to the

American mainland and other warm nations of Asian regions such as Southern Mexico,

the Caribbean, Central America, South America, Northern Argentina, Peru, and Bolivia.

(Dhurjati, 2014; ISC, 2018; Krishnaveni & Dhanalakshmi, 2014; Mahmood, et.al, 2014).

It is presently cultivated and naturalized because of its edible fruit in Southeast Asia

(Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines), Australia, and in islands of the Pacific Ocean (Hai,

2017; Mahmood, et.al, 2014).

Depending on the countries where it’s grown, common names of Muntingia

calabura include (English) Jamaican cherry (Mahmood, et.al, 2014), Panama berry,

Singapore cherry, Strawberry tree; (Spanish) bolaina yamanaza, cacaniqua, capulin

bianco, nigua, niguito; (India) Chinese cherry (or) Japanese cherry; and (Filipino) aratilis,

aratiles, manzanitas (Dhurjati, 2014; Hai, 2017). With slender proportions achieving a

tallness of around 7.5–12 m (Dhurjati, 2014), Muntingia calabura is viewed as a pioneer

specie (Avendaño- Reyes, 2006) because of its draught tolerant capacity, and ability to

flourish in poor and acidic soils and alkaline conditions (Hai, 2017; Ravinshkar, et. al,

2017). It can germinate on most soil types but tends to develop on land having little or no

rain (arid zones) (Dhurjati, 2014), well-drained and sandy soils (ISC, 2018) of forsaken

fields, agrarian terrains, woods edges, vacant lots, and roadsides and margins of

waterways (Avendaño & Reyes, 2006) as a shade provider or as avenue tree

(Ravinshkar, et.al, 2017). Throughout the year (particularly in the summer season), this

tree yields an abundant amount of around 1-1.5 cm light red fruits (Reddy, 2007) which

are round, wide, consumable, sweet, and succulent, and contain an extensive number of

49
exceedingly tiny, yellowish seeds (Dhurjati, 2014). Fully ripe Aratilis fruits are rich in

carbohydrates of about 14.28% and have a sugar content of 87.7 mg/g, (Ravinshkar,

et.al, 2017), and contains more water and nitrogen, but less fiber, than green fruits

(Figueiredo et.al., 2008). Once ripen, the tree's blossoms begin to sprout again and keep

on producing fruits (Hai, 2017).

In the Philippines, the trees are ordinarily visited by distinct types of birds, as well

as bats and nocturnal creatures that devour the sweet squeeze of the fruit. This resulted

in the fast-widespread propagation of Muntingia calabura in the Philippine forests which

overpopulate a region in only several years (Hai, 2017). With simply enough sun and

water, it grows with almost no care (Hai, 2017). It is regularly considered a natural weed,

however, has turned into an extremely widespread problem because of its invasiveness

(Werren, 2001; Randall, 2012) and capability to outcompete indigenous plants (Hai,

2017). This set off the move to use Aratilis fruits that are vastly accessible, realizing that

it has been produced in expansive scale amounts having additionally a phenomenal

wellspring of starches, as a source of bioethanol (Ravinshkar, et. al., 2017).

Unlike vital agricultural crops (grains, sugar stick and beet), Aratilis (Muntingia

calabura) fruit has no direct food use. It is profitable as it could survive in poor soils; and

furthermore, not incur food shortages as many people considered it inedible (Dhurjati,

2014). Muntingia calabura fruit, indeed, is a sustainable asset that is yet to be completely

exploited although there are limited research and innovation regarding its commercial

worth (Kim & Dale, 2004). However, due to its consistent excessive production during the

entire year, as compared to other sources like sugar beet that took 5 months to create

beet, and sugar cane took a year to generate sugar sticks, this made underused fruit, like

50
Aratilis fruit as a discerning resolution to endeavor worldwide requirement in terms of

ethanol production (Dhurjati, 2014). As Bohlmann (2006) concluded, biomass like rural

deposits, squandered harvests and unexploited items soon will assume a basic job in

feasible advancement, filling in as sustainable resource for carbon-based synthetic

compounds, and giving a down-to-earth option in contrast to petrochemical transportation

energies (Bohlmann, 2006). This possibility accounts for the estimated 491 billion liters

yield each year for bioethanol produced from such economic-friendly substrates, around

16 times higher than the present world bio-ethanol production (Balat, M. & Balat, H., 2009;

Kim & Dale, 2004).

Synthesis

With the growing need to produce an alternative fuel source for the status quo

fossil fuel, initiators turn to the relatively abundant natural resources to compromise on

the dwindling supplies of diesel fuel. Given that biodiesel, the proposed alternative fuel

for diesel, is processed through the synthesizing of vegetable oils and other fats, it is

possible that biodegradable wastes and products are processable to yield biodiesel akin

to the properties associated with its fossil fuel counterpart.

Additionally, the literary references mentioned above stated that it has been proven

that the aratilis fruit can be processed to produce bioethanol. This may indicate that the

aratilis fruit is possibly a good source to catalyze the production of biodiesel since diesel

and ethanol are yielded from the same source. Suppose that aratilis fruits can potentially

catalyze the biodiesel through fermentation, this would imply that biodiesel can also be

yielded through the catalyzing of the aratilis fruit and bioethanol. This, in turn, would

require a modification of previous studies such that it would adhere to the conversion

51
principle of bioethanol to biodiesel while keeping into consideration the stages needed to

take for its production. To recap,

It is worth noting that, throughout the production from materials to byproducts, the

processes in between are to be monitored by using various sensors related to chemical

properties. In the stated pieces of literature, one indicator often associated with fossil fuels

is their sensitivity to heat increase as petroleum products are highly reactive to heat

contact. This thermodynamic principle can be utilized alongside the group’s intention to

incorporate sensors into the design to produce a semi-automated biodiesel-making

machine that uses the raw material aratilis fruit to serve as a catalyst to ferment bioethanol

and yield biodiesel as an output.

52
 CHAPTER III

DESIGN AND METHODS

This chapter presents the conceptual framework implemented in order to obtain

the parameters of the study, technical design and procedure, different methods of testing

and the data collection and treatment encompassed in the Design and Development of

Hybrid Biodiesel-making Machine from Ripe Aratilis Fruit.

Conceptual Framework

This section describes the systematic method of the study. Figure 1 focuses on

the conceptual paradigm that indicates the process in which this study followed from the

beginning up to the completion. The conceptual framework was presented based on the

CDIO (Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate) model. In the conceiving stage, knowledge

requirements were considered for the implementation of this study. This part included

ideas concerning the biodiesel production technology, principles and techniques of

biodiesel making with the application of the transesterification process, advantages of

biodiesel produced from ethanol, transesterification process, distillation and fermentation

process, physical and chemical properties of biodiesel, biodiesel vs commercially

available diesel and characteristics of aratilis fruit as ethanol will be taken into account for

this study.

For the design stage, design and software requirements were considered in the

development of hybrid biodiesel-making machine for alternative fuel oil production.

Design requirements involved system components and material specifications of the

53
machine components. Moreover, SolidWorks Software was employed for the prototype

design layout.

The implementation stage considered hardware requirements such as machine

shop, materials, and equipment for the machine fabrication using commercially available

materials, and the appropriate machine development process considering the design

specifications. Moreover, the preliminary testing of the hybrid biodiesel-making machine

was performed to evaluate the operating temperature, operating pressure, operating time,

and temperature. The final performance evaluation for the prototype was conducted to

assess its production rate, percent fuel oil yield, and energy efficiency. The

aforementioned biodiesel properties are the API gravity, carbon content, density, flash

point, kinematic viscosity, boiling point, cloud point and pour point.

In the operating stage, the outputs for this study include the fabricated hybrid

biodiesel-making machine from ripe aratilis fruit for alternative fuel oil production,

alternative fuel oil, cost-benefit analysis, and the machine operation and maintenance

manual for the appropriate utilization of the biodiesel-making machine. The cost-benefit

analysis was conducted to evaluate the economic viability of the fabricated biodiesel-

making machine in terms of energy consumption, annual energy consumption cost

(AECC), total annual cost, annual profit, and benefit-cost ratio.

Conclusions were drawn from the results of the experiments. The conceptual

paradigm shows a better view of the conceptual framework.

54
 Figure 3.1: Research Paradigm of the Study

Technical Design and Procedure

This research proposal follows the design and development of a hybrid biodiesel-

making machine that inputs aratilis fruits, used cooking oil, and other biodegradable

catalysts to yield biodiesel. As such, the group established a set of parameters to monitor

the progress of designing, fabricating, testing, analyzing, and finalizing the prototype in

mind. Using the Conceive-Design-Implement-Operate (CDIO) model above, the group

intends to framework the input-output development process by which they can effectively

present the methodologies involved in the designing of the hybrid biodiesel-making

machine.

55
Development Stages Procedure

A. Design Stage

This stage revolves around the conceptualizing and concretizing of ideas while

keeping into careful consideration the parameters the group intends to pursue. As

such, the group intends to use the available software such as AutoCAD and

SolidWorks to simulate the build of the design before the canvassing and acquisition

of needed equipment and materials to further progress the thesis project. It is worth

noting that the design proposed will be consulted by a professional engineer to

reaffirm its feasibility toward the intended objectives. Moreover, this stage will also go

over the specifications of the designs such as the identification of required

components, the dimensions relative to scaling, and the decided materials to be used

for fabrication.

B. Fabrication Stage

This cover includes the canvassing, financing, purchasing, and assembling of

components and consumables. Additionally, this stage mainly revolves around the

materialization of the design specifications developed in the previous stage of the

research project. As such, the established parameters and components needed for

the completion of the prototype are assembled by the group with labor assistance from

other beneficiaries.

56
C. Testing Stage

This stage involves the execution and operation of the prototype. With this said,

the group intends to perform the necessary procedures to operate the prototype to

produce the intended output which is biodiesel. In this stage, the group will initiate the

biodiesel-making process by inputting the aratilis fruits, cooking oil, and catalyst then

monitoring the prototype-focused parameters as the biodiesel is being produced.

Additionally, these prototype-focused objectives are in-line with the preliminary testing

parameters namely the operating temperature, pressure, and time.

D. Analysis Stage

This stage relates to the product yielded by the prototype. As this stage takes place

after the execution and operation of the prototype, the end result will be the focus of

this stage as the researcher will identify the product-focused parameters to determine

the chemical properties of the output. These testing parameters include carbon

content, density, flash point, kinematic viscosity, boiling point, cloud point, and pour

point. In addition, the group intends to send a sample product to a laboratory managed

by the Department of Energy (DOE) and Department of Science and Technology.

E. Feedback, Modification and Finalization Stage

This stage also aims to determine integrated parameters between the prototype

and yielded products such as production rate, percent fuel oil yield, and energy

efficiency. It also considers the economic parameters like energy consumption, annual

energy consumption, annual cost, annual profit, and the benefit-cost ratio. As such,

this stage assesses the efficiency and economic forecasts the prototype can

57
 potentially create in the fossil fuel supply and demand trend. This can imply that the

group intends to optimize the parameters to yield optimum results in the surrounding

prototype.

Equipment, Facilities and Programs

In being able to design and develop a hybrid biodiesel-making machine from ripe

aratilis fruit the researchers utilized SolidWorks as the application program which will

visualize the overall design of the hybrid biodiesel-making machine that will produce

alternative fuel oil. It includes the software, layout, and its representation. Moreover, it

can be seen that all the parts and the requirements of the machine design are considered

and projected. The SolidWorks program allows the proponents to observe and create a

3D model with precise and accurate dimensions of the machine. Services from a

fabrication facility will be crucial in the development of the functional paper machine. If

the proposed machine design has been approved, its proponents may entrust a

fabrication facility with the task of fully assembling the machine in order to produce the

paper.

Process Flow Diagram

Biodiesel is a liquid biofuel made by combining alcohol and vegetable or animal fats

through chemical processes. It can be used in diesel engines by itself or mixed with diesel

oil. Biodiesel is defined by ASTM International, formerly known as the American Society

for Testing and Materials, as a mixture of long-chain monoalkylic esters from renewable

fatty acids that are intended for use in diesel engines.

58
 The process for the operation of a hybrid biodiesel-making machine from ripe aratilis

fruit starts with the mixing and treatment of the raw materials. Starting from the waste

cooking oil (WCO) and the ethanol produced from the fermentation and distillation

process of ripe aratilis fruit lastly is the addition of the chosen catalyst. The

transesterification process just began and a chemical reaction occurs. Separation of

crude biodiesel and crude glycerin was conducted on a separation tank that is pumped

out of the mixing chamber. Purification of the biodiesel is administered and the purified

biodiesel is then collected.

Figure 3.2: Process Flow Diagram

Process Design

Hybrid Biodiesel making machine was design to set for the specific goals:

59
 • Minimal Manual Labour- If there is only one employee, the system should have as

much automation as possible. Pumping system were intended to wipe out the

requirement for manual treatment of materials from one phase to another.

• Minimize costs- Cost was always the top priority when working within a limited

budget.While essential tools needed to be purchased, cost-saving measures and

simplicity remained constant concerns.

• Flexibility- The piping system was made to handle one possible method of

processing, but several others were also found.

The process of making biodiesel is as follows:

1. Pretreatment and Preheating

2. Miixing (Transesterification Reaction)

3. Processing Phase

4. Ethanol Recovery

5. Separation Stage

6. Purification and Distillation Stage

Pretreatment and Preheating

Biodiesel was made from waste vegetable oil in this study. WVO is properly filtered

to remove food particles prior to the conversion reaction, a filtration system is then

attached to the mouth of the mixing tank. WVO is then preheated for approximately 30

minutes at a moderate temperature of 50 to 60 °C.Preheating has been shown to improve

biodiesel yield and improve WVO's properties (Ali et al.,2013, Sheet, 2018).

60
Processing Phase (Transesterification Reaction)

Ethanol and a calcium oxide catalyst were used in the transesterification reaction.

1% of the oil's weight was used as the CaO catalyst (Encinar et al., 2005; Kawentar and

Budiman, 2013). According to Demirbas (2007), vegetable oils are triglycerides, which

means that they are made up of three different fatty acids. As a result, a maximum of

three molecules of biodiesel can be produced from each oil molecule. For a

transesterification reaction to occur stoichiometrically, there must be at least three moles

of alcohol for every mole of vegetable oil. However, because transesterification is a two-

way and rather slow process, additional reactants must be added to shift the equilibrium

toward the product side in order to guarantee the complete conversion of vegetable oil to

biodiesel. As a result, more alcohol is typically consumed. The molar ratio of oil to

methanol is typically 1:6 to 1:10.For 1 L of vegetable oil, 200 ml of ethanol is required at

a molar ratio of 1:6 for oil to ethanol. At temperatures between 60 and 80 °C, the reaction

takes place. The rate of the reaction will rise as the temperature of the reaction rises. Due

to the fact that ethanol will boil at 65 °C and necessitate the use of a pressure vessel, the

reaction temperature was kept at 60 °C for this study.

Ethanol Recovery

Ethanol is an important material in biodiesel making process and it takes time to

collect and process it . Recovery is a straightforward process and ethanol is recovered

following the transesterification reaction by boiling all of the excess methanol in the

reactor tank at 65°C.Then, the evaporated methanol goes through a heat exchanger to

finally be recovered and used in the next batches.

61
Separation Stage

After the end of both the transesterification reaction and ethanol recovery phases,

the mixture is then separated. With the use of a centrifugal pump, gravity and change of

density it accelerate the formation of two phases. Glycerol is placed at the bottom while

crude ethyl ester is at the top. Glycerol can be then drained out easily from the reaction

tank.

Purification and Distillation Stage

To remove all the impurities, contaminants, and volatile matter purification is

conducted by the use of an ion-exchange resin filter. Then it undergoes the process of

distillation for more purity to the product biodiesel.

PLR Programming

In this proposed thesis project, the group will adapt Programmable Logic Relays

(PLR) to serve as the control station of the system. In this, the group will develop a logic-

based system by utilizing the various sensors and monitors installed in the prototype in

order to easily automate the biodiesel-making process. In line with this, the group

provided a set of commands for the microcomputer to metricize and, therefore, the

process to relay a chain of inputs and outputs as the biodiesel is being produced.

62
 Figure 3.3: Input-Output for PLR Control System in Project

Shown above is the working input-output command line the group has developed

to achieve the objectives while simultaneously keeping into consideration the parameters

the group can consequently control and manipulate.

Data Collection and Treatment

This study will show the identified parameters to be measured in order to efficiently

develop a hybrid biodiesel-making machine out of ripe aratilis fruits. In this segment, the

researchers will be testing these parameters both in the preliminary stage and quality

testing of the project proposal.

63
Preliminary Testing

A. Operating Temperature

The preliminary testing stage mainly consists of the performance

limitations of the assembled biodiesel-making machine. As it is, data

collection will be for the operating temperature will be through the use of a

temperature sensor installed in the machine, itself. Additionally, the input

will contact the sensor and the machine via conduction, and its output will

be a metric magnitude displayed by the sensor apparatus. This, in turn, will

be recorded by the researchers, to be used for statistical analysis. The

values outputted will be reported for statistical analysis and benchmarking

for the group to develop a standardized operating condition.

B. Operating Pressure

Alongside the operating temperature, the group intends to measure

the operating pressure, as well. Given that this thesis project revolves

around chemical reactions and combustibility, pressure is a guaranteed

factor to be measured through the researchers’ installation and use of a

calibrated gauge to determine a reading of internal pressure in the

biodiesel-making machine at normal conditions. The values outputted will

be reported for statistical analysis and benchmarking for the group to

develop a standardized operating condition.

64
 C. Operating Time

Operating time is defined as the time it takes to yield the end product

given a standardized amount of raw material. Since the group is expecting

an overnight production of bioethanol to be yielded into biodiesel, the group

will use a timekeeping apparatus such as a stopwatch that measures hours

to measure the time span per standardized input. The values output will be

used to determine an accurate estimate of operating time per given amount

of input as this aid in the development of the operating procedure

Quality Testing - Production

A. Production Rate

In contrast with the data collection in operating time, production rates

measure the amount of biodiesel produced at a given standardized time.

This means time will control the operation as the volume of biodiesel

produced will become the output. As such, the group will decide on the fixed

time of operation to produce biodiesel. Once the decided time is reached,

the researchers will halt production and measure the volume of biodiesel

produced. The outputs generated will serve as an alternate operative

procedure for the biodiesel-making process. As such the group the follow

the formula below:

65
B. Percent Fuel Oil Yield

After the synthesis of bioethanol, aratilis fruits, and other raw

materials, it will yield biodiesel. The percent fuel oil yield is measured by

generating a ratio between the input and the output to see the percent of

biodiesel produced given the number of raw materials synthesized. As such,

the data collection in this aspect will be based on the bioethanol input and

biodiesel output then getting the ratio between the two. The values

generated in this collection will aid in the scaling of production the machine

can handle. Additionally, the group will follow the formula below to quantify

this parameter:

C. Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency is defined as the performance of the product

compared to the alternatives. In order to generate this data, the group will

use diesel as a benchmark in which a controlled amount of volume of it and

the product biodiesel is tested on a diesel generator. As such the group

intends to compare the results through control volume exhaustion over time.

When this data is generated, the group will use the results of diesel as the

benchmark to generate the performance of the biodiesel relative to the

performance of diesel. As such, the group will utilize the formula below for

energy efficiency:

66
Quality Testing - Product

As suggested by this segment the data collection is focused on the intrinsic

properties of the product biodiesel. As such, this data collection serves as a

confirmation of the viability of the output given the theoretical values and arbitrary

formulas to compute for each. Below are the parameters to be calculated once the

product biodiesel is produced.

A. Carbon Content

According to the ASTM chart (Atabani et al., 2012), biodiesel has a

carbon content percentage of 77%. The group can use this through the

confirmation of the properties of the product biodiesel in a laboratory

specialized for analyzing and identifying chemical makeup.

B. Density

C.Flash Point

To determine the flash point of the product, the group is required to

stage an experiment wherein the biodiesel will be exposed to heat until it

can combust from slight contact with a flame. The researchers are to

prepare a blowtorch and a conductive container for this procedure. The

researchers will start by recording the starting temperature before passing

a flame slowly over the biodiesel. When no reaction occurs, the researchers

67
are required to pass the flame repeatedly on the conductive container until

the temperature increases by five degrees. Once the temperature reaches

that mark, the researchers are to pass the flame over the biodiesel once

again and observe for a reaction. The researchers will repeat this process

until it the biodiesel reacts by igniting. The final temperature reading will be

the estimated flash point of the product. This value should be confirmed by

the group by referencing this final temperature with the known temperature

range provided by ASTM (Atabani et al., 2012).

D. Kinematic Viscosity

E. Boiling Point

Given that boiling point is intrinsic to the chemical compound yielded,

the value for can be generated through confirmation. Adapting ASTM and

EN specifications for biodiesel, the group must test the yielded biodiesel

and confirm if it matches the value range provided (Atabani et al., 2012). In

such a case, ASTM has provided a value range of 315 to 350°C. To test

this, the product should be able to boil at the given temperature range.

F. Cloud Point

Similar to the boiling point, the cloud point is an intrinsic chemical

property exclusive to a certain compound. This would imply that the

appropriate approach in data collection will align with the confirmation of

68
 values to the known theoretical values which are -3 to 15°C as adapted from

the ASTM standard (Atabani et al., 2012). In such a case, the group is

required to observe the performance of the biodiesel produced and whether

is can operate at the lowest temperature provided by ASTM.

G. Pour Point

Similar to the two points above, the pour point also follows the same

approach of confirmation for data collection in the product biodiesel. As

stated by the ASTM standard (Atabani et al., 2012), the pour point of

biodiesel sits between -5 to 10°C. As such, the group is required to observe

the product in the aforementioned heat range and whether the biodiesel will

flow.

Cost-Benefit Evaluation

A. Energy Consumption

The energy consumption of this prototype will be determined by the

group by summarizing the power rating multiplied by the hours of operation

per electrical component involved. As such, the formula to be followed for

the computation of energy consumption is:

69
B. Annual Energy Consumption (AECC)

The Annual Energy Consumption is calculated by multiplying the

energy required per operation by the frequency of operation at an annual

rate, and then multiplying it by the cost of electricity per kilowatt-hour.

Therefore, the formula goes as follows:

C. Total Annual Cost

Total annual cost will be determined by adding the AECC and the

projected maintenance cost. Therefore, the formula goes as follows:

Where the maintenance cost is the annual maintenance

expenditures for the fabricated prototype. In this study, the maintenance

cost will be assumed Php 500.00 based on the study of Anonuevo et al.

(2019).

D. Annual Profit

Annual profit can be determined by multiplying the biodiesel

produced per operation of the prototype by the frequency of operation at an

annual rate, and then multiplying it by the cost of diesel per liter. In this case,

the average cost of diesel fuel is Php 78.30 as of November 2022. With this

in mind, the formula to be used is:

70
 E. Benefit-Cost Ratio

The benefit-cost ratio can be calculated by dividing the benefit factor

by the cost factor. Additionally, the benefit refers to the annual profit of the

prototype whereas the cost refers to the total annual expenditure. In this

case, a benefit-cost ratio greater than 1 projects a profitable model as stated

by Hayes (2020). Therefore, the equation to follow is:

Budget Requirements

This segment of the chapter will go over the budget details projected by the group

based on the group’s pre-fabrication canvassing of resources done during the proposal-

making phase of the thesis project. In this segment, the group will outline a speculative

list of expenditures required to aid in the design and development of the hybrid biodiesel-

making machine.

Table 3.1: Overview of Budget Requirements for the Proposed Design

71
 As shown in Table 3.1, the proposed budget for the thesis project will be

categorized into four main clusters with a proposed budget allocated to each category.

During the conceptualization of the project design, the group was able to estimate the

budget requirement based on the expenditure reports of related studies conducted that

involved biofuels.

Furthermore, each category proposed in the budget is given a specific rationale to

better concretize the purpose of each. In this case, “Manpower” would rationalize the

need for labor assistance in the fabrication and assembly of the proposed design.

“Research and Methods” is proposed as a pre-fabrication investigation and testing of

parameters for the researchers’ better understanding of the variables involved in

biodiesel-making. “Machine Design and Fabrication” is reserved for the acquisition of

needed components for assembly in the proposed design as this would be the prototyping

phase to be materialized by the researchers and involved stakeholders. This category will

include the proponent machines to be assembled, the sensors to evaluate each stage of

biodiesel production, and also the miscellaneous proponents to be utilized for quality

control and troubleshooting. And lastly, the “Materials” budget will include the raw

materials to be used. These are the identified consumables required for the conversion

to biodiesel such as aratilis fruits, vegetable oil, and other burnable resources to yield

biodiesel.

Expected Output

The Hybrid Biodiesel-making Machine from Ripe Aratilis Fruit is composed of

bioethanol collection tank, catalyst dispenser, mixer chamber, PLR control panel,

centrifugal pumps, air pump, distillation and fermentation set-up, cooling water reservoir,

72
heat exchanger, ion-exchange resin filter, sensors, metal pipes, wires, pressure gauges,

thermometers, heaters, wheels and metal frame.

The machine is automated and it will be connected to a power supply an that only

the raw materials are going to prepare and the machine has alert system that will notice

if the materials are in low level for the operator’s awareness. The only thing that a man

will operate in this machine is the refilling of waste vegetable oils, fermented ripe aratilis

fruit and the calcium-oxide catalyst.

Upon turning on the machine on, the process will resume continuously. Starting

from Pretreatment and Preheating, then Mixing (Transesterification Reaction), followed

by Processing Phase and Ethanol Recovery, next is Separation Stage, and lastly

Purification and Distillation Stage. One cycle will be completed for almost 2hours.

The Hybrid Biodiesel-making Machine is shown in the figure below (Figure 3.4).

Appendix A contains a schematic diagram of the machine.

73
 Figure 3.4: Isometric view with parts of Hybrid Biodiesel Making Machine

Gantt Chart

Figure 3.5:

74
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102
 APENDICES

APPENDIX A

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Schematic Diagram for Hybrid Biodiesel-making Machine inputting ripe aratilis fruit

Isometric View

103
Isometric View with Labels

104
 APPENDIX B

CURRICULUM VITAE

Nathan S. Evangelista
Mahabang Dahilig, Batangas City, Batangas
09564801265
20-00179@g.batstate-u.edu.ph

Personal Information

Age: 21
Date of Birth: May 3, 2001
Place of Birth: Batangas City, Batangas
Civil Status: Single
Citizenship: Filipino
Religion: Protestant
Mother’s Name: Nelia Evangelista
Occupation: Housewife
Father’s Name: Mario Evangelista
Occupation: Farmer

Educational Background

Primary: Mahabang Dahilig Elementary School

Secondary: Batangas National High School
Tertiary: Batangas State University – The National Engineering
University

105
Rysel Dominic C. Evangelista
San Isidro, Batangas City, Batangas
09338654012
20-09775@g.batstate-u.edu.ph

Personal Information

Age: 21
Date of Birth: March 22, 2001
Place of Birth: Tanauan City, Batangas
Civil Status: Single
Citizenship: Filipino
Religion: Roman Catholic
Mother’s Name: Sevilla C. Evangelista
Occupation: Self-employed
Father’s Name: Henry T. Evangelista
Occupation: Quality Auditor

Educational Background

Primary: De La Salle Lipa

Secondary: De La Salle Lipa
Tertiary: Batangas State University – The National Engineering
University

106
Kenn John Loyd R. Lasheras
Quisumbing, Calaca City, Batangas
09954287694
20-04265@g.batstate-u.edu.ph

Personal Information

Age: 21
Date of Birth: December 4, 2000
Place of Birth: Balayan, Batangas
Civil Status: Single
Citizenship: Filipino
Religion: Roman Catholic
Mother’s Name: Rachel R. Lasheras
Occupation: Housewife
Father’s Name: Mamerto R. Lasheras
Occupation: Driver

Educational Background

Primary: Dacanlao Gregorio Agoncillo Elementary School

Secondary: Dacanlao Gregorio Agoncillo National High School
Tertiary: Batangas State University – The National Engineering
University

107