PRACTICAL RESEARCH 1 REVIEWER BY ISHIE DE GUZMAN
Part 1:
A. Sampling
- getting the subset of a
population (whole), in which
that part of the population
represents the population as
a whole.
B. Probability
- Randomly selected
respondents.
- for when you don't need a
particular characteristic.
- everyone has an equal
chance of being selected.
C. Non-Probability
- selected respondents based
on what you need.
- You are searching for a
particular characteristic.
D. Margin of Error
- presumed range of how far it
is from the true value.
- part of margin of error is
"mortality" (death of data/
loss of data)
E. Research Problem
- the objective in your
research.
F. Research Questions
- questions that help answer /
solve your research problem.
Part 2: Types of Research
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
- uses stories and narratives of the
respondents.
- aims for description /exploration of a
topic.
- the use of triangulation for reliability
of data.
Types of triangulation:
• Method Triangulation
• Analyst Triangulation
• Sources Triangulation
• Theory Triangulation
Types of Qualitative Research
• Ethnography ⇾ Data Collection
Instrument:  Immersion
• Historical ⇾ DCI : Document Analysis/ 
Hermeneutics
• Case Studies ⇾ DCI : Interview
/ Questionnaire / Observation, etc… (Almost
all)
• Phenomenology ⇾ DCI : Interview
- Edmund Husserl - Epoche =
Bracketing of Assumptions
- Lived Experiences - "Actual
Experiences" 
- Erlebnis - experiences that lasts. 
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- use of numerical data.
- can be more generalized.
- aims to develop a causal
relationship and correlation.
- If it is Non-experimental, it is no
longer called independent and
dependent variable, rather
"predictor" (independent) and
"criterion" (dependent), and
becomes a qualitative research.
Reliability = Replicability
- Bias affects reliability
A. Researcher Bias
- on the part of the
researchers.
B. Subject Bias
- on the part of the
respondents.
Part 3: DATA COLLECTION
INSTRUMENTS:
A. Experiment
- it is the manipulation of
variables.
- the purpose is causation
(Cause & Effect)
- weakness: cannot
prove/gather Qualia.
1. "Qualia"
- subjective quality of
experience.
- different perspective
from the
same experience.
B. Questionnaire
- purpose is to gather
standardized data for large
sized groups.
- it is less time consuming
compared to inteviews
1. Open-ended questions
- coding - paraphrase,
interpret answers to
make them into a
group.
2. Close-ended questions
3. listed options, easier to
tabulate.
c. Interviews
- it is time consuming, answers are in  > Dichotomous / Binary
paragraph form and in audio form; there  - can only have TWO distinct categories or
is a need for transcription and  values.
paraphrasing / coding.
- gives more detailed answers
- disadvantage: it is subjective
d. Focus Group Discussion
- new data may appear (data that is  values are defined by an ORDER
unknown to the researchers)
- disadvantage: it is subjective
e. Observation
- advantage: good for small groups
- disadvantage: time consuming
> Participative Observation
- immersing yourself in the community.
- conclusion can be biased (subjective)
f. Document Analysis
Karl Popper
- the difference of science to pseudoscience
is "falsifiability".
Pseudoscience (fake science)
Falsifiability
- the acknowledgement that some studies
are false.
* What is a variable?
- A variable in research simply refers to a
person, place, thing, or phenomenon that
you are trying to measure in some way.
VARIABLES
- refers to anything (person, place, thing, or
phenomenon) that you are trying to
measure.
TYPES
• Categorical (Qualitative Variable)
- refers to a characteristic that can’t be 
quantifiable.
- variables that can be placed into a
category.
 
> Polychotomous
- can have MANY categories or values.
▪︎Ordinal
- ordinal variable is a variable whose 
 
relation between the different 
categories.
- can be RANKED.
▪︎Nominal
- A nominal variable is one that 
describes a name, label or category 
without natural order. existing studies or research within your 
field.
• Numerical (Quantitative Variable)
- is a quantifiable characteristic whose * Define the ff terms and provide example of
values are numbers. each:

> Discrete a. Factor Isolating Questions

- are finite numbers (countable), they are  - also called factor naming questions, they
non-negative and whole numbers. isolate, categorize, describe, or name
factors or situations. (It answers the
> Continuous question: "What is this? ) 
- (measurable) can assume an infinite  Example: What is the level of description of
number of real values within a given  the study habits of senior high school
interval. students in terms of: 
1.1 review time; 
▪︎Ratio 1.2 place of review; 
- a type of continuous variable value  and 1.3 techniques in studying?
which cannot be negative.
b. Factor Relating Questions
• Variables in an Experiment - Determines the relationships among
> Independent factors identified in the problem. These are
- Cause usually the questions raise for
non-experimental study. (Answers the
> Dependent question: What is happening here?)
- Effect
Example: 
> Extraneous How does the study habits influence the
- other factors that affect the variable  achievement level of the Grade 11 students
outside the research. in their major subjects?

> Confounding c. Situation Relating Questions

- Can affect the validity of the experiment.
• If Non- Experimental
> Predictor (like Independent)
> Criterion (like Dependent)
the hypothesis testing or experimental
designs are usually applied. The
researchers manipulate the variables to find
out what will happen. (What will happen
if….?)

LOCALE Example: What are the effects of the

- it refers to the place or setting of the  traditional methods of teaching on the level
study. / Where you will be conducting your  of performance of the ABM students?
research.
d. Situation Producing Questions
PERIOD - These questions require a proposed
- the period in where the research is  output. It suggests developmental and
conducted; includes the start /  action plans where the researchers have to
commencement and the end of the  establish areas for proposals of plans to
research. achieve the goals – to solve problems. (How
can I make it happen?)
RESEARCH GAP
- A research gap is a question or a problem  Example:
that has not been answered by any of the 
Based on the findings, what human relation
intervention program can be adopted to - operational definitions - own definitions.
enhance or improve school effectiveness? 

* In writing the statement of the problem, HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PAPER.

identify the appropriate questions for
qualitative researches.
- What is the problem that the research will
address? What are the goals of a statement
of the problem? 
- Includes the introductory statement which
reflects the main problem of the study.
- The questions should not be answerable
by a simple yes or no.
- Include all the independent and moderate
variable.
- Should be arranged in logical order, and
extensive in coverage and must be mutually
exlusive.
* Scope and Delimitation
Start with scope then delimitation then
limitation.
Delimitation, 
*Definition of variables
- 2 kinds of definition
• Conceptual / Nominal
- meaning of the term based on the
dictionary / general meaning.
• Operational
- meaning of the term in the context of the
research.

SCOPE Construct > Measure > Indicator

- (coverage) details what your study will 
explore, such as the target population,  *Background of the study
extent, or study duration. (Until where/  - included what was already written about
what extent?) the topic.
- start with reflection of own experience
DELIMITATION  regarding the topic.
- Delimitations are factors and variables - use epoche still.
NOT  - talk about expert opinion, any common
INCLUDED in the study. beliefs (atleast 3)
- then , research gap "However , in spite all
LIMITATION of this , this particular area hasnt been
- ISSUES or WEAKNESS that may discovered yet."
influence 
the outcomes and conclusions of the 
research.  Significance of the study- highlight who will
be the beneficiaries of the study, those who
- In your research, also include how to  will be affected of the research. What will be
overcome that weakness. the relevance for the beneficiaries.
● Types:
Methodological-new way of
* Differentiate conceptual or nominal conducting the study
definitions from operational definitions. Practical
- Nominal definition deals with Theoretical- areas that was not
conceptualization from given focused or covered before,
a theoretical perspective, but operational therefore, the new researches will
definitions are how concepts are put into contribute to it.
measurable terms. Operational definitions
transform theoretical definitions into In writing the SOS it can either be in:
observable events.  ● Topical- in paragraph form
 A paragraph allotted for
every significance or contribution to
each of the answers to each
research question.
● Enumeration- highlights the
beneficiaries, then writes the
relevance for the group
Contribution to each
beneficiary is specified
-can be written inductively
(specific to general) or deductively
(general to specific)
Statement of the problem
research problem (general problem) -the
objective of the study, what you want to
know about the study (implied, no specific
section), expressed in the so-called problem
statement, found in the general problem
specific problem-serves as a research
question
chapter 1 contents:
background of the study
statement of the problem
scope and delimitation
significance of the study
definition of terms
research question- specific problem
4 kinds of research question:
● Factor-relating questions
● Factor-isolating/naming questions
(commonly used in qualitative
research
● Situation-producing questions (also
common)
● Situation-relating questions
Construct-mental abstractions formulated by
researchers to measure something that is
tangible (can be directly touched)
Construct is measured through indicators
for example conducting an evaluation for
teachers to know how competent they are.
● Can’t be measured directly
Operational definition- own definition of
researchers
Nominal definition- common definition
Identifying the indicators is necessary
because it will serve as the cluster
Univariate- 1 variable
Bivariate- 2 variables
C3
Research design (qualitative)
Validity-refers to appropriateness
Reliability- refers to replicability
What is?
Why is it that you are doing that
particular…..?
Identify-define-explain
Research design-also called research
strategy. It refers on how you are going to
answer your research problem
2 broad categories- qualitative or
quantitative
Top-down approach(deduction)
-confirmation
Bottom-up approach (induction) used in
qualitative
-exploratory
Explores the theory
Starts w/ observations
Data collection
Notice pattern
Formulate hypothesis
Theory
Triangulation- used to make sense of
qualitative data
Inferential statistics-quantitative
Null hypothesis-quanti (variables has no
relation, no significance difference)
Alternate hypothesis- quanti (there is a
positive relation between x and y)
 You can know what to use through ● Experiment
theories ● Document analysis
● Library research
Confirmatory research- to check ● Survey questionnaire (close/open
ended)
Top-down approach-deduction
- confirmatory ● interview
- aim is to confirm whether the theory has structured-follows a flow/sequence
enough explanatory power to account the unstructured-only has a general sense of
phenomenon data, no sequence followed
-checks is the theory is right
instrumentation table
Observation 1st -sop
Theory (general) 2nd-criteria
Hypothesis
Data collection
Confirmation
PAGES 1-15
Karl Pauper-what makes science differ from
pseudoscience is falsifiability (it can be WHAT IS RESEARCH?
rendered wrong)
Human beings are undeniably curious. The
Quali-exploratory- if the phenomenon is reason of such is the existence of human
new, no enough theories rationality.

Quali-descriptive-describing the Rationality- the ability of a human to think

phenomenon, describing helps you attain and reason out
the subjective quality of the phenomenon -what separates us from
(qualia)-subjective by nature animals

Sampling techniques/sampling and choice Plato: “philosophy starts with

of respondents- where you choose your
respondents for the research
-subsection from the population (group you
want to talk about)
- the process by which a statistical subset or
portion of a statistical population is selected
to be the representative
● Probability-equal chance (simple
random, stratified random,fishbowl)
● gives off a larger number of
respondents
● Non-probability-specific
characteristic (convenience,
purposive, snowball)
● gives off a fewer number of
respondents
Data collection instrument
● Observation
● Focused group discussion
wonder”-perfectly describes human nature
Research- a systematic process of
gathering, interpreting, and analyzing
information to resolve a specific problem (a
process of searching again)
JOHN VANDERSTOEP- argued that
research has many forms.
QUALITATIVE- narratives and stories of the
research participants/descriptions
● Often done in social
sciences
● Use of triangulation for
reliability of data
● Aims to develop
generalization
QUANTITATIVE- use of numerical number
data
 ● Often done in physical and
natural sciences
● Use of statistical treatment
● Aims to develop a causal
relationship between and
among variables
Culture maps- a thick description of a
cultural event or activity
Participatory research- immersing oneself
Observer approach- observe the culture as
a detached observer
Reductionist- main criticism about
quantitative research
● Reduces reality in to
numbers
WHY RESEARCH?
1. Knowledge production- the main
point of research is to produce
knowledge and to discover.
2. Finding answers- from the
production of knowledge, we can
now derive some answers to the
problems.
3. Human convenience- aims to make
the lives of human beings easier.
4. Research precedes progress-
progress will not happen w/o
research.
5. Make the world better
PAGES 16-20
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE
Scientific method- basic procedures of
science
Science- a systematized body of knowledge
based on facts and evidence
SCIENCE: natural science vs social science
These characteristics of science serve as
the foundation of what can be called
scientific
1. Objectivity- a scientific word should
have no biases
2. Universality- it is assumed that the
conclusion or the facts that have
been proven is science applicable in
all context
3. Empirical evidence- science relies
on empirical evidence, this means
that it does not accept something
that cannot be experienced by the
senses
Natural Sciences- refer to the sciences that
concern itself with the workings of the world
● Physical Science:
concerned with abiotic or
non-living subjects
(physics & chemistry)
● Biological Science:
concerned with biotic or
living things (botany &
biology)
Social Sciences- study of human beings
and their interaction with different forces in
society
● It studies the constant
processes of the human
person
Unpredictability- reason why we cannot
easily establish laws of human behavior
Behavioralism- this movement believed that
we can study human beings scientifically-in
the way natural sciences study their
subjects.
Pgs 35-54
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
● A form of research that
uses the story or
narratives of its
respondents as data.
● Can provide in-depth
understanding of the
 answers given by the
respondents
● Can help us understand
the respondents and their
context better
Danger: it can make the researchers too
involved
Might be misinterpreted by most
people
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: FLEXIBILITY
AND CIRCULARITY
A research process can be seen as a linear
one.
In qualitative, it does not follow the process
rigidly, meaning we could skip first or
prioritize some steps before the others.
METHODS:
1. INTERVIEW- usual method
● The process of gathering
data through asking
questions to a respondent
and recording what the
respondent has said
(dialogue and
conversation)
● 3 types:
Structured Interview-interviewee
answering a series of structured
questions.
Unstructured Interview-free-flowing
kind of conversation wherein the
interviewer does not rigidly follow
his/her guide questions
Semi-structured
Interview-combination of structured
and unstructured
2. OBSERVATION-process of using
your senses to collect empirical.
Data
● 2 ways:
Participatory- observation that involves the
researcher in whatever he/she is observing.
Living with like one of the respondents
Non-participatory- researcher is detached
from his/her subjects. Observation from
outside.
3. FOCUSED GROUP DISCUSSION-
researchers group their respondents
into clusters.
4. LIBRARY RESEARCH-
respondent-less research. The
researcher should delve into a very
in-depth research into both primary
and secondary sources to establish
a strong claim. (literature)
FORMS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
● HISTORICAL RESEARCH-aims to
investigate the past, how the past
has affected the present and its
implication in the future
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Problem and Focus: The Past and
Its Implications on The Present and
Future (focuses on the problems of
the past)
2. Methodology: Library Research and
Interview (researchers should have
a primary and secondary source or
interview the person who directly
witnessed the event)
3. Role of the Researcher: Collects,
Interprets and Analyzes Data
4. Respondents/Data: Provides
Information (respondent and data)
and Collaborate with the Researcher
(respondent)
5. Conclusion and Recommendation:
Improvement of present condition
● ETHNOGRAPHY- used in discipline
of sociology and anthropology. This
research aims to construct cultural
maps.
● Will definitely help
improve the situation of
many unique and
marginalized groups
CHARACTERISTICS:
 1. Problem and Focus: Culture (unique
& marginalized)
2. Methodology: Interview, Observation
and Focused Group Discussion
3. Role of the Researcher:
Collaborative or Detached Observer
4. Respondents/Data: Respondents
Collaborate with the Researcher and
the Data Gathered is used to Give
Voice to the Group
5. Conclusion and Recommendation:
Understanding of the Cultural Group
● CASE STUDY- can be confused with
an ethnographic study. (but narrower)
It has a very
specific focus-it has specific time
frame, specific group, place and
problem. it has a high level of
specification before it can be
considered as such
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Problem and Focus: specific
problem and focus
2. Methodology: Interview, Observation
and Focused Group Discussion
3. Role of the Researcher:
Collaborative or Detached Observer
4. Respondents/Data: Respondents
Collaborate with the Researcher and
the Data Gathered are used to give
voice to the group
5. Conclusion and Recommendation:
Understanding a part of the culture
●
PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY-
aims to come up with the very
essence of different human
experiences. It recognizes the idea
of intersubjectivity.
CHARACTERISTICS:
6. Problem and Focus: Personal
Experience
7. Methodology: Interview ( an in-depth
and personal one)
8. Role of the Researcher:
Collaborative ( both the researcher
and the respondent produce
knowledge
9. Respondents/Data: Respondents
Collaborate with the Researcher and
the Data Gathered are Utilized to
Come Up with the Essence of an
Experience
10. Conclusion and Recommendation:
Understanding of an Experience
● ACTION RESEARCH-done
frequently in education research. It is
conducted to immediately improve a
problematic situation. This variant
provides immediate solutions to
immediate problems
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Problem and Focus: immediate
problems needing immediate
solutions
2. Methodology: any qualitative
methodology even survey
3. Role of the Researcher: intervening
4. Respondents/Data: respondents
must allow the intervention to
happen: the dta must be utilized to
guide the intervention or action
5. Conclusion and Recommendation:
solutions
Other type of qualitative research:
Historical research
Ethnography
Case study
Phenomenological study
Action research
Quantitative- causal-experimentation (the
effects of x on y)
● a comparison of x and y
(correlation between..)
Qualitative- univariate studies (study
habits… the perceived effects….._
● self-reported data,
description
experimental group-manipulates
independent variable, exposed
controlled group-group that is not exposed
to the independent variable