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Cosmological Models of The Universe: Aryan Gadhave January 2023
Cosmological Models of The Universe: Aryan Gadhave January 2023
Aryan Gadhave
January 2023
1
Contents
1 Abstract 3
2 Introduction 4
2.1 What is Cosmology? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 A brief history of Cosmology before Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3 Newtonian Cosmology 6
3.1 The cosmological principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Modelling the expansion of the universe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3 Value of the k term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4 The fluid and acceleration equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.5 Solving the Friedmann equations I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4 General Relativity 9
4.1 Problems with Newtonian Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 The equivalence principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 Gravity and Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.4 Tensors in General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.4.1 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.4.2 Co-vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.5 The Metric Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.6 The geodesic equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.7 The Covariant derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.8 The Riemann Curvature Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.9 The Ricci Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.10 The Energy Momentum Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.11 Curved Newtonian gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.12 The Einstein Field Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7 Appendix 21
7.1 The Tensor Product and the general definition of a tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.2 Calculating the Christoffel symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.3 Proof of the divergence-free property of the Einstein tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References 22
2
1 Abstract
This paper will examine how cosmology was developed over the course of human history- from
the geocentric model of the Ancient Greeks to Kepler’s revised heliocentric model, the Newto-
nian model for Cosmology and finally, the incorporation of General Relativity. In particular,
the latter two will be focused more heavily on. Although the use of mathematics will be kept
accessible, certain things such as a basic understanding of linear algebra and calculus will be
assumed, particularly for Sections 4 and 5. In the final section, there will be a discussion of
large-scale geometries of the universe- flat, spherical and hyperbolic, as well as solving the
Friedmann equations with dark energy.
3
2 Introduction
2.1 What is Cosmology?
There are few fields of study as inclusive as cosmology, which itself could be defined as the
study of the physical properties of the universe. However isn’t this just physics in general?
Avoiding too broad a definition leads us to the following; cosmology is study of the observable
universe’s origin, its large-scale structures and dynamics, and the ultimate fate of the universe.
Figure 1: The path of Mars according to Ptolemy’s epicycle model- highlighted in red [10]
Although the geocentric model remained the dominant viewpoint for over a 1500 years, its
antithesis, the heliocentric model- meaning sun at the centre, was also proposed around 270
BC by Aristarchus however it failed to gain traction until the time of Copernicus for a number
of reasons. Firstly, it implies that Earth is in a circular orbit around the Sun meaning its
in constant motion, but at the time of ancient Greece- motion that wasn’t ’felt’ was deemed
impossible. Furthermore, according to the model there must be parallax between Earth and
nearby stars other than the Earth (which is in fact true), but due to the vast astronomical
distances the angle of parallax was so minute that it wasn’t experimentally measured until
1838.
Copernicus’s (1473-1543) work vastly advanced the heliocentric model through the data he
collected however it was still ultimately flawed and it wasn’t until 1609, when Kepler published
his empirical laws of planetary motion that, a theory which accurately depicted physical reality
4
and made robust predictions was developed. Kepler’s 1st law stated that the planets orbited
the sun in ellipses by with an eccentricity ϵ, which can be thought of as a measure of how much
an ellipse deviates from a perfect circle. Kepler’s 2nd law states that planets sweep out an
equal area over equal time intervals during their orbits. Kepler’s 3rd law is however the most
Figure 2: Demonstration of Kepler’s 2nd law where A1 = A2 , and ai are the semi major axes and Fi are the
foci [5]
notable and useful for predictions; it states that T 2 ∝ a3 where T is the orbital time period
and a is the length of the the semi-major axis.
Kepler’s laws are what lead Newton to the law of gravitation (Ch.3), which is remarkable
for its predictive power given its simplicity.
5
3 Newtonian Cosmology
3.1 The cosmological principle
This states that the spatial distribution of matter in the universe is isotropic and homogeneous,
meaning it uniform throughout space and in all directions (rotationally symmetric). Experi-
mental data seems to support this viewpoint and it forms the foundation of cosmology.
This principle also motivates the definition of the scale factor; a(t) = a0 R(t)
R0
where a0 and R0
are the radius and scale factor at an arbitrary time, t0 , usually taken to be the age of the
universe. This is particularly useful as when forming a Newtonian theory of cosmology, you
can simply take a point in the universe, O and create a sphere of radius R0 and then by the
cosmological principle, the evolution of the sphere is a proxy for the evolution of the universe.
Figure 3: The experimental data used by Hubble to derive his law [1]
As per the cosmological principle, our expanding sphere must have a uniform density, ρ and
3ρ
thus its mass M is as follows: M = 4πR(t) 3
. Also, the expansion is homoglous, meaning the
mass M is constant. Another key characteristic is the velocities of objects within the sphere
due to the expansion are radial and given by Hubble’s law (Figure 5), v(t) = H(t)R(t) or
equivalently Ṙ
R
= ȧa = H using the definition of the scale factor.
2
By the law of the conservation of energy, the total energy E = mv2 − GM m
R(t)
(sum of the kinetic
energy and gravitational potential energy) must remain constant as the sphere expands radially.
2Ea2
Substituting the expressions for v and M and rearranging for H 2 yields H 2 = 8πGρ3
+ ma(t)20R2 .
0
2E
Given that mR 2 is a constant, when working in the context of general relativity, it is convenient
0
to replace it by −Kc2 where c is the speed of light in a vacuum. This along with the relation
kc2
Ka20 = k where k can only equal 0, 1 or -1 yields the Friedmann equation H 2 = 8πGρ 3
− a(t)2 (1),
6
3.3 Value of the k term
According to the Friedmann equation, the value of the k/curvature term will determine the
ultimate fate of the expansion of the universe. The value of k = −1 corresponds to negative
curvature and the value of ȧ is always positive meaning the universe will continue expanding
forever. Also in terms of the large scale geometry, it corresponds to a hyperbolic, open universe
(Figure 6). On the other hand, if k = 1 then eventually the value of ȧ will be negative and the
universe will start to contract. This corresponds to closed, spherical universe ultimately ending
in a Big Crunch. Finally, if k = 0 the universe will continue to expand however the rate of
expansion will tend to 0 with time since the mass density, ρ will tend to 0. Also k = 0 means
that there is no overall curvature and the large scale structure of the universe is flat, which is
the most likely scenario according to observations.
The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in heat flow dQ is the sum of the
change in internal energy dU and change in work done dW . It can be rewritten in a more
convenient form as follows: dQ = dU + pdV . Here the total internal energy in our sphere of
4πa(t)3 R03 ρ(t)c2
mass M can be expressed as, U (t) = M c2 = 3
. Differentiating w.r.t time yields:
dU
dt
= 4πR03 c2 a(t)2 ρ(t)ȧ + 34 πR03 c2 a(t)3 ρ̇. Meanwhile you also have dV
dt
= 4πR03 a(t)2 ȧ. Fi-
nally, as per the cosmological principle, our sphere is perfectly homogeneous and so the net
heat flow dQ = 0. Substituting our expressions yields the fluid equation: ρ̇ + 3 ȧa ( cp2 + ρ) = 0 (2).
Going back to (1), rearranging and differentiating w.r.t. time gives: äa = 4πG 3
(2ρ + ρ̇ aȧ ).
Finally, substituting for ρ̇ gives the acceleration equation: aä = − 4πG
3
(ρ + 3p
c2
) (3).
There are quite a few notable things about (3). Firstly, you see that an increase in pressure
p contributes to an overall deceleration of the expansion of the universe due to the gravitational
force. The contribution from the mass density, ρ is more obvious since the addition of matter/
mass slows down the outward expansion due to the attractive force of gravity. Also, the
curvature term k does not appear in (3), meaning that irrespective of the large scale geometry
of the universe, the universe cannot keep expanding at an accelerating rate. However, this
in a direct contradiction with observations, meaning that (3) is incomplete. When Einstein
7
Λ
encountered this, he added the infamous cosmological constant by adding a 3
term, which
accounts for dark energy, driving the universe’s accelerated expansion.
Firstly, considering the Friedmann and fluid equations for a flat universe composed of dust,
2
you have: ȧ2 = 8πGρa
3
(1). On the other hand (2) yields ρ̇ + 3 ȧa ρ = 0 which can then be solved
ρ0 t20
to give ρ = aρ03 . Substituting into (1) yields the solution, a(t) = ( tt0 )2/3 and ρ(t) = t2
. This
describes a universe that expands forever however at a decelerating rate. [7]
On the other hand, if the universe is dominated by radiation instead (the first 47000 years
after the Big Bang) you find that the solution to the Friedmann and fluid equations is as
ρ t2
follows: a(t) = ( tt0 )1/2 and ρ(t) = aρ04 = t02 0 . This means that the universe expands slower if it
is composed of radiation due to the radiation pressure term in (3). Furthermore, as ρdust ∝ a13
whereas ρrad ∝ a14 so the radiation solution isn’t stable and eventually, the universe will be
dominated by dust which itself is stable as time passes.
8
4 General Relativity
4.1 Problems with Newtonian Gravity
Perhaps most obviously, the biggest problem with Newtonian gravity is that it is a non-
relativistic theory of gravity and so is accurate only for cases with weak gravity and low veloc-
ities. Also, the interpretation of the gravitational force is that it is instantaneous which means
information is transmitted faster than the speed of light, violating a key postulate of relativity.
As per Newtonian gravity if the Sun suddenly disappeared, all the planets would be flung out
of orbit instantly, however in reality it would take around 8 minutes for it to happen on Earth
(the gravitational wave would have to travel at the speed of light).
A second yet more subtle effect is the precession of Mercury’s orbit around the Sun. In fact,
this effect occurs to all the planets in the Solar System but is only prevalent in Mercury’s orbit.
The perihelion of a planetary orbit is defined as the point on the ellipse of closest approach,
and in a precession, this point varies over time. This is again in contradiction with Newtonian
gravity which produces elliptical orbits without precession.
9
Figure 7: Alice and Bob throw a tennis ball, it has an identical trajectory as suggested by the equivalence
principle
However there is one and very major flaw in this argument- the assumption that there are
no tidal forces, which occur due to variations in the gravitational field. In reality, Bob might
actually be able to tell that he is on Earth, since even close to the surface, Earth’s gravitational
field isn’t perfectly homogeneous. This is why when the equivalence principle is used to derive
any further physical laws, it must be in a system with minimal tidal forces.
Figure 8: The two triangles show the paths taken by light in each scenario
10
is formulated as they allow you to explore the geometry of space-time and detect the presence of
gravity, or equivalently curvature. The precise definition of a tensor (see 5.1) is mathematically
involved whilst not being physically intuitive, therefore it can be convenient to think of them
as matrices with components obeying a special set of transformation rules.
4.4.1 Vectors
The common way to write vectors is using the Cartesian basis i,j,k, however in general since
the basis vectors are arbitrary, in the context of general relativity they are represented using e⃗i
where i runs over the number of dimensions in the space. Since basis vectors are arbitrary, it
is useful to know how the vector components and bases transform under a change of basis. In
general, the following formulas can be used for a change of basis: e⃗˜i = Fij e⃗j (for basis vectors)
and v˜i = Bij v j (vector components). Here, the superscripts v i are used the indicate vector
components (rather than powers), and the repeated j’s in each formula (1 superscript and 1
subscript) are used to indicate a sum over j, as per the Einstein summation convention. Also,
the coefficients Fij and Bij can be thought of as entries in a matrix F and B (called the forward
and backward transform) used to carry out the linear transformation (as a change of basis can
be thought of as one) such that F = B−1 .
4.4.2 Co-vectors
Co-vectors can be thought of as linear functions that take vector inputs and output real num-
bers. Or formally, a co-vector α : V → R. Similarly to vectors, they are necessary to define
certain objects in general relativity, and in general, any tensor can be thought of as a collection
of vector-co-vector pairs (see 5.1).
ej ) = δji where δji = 0 if j ̸= i and 1
Like vectors, co-vectors also have a basis ϵi such that ϵi (⃗
if j = i (Kronecker delta). Geometrically, co-vectors can be thought of as stacks whose output
on a vector is the number of lines it pierces. Transformation rules: Co-vectors can be geomet-
rically thought of as being the ’opposite’ of a vector since they transform in the opposite way
to ordinary vectors. You have ϵ˜i = Bij ϵj and the forward transform for co-vector components
11
with summations over j as earlier.
Now, following the definition of a geodesic you need to consider the acceleration vector:
⃗
d2 X ⃗
d dxi ∂ X
dT 2
= dT ( dT ∂xi ) employing the multi-variable chain rule. Then, using the product rules along
d j ∂ 2⃗ ⃗
2 i ∂X ⃗
dxj dxi ∂ X
with the fact that dT = dx
dT ∂xj
, gives ddTX2 = ddTx2 ∂x i + dT dT ∂xi ∂xj . Using the tangential basis
⃗ ⃗
vectors and normal vectors to the 4-D manifold, you have ∂x∂iX ∂xj
∂X
= Γkij ∂x k + Lij n̂(*). Here, the
k
Γij represent the Christoffel symbols, which form the components of the tangential vectors and
the Lij represents the normal components. Finally, substituting this in and setting the tangen-
2 k j dxi
tial components to zero gives the geodesic equation: ddTx2 + Γkij dx dT dT
= 0 (4). The fact that the
tangential components are zero follows from the definition of a geodesic and the equivalence
principle (all inertial frames are indistinguishable and follow the same physical laws).
In General Relativity, the geodesic equation is really a set of 4 differential equations, which
given the Christoffel symbols, can be solved to determine the trajectory of a particle in terms
of the parameter T . They can be used to derive the precession of Mercury as well as the grav-
itational lensing of light.
12
4.7 The Covariant derivative
The covariant derivative is a mathematical tool that allows you to track changes in a vector field
along a given direction or path parameter. Formally, the covariant derivative ∇w⃗ ⃗v measures the
change in the vector field ⃗v along the direction of w.
⃗ It is also defined to be linear, additive and
satisfies the Leibniz product rule. The covariant derivative can then be defined by how it acts
on the basis vectors, or by computing ∇e⃗i e⃗j . Since the covariant derivative of a basis vector
along another basis vector is itself a vector, you have ∇e⃗i e⃗j = Γkij e⃗k . Here, the Γkij are denoted
connection coefficients (thought of as a generalisation of the Christoffel symbols). However in
the context of general relativity it is desirable for the Christoffel symbols to be unique, so two
more properties can be added to the definition of the covariant derivative. Firstly, we say that
the covariant derivative is torsion-free, meaning that ∇⃗v w ⃗ = ∇w⃗ ⃗v or equivalently Γkij = Γkji .
Secondly, the metric compatibility property means that ∇⃗u (⃗v · w) ⃗ = ∇⃗u (⃗v ) · w ⃗ + ∇⃗u (w)
⃗ · ⃗v .
The concept of the covariant derivative is closely associated with the idea of parallel trans-
porting a vector, which itself can be thought of as a way to transport a vector ⃗v along a curve
w(λ)
⃗ such that it remains as ’straight as possible’. This can be formalised using the covariant
derivative as follows; a vector ⃗v is parallel transported along w(λ)
⃗ if ∇w(λ)
⃗ ⃗ v = 0. Note that if
two vectors are parallel transported, by the metric compatibility property the angle between
them is preserved.
Using the concept of parallel transport, a geodesic is then a curve which can be parallel
⃗ = 0 ⇔ (4).
transported along itself, ∇X⃗ X
13
ρ
to zero, you have: Rµν e⃗ρ = ∇µ Γkνσ e⃗k −∇ν Γkµσ e⃗k = ∂µ Γkνσ e⃗k +Γkνσ Γlµk e⃗l −∂µ Γkµσ e⃗k −Γlνk Γkµσ e⃗l (note
the change in notation for the partial and covariant derivatives: ∂µ = ∂X∂ µ and ∇e⃗µ = ∇µ ) . Re-
ρ
indexing gives Rσµν = ∂µ Γνσ + Γkνσ Γρµk − ∂ν Γρµσ − Γkµσ Γρνk . This means the Riemann curvature
tensor can be determined once the Christoffel symbols are calculated, which themselves are
determined in terms of the metric. In 4-D the Riemann curvature tensor has 256 components
and calculating all of these is computationally intensive. Fortunately, there are symmetries
between the components, meaning that in 4-D there are 20 independent components. However,
sometimes it is still convenient to work in terms of the Ricci tensor, thought of as a summary
of the Riemann tensor.
14
For example, if time t is held constant then the components T αt track the α component
of the momentum going through a unit box of ∆x, ∆y, ∆z. Firstly, the time-time component
Pt E
T tt = ∆x∆y∆z = ∆V = ϵ = ρc2 is the energy density.
Pα
Likewise, if x is held constant T αx = ∆y∆z∆t which for α ̸= t correspond to pressure and
shear stress terms, responsible for rotating and squishing objects.
being zero. Finally, the Riemann and Ricci tensor components are then computed using the
Christoffel symbols and you have R00 = ∇2 ϕ with all other components equal to zero for the
Ricci tensor. Also, in the context of Newtonian gravity the energy-momentum tensor only has
one non-zero term, the energy density. Poisson’s equation then becomes R00 = 4πG c2
T00 (6) which
hints at the form of the generalised Einstein field equations as an equivalence of the curvature
of space-time/gravity to the presence of mass/energy in the form of the energy-momentum
tensor.
However, when you add a correction term to form the Einstein tensor, Gµν = Rµν − 12 Rgµν ,
it turns out the divergence of this tensor is indeed zero, which can be shown using the Bianchi
identities (symmetries of the Riemann tensor). This yields the correct form of the Einstein
field equations, namely Gµν = κTµν . The constant of proportionality κ can be derived by
taking the Einstein field equations to the Newtonian limit in the case of weak gravity and low
velocities. The overview is as follows: firstly you assume the metric gµν = ηµν + hµν where η is
the Minkowski metric for flat space and h is a small perturbation. The low velocities condition
means that the velocity four-vector, U ⃗ has time component c and all other components close to
zero as u << c. The Einstein field equations then give you R00 = 12 κρc2 and using Poisson’s
i
The metric compatibility property states that ∇α gµν =0 meaning the Einstein field equations
can be still valid if you add a Λgµν term to them. This term is called the cosmological constant
and is used to represent dark energy driving the accelerated expansion of the universe. The
Einstein Field equations using the Friedmann-Lemaitre-Robertson-Walker/FLRW metric can
be used to derive the corrected Friedmann equations encoding the 3 large-scale geometries of
the universe.
15
5 The FLRW metric
The FLRW metric forms the basis for the standard model of cosmology and along with the field
equations, predicts an expanding universe. Recall that the cosmological principle stated that
the universe could be treated as being spatially homogeneous and isotropic; this means any
large-scale geometry of the universe must be consistent with the cosmological principle. There
are only 3 such geometries- flat, spherical and hyperbolic under the assumption that they are
simply connected i.e. have no holes like that of a torus.
Continuing the pattern as earlier the universe’s spatial geometry can be represented by H 3
in terms of hyperbolic angles θ, ϕ and χ. This finally yields the metric:
1 0 0 0
0 −(a(t))2 0 0
g= 2 2
.
0 0 − sinh χ(a(t)) 0
2 2 2
0 0 0 − sinh χ sin θ(a(t))
16
Figure 12: The Poincare disc model for H 2 where lines are represented as arcs of circles [15]
dr 2
can be combined as ( dχ ) = 1 − kr2 . This yields the final form of the general FLRW metric as:
1 0 0 0
0 −(a(t))22 0 0
g= 1−kr .
0 0 −r2 (a(t))2 0
2 2 2
0 0 0 −r sin θ(a(t))
17
5.6 The Cosmic Rest Frame
As mentioned earlier, the cosmic rest frame can be considered as a frame of reference with
which the matter/radiation in the universe is at rest. When the Cosmic Microwave Background
Radiation (CMBR) is measured from the surface of the Earth, it turns out for half the surface
of the Earth it appears to be red-shifted and for the other half, it appears blue-shifted. This
occurs due to the Earth’s relative motion since part of the surface facing the CMBR appears
red-shifted and vice-versa for the part facing away.
Figure 13: CMBR Doppler shift viewed from the surface of the Earth [12]
The cosmic rest frame is then the frame of reference with respect to which there is no observed
Doppler shift in the CMBR radiation, i.e. the frequency looks the same in all directions.
Additionally, the cosmic rest frame is also the frame of reference through which, at the largest
scales ≈ 100 million ly the average velocity of all the mass/radiation is zero, as there is a net
outward shift in all directions due to the expansion of the universe.
ρ is the density of the ordinary matter and radiation in the universe. This means it can be
split up into its two components, the matter/dust density ρm and the radiation density ρr .
Furthermore, it is convenient to express the matter and radiation density parameters in terms
of their classical solutions (see section 3.5). Firstly, for the matter density, you have ρm = ρam,0 3
where the constant of proportionality, ρm,0 is the matter density in the universe today (as earlier
for the critical density constant). Likewise, for the radiation density you have ρr = ρar,0 4 where
18
Λc 2
The second term, 8πG can be interpreted as a new form of energy density, namely the dark
energy density of the universe, ρΛ . Since the cosmological constant is assumed to be indepen-
dent of time, so is the dark energy density, meaning it too is constant, i.e. ρΛ (t) = ρΛ,0 . The
final term is more subtle, but can be thought of as the density resulting from the curvature of
3κc2 ρκ,0
space time, − 8πGρa 2 = ρκ = a2 , which represents the solution for a curvature dominated uni-
verse. Note the change in sign, it means for a hyperbolic universe the spatial density parameter
is positive and vice-versa for a spherical universe. [13]
constant H02 and using the formula for the critical density parameter today gives the final form
2
in terms of the density parameters: HH02
= Ωam,0 Ωr,0
3 + a4 +ΩΛ + a2
Ωκ,0
(7). Taking the time parameter
t to be the current age of the universe yields a(t0 ) = a0 = 1 and H = H0 which means that
Ωm,0 + Ωr,0 + Ωκ,0 + ΩΛ = 1. You may notice that there isn’t explicitly a term for the dark
matter density parameter in (7), however in the context of forming expansionary models the
dark matter density is indeed accounted for by the matter density, as both obey the relationship
ρ ∝ a13 . This means that in principle, dark matter can be treated as the missing/non-baryonic
matter in the universe that still obeys the same cosmological solution.
Dark energy and Matter/Dust: This is the solution of the Friedmann equation that is most
likely to be the fate of our universe, as you take Ωr,0 ≈ Ωκ,0 ≈ 0 which seemsqto agree with obser-
da Ωm,0
vational data. Then, the Friedmann equation gives the following: dt
= H0 Ω Λ a2 + a
. Once
1
√ 2
more, this is a separable differential equation with the solution: a(t) = ( ΩΩm,0
Λ
) 3 (sinh 3H0 2 ΩΛ t ) 3 .
This solution can be thought of as a combination of the classical solutions for matter domi-
nated and dark-energy dominated universes as for small t (at the beginning of the universe) you
2
have a(t) ∝ t 3 just like the√matter dominated universe and for very large t, using the relation
x
sinh x ≈ e2 yields a(t) ∝ e ΩΛ H0 t which was the dark energy dominated solution from earlier.
This type of solution is known as the Big Freeze and represents an accurate long term solution
for our universe.
Matter and curvature: For this solution you assume that ΩΛ ≈ Ωr,0 ≈ 0, and repeating the
process from earlier leads an implicit solution in terms of the parameter θ as a = −Ωm,0
2Ωκ,0
(1−cos θ)
Ωm,0
and t = 3 (θ − sin θ). This is the equation of a cycloid, representing the fact that all
2H0 (−Ωκ,0 ) 2
such universes will end in a Big Crunch. Also for small values of theta you obtain the rela-
2
tion a(t) ∝ t 3 meaning that for a universe with matter and positive curvature (like that of a
sphere), matter will dominate at the start before curvature takes-over and causes the universe
to collapse in on itself. [9]
19
Figure 14: Graphical representation of the different solutions. Here, the vacuum universe is the dark-energy
dominated solution from earlier and the WMAP7 is the solution for our universe- with matter and dark energy.
20
7 Appendix
7.1 The Tensor Product and the general definition of a tensor
The tensor product is a mathematical operation that makes it convenient to define tensors in
general. For vectors you see that their components transform using the backward transform,
hence they are called (1,0) tensors. Likewise, co-vector components transform using the forward
transform and so they are (0,1) tensors. Finally, the metric tensor is an example of a Bi-Linear
form which are (0,2) tensors as they transform using two forward transforms. This pattern
in general is true: so an (m, n) tensor can be thought of as a mathematical object whose
components transform using m backward transforms and n forward transforms. However, when
we considered vectors and co-vectors it was natural to form a basis for these, and in general to
form a basis for a tensor you use what is called the tensor/outer product, ⊗. To demonstrate
this for the metric tensor suppose you have a basis ϵij , then you must have the following
identity, ϵij (e⃗µ , e⃗ν ) = δµi δνj where you have the product of Kronecker deltas. However, using the
properties of the tensor product, you can show that co-vector bases, ϵi ⊗ ϵj (e⃗µ , e⃗ν ) = δµi δνj . This
means that ϵi ⊗ ϵj form a basis for the metric tensor, or g = gij ϵi ⊗ ϵj .
This can also be generalised to form another equivalent definition of an (m, n) tensor. Namely
if T is an (m, n) tensor then: T = Tba11ba22...b ...am
n
(e⃗a1 ⊗ e⃗a2 ... ⊗ ϵb1 ⊗ ϵb2 ...). Equivalently, an (m, n)
tensor is a linear function acting on m co-vectors and n vectors, producing a real number (or
the component of the tensor).
Next, you multiply and sum through using two inverse metric tensors, g σν g ρµ (Rρσµν;α +
Rρσαµ;ν + Rρσνα;µ ) = 0. Distributing the first term and raising the components you have
g σν (Rσµν;α
µ µ
+ Rσαµ;ν + g ρµ Rρσνα;µ ) = 0. Using the 3-4 and 1-2 symmetries of the Riemann
tensor, you have g σν (Rσµν;α
µ µ
− Rσµα;ν − g ρµ Rσρνα;µ ) = 0. You see that the 1st and 2nd terms are
really just Ricci tensor components which gives g σν (Rσν;α − Rσα;ν − g ρµ Rσρνα;µ ) = 0. Finally,
ν ν
distributing the 2nd inverse metric and raising the indices gives Rν;α − Rα;ν − g ρµ Rρνα;µ
ν
= 0.
As the first term is just the Ricci scalar and the other two terms are the raised index versions
of the Ricci tensor, you have R;α − Rα;ν ν µ
− Rα;µ = 0. Re-indexing gives 12 R;α − Rα;ν
ν
. Multiplying
1 µν µν
through by the inverse metric once more gives ( 2 Rg − R );ν = 0. Lowering the indices you
finally have Gµν;ν = 0, as needed to show that the Einstein Tensor is divergence-free.
21
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