-MODULE

Basic Communication Skills

AET 05103

Institute of Adult Education

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 Department of Adult and Continuing Education Studies Ordinary Diploma in
Adult and Continuing Education through ODL

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 MODULE

Basic Communication Skills

AET 05103

Institute of Adult Education

Department of Adult and Continuing Education Studies
Ordinary Diploma in Adult and Continuing Education
Through ODL

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 Copyright

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or any means,
in full or in part, except for short extracts in fair dealings, for research or private study,
critical scholarly review or discourse with an acknowledgement, without the written
permission of the Institute of Adult Education.

© Institute of Adult Education, 2021

ISBN

Institute of Adult Education

Ordinary Diploma in Adult and Continuing Education
through ODL
P. O. Box 20679
Dar es Salaam
Tanzania
Fax: +255 022 2150836
Email: info@iae.ac.tz
Website: www.iae.ac.tz

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 Acknowledgements

The Director of the Institute of Adult Education, Dr. Michael Ng’umbi, wishes to extend his
sincere thanks and gratitude to various individuals who contributed in one way or another in
accomplishing this module. The following staff of the IAE deserve special appreciation for
tireless efforts and dedication in the production of this module:

Dr. Julius Chaligha: Head, Department of Adult and

Continuing Education Studies
Samwel Gasuku Institute of Adult Education (Writer)
Scholastica E. Kileo Institute of Adult Education (Reviewer)
Institute of Adult Education (Editor)
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

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 Basic of Communication Skills

About this module

This module has been produced by the Institute of Adult Education.

All modules produced by the Institute of Adult Education are
structured in the same way.

How this module is structured

Module overview:
The module overview gives you a general introduction of the
module. The information contained in the module overview will
help you determine:
§ If the module is suitable for you.
§ What you already need to know.
§ What you can expect from the module.
§ How much time you will need to invest to complete the module.

The overview also provides guidance on:

§ Study skills.
§ Where to get help.
§ Module assignments and assessments.
§ Activity icons.
§ Units.

We  strongly  recommend  that  you  read  the  overview  carefully  

before  starting  your  learning.  

Module content:
The module is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
§ An introduction to the unit content.
§ Unit objectives
§ Unit outcomes.
§ New terminology.

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About this module

§ Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

§ A unit summary.
§ Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.
Resources:
§ Answers to assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

Your comments:
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide
you with a list of additional resources at the end of this module;
these may be books, articles or web sites.
When reading this module, we would appreciate if you could make
a few comments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this
module. Your feedback might include comments on:
§ Module content and structure.
§ Module reading materials and resources.
§ Module assignments.
§ Module duration.
§ Module support (assigned tutors, technical help, and others)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance

this module.

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 Basic Communication Skills in Distance
Education
Module overview
Welcome to this module

Welcome to this module named Basic Communication Skills in

Distance Education. I am glad to inform you that, this module will
take a period of six months covering the whole semester. In this
module, you will study the basics of communication including
theories and models of communication, characteristics of
communication, forms, media and types of communication,
principles for effective communication, communication barriers as
well as language skills in communication. The module will equip
you with necessary communication skills that will enable you to
apply the basics of communication skills in different contexts with
appropriate interactive skills. In this module, you will achieve a
number of learning outcomes. Welcome!

Module Outcome

Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

§ Demonstrate knowledge of theories applicable in
communication;
§ Describe communication models to enhance
interaction;
§ Describe communication process for effective
conveyance of message;
§ Employ principles of communication for effective
interaction;
§ Explain types communication according to the
communication models;
§ Use referencing skills for effective communication;
§ Explain barriers to communication to enhance
effective communication;
§ Apply effective reading skills for effective
communication;
§ Apply academic writing skills for effective
communication;
§ Apply listening skills for effective communication;
§ Apply speaking skills for effective communication;

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Module overview

Study Skills

As an adult learner, your approach to learning will be different

from that of your school days. You will choose what you want to
study, you will have professional and/or personal motivation for
doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities
around other professional or domestic responsibilities. Essentially
you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related
to time management, goal setting, stress management, and others.
Perhaps you will also need to familiarise yourself in areas such as
essay planning, coping with exams and using the web as a learning
resource. Your most significant considerations will be time and
space i.e. the time you dedicate to your learning and the
environment in which you engage in that learning.

We recommend that you take time now before starting your self-
study to familiarise yourself with a few excellent resource links on
the web suggested for you as follows:

§ http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” website is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for
a good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.

§ http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the website of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student
Affairs. You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where
does time go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration
techniques, control of the study environment, note taking, how to
read essays for analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).

§ http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” website with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing
skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory
building, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.

The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At
the time of writing these web links were active. If you want to look
for more links go to www.google.com and type “self-study basics”,
“self-study tips”, “self-study skills” or similar, then search.

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Basic Communication Skills in Distance

Education

Need help?

Dear learner, in the course of your study, you may need help in
various issues such as the location and how to get support from
resource centres, clarification of various issues pertaining to your
study materials (modules) and so on. If this happens, you are
advised to ask for help from your centre coordinator or facilitator.
You can also visit the website of the Institute of Adult Education,
which is www.iae.ac.tz or ask for help by through phone number
0222150836, or email address at info@iae.ac.tz.

Module Assessment

Each unit has one assignment with their modal answers at the end
of the module. Also, there will be one tutor marked assignment
when you complete the module. Additionally, you will be given
one project work. Unit assignments are for your self-assessment on
the unit you have studied, and they will not be submitted. You will
submit only one end of the module assignment and project work
which will be given to you in the course of your study by module
facilitator. The assignment and project work will be submitted to
the module facilitator during face to face sessions or through email.
This is part of continuous assessment.
Therefore, in continuous assessment, there will be self-assessments
and four teacher-marked assignments, namely project work, end of
the module assignment and two tests. The two tests will last for one
hour each while you will be given two months submit the
assignment to your module facilitator. Your module facilitator will
mark and give you feedback through any reliable means including
face to face sessions. Continuous assessments will be administered
before the end of a semester while end of semester examination
will be administered at the end of each semester.
Generally, the Continuous Assessment and Semester Examination
will carry 50% each, while the first test and semester test will carry
10% each. Additionally, the end of the module
assignment/homework will carry 5%, portfolio 5%, project 10%
and oral questioning 10%.

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Basics Communication Skills in Distance

Education
Unit 1
1.0 Understanding Communication Theory and Processes

Introduction
Dear learner, there is no mutual understanding amongst human beings without communication since
it is the core aspect in human relation interaction. Communication skills enable us to grow, learn, be
aware of ourselves and adjust our interactions to the environment. We rely on communication in
every aspect of our lives. People communicate to share and exchange information, thoughts and
feelings. Dear learner, in Unit One, we are going to cover the following areas:
Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:

a) Define communication
b) Describe the characteristics and importance of communication
c) Describe the communication theory and Models
d) Describe elements or components of communication
e) Describe communication cycle and process for effective communication
f) Explain types of communication.
Meaning of Communication
Dear learner, the concept of communication has been defined differently by various scholars. In the
first place, communication is a process of passing information from one person to another. It
involves organising, selecting and transmitting symbols in a suitable way to ensure receiver
perceives and recreates the meaning intended by communicators. Dear learner, communication can
also be defined as a process of providing required information to the concerned people. This
information should be provided in time to the people. In addition, human communication can be
defined as the process by which information and feelings are shared by people through exchange of
verbal and non-verbal messages. Simply put, we can say that communication is a process of
transferring information from one place to another. The following illustration shows the
communication process:

Sender  
r   Receiver  

Response  to  
message  

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Figure 1.1: Two-way Communication

Dear learner, having defined the concept of communication, we need to understand the
characteristics of human language as follows:
Salient Characteristics of Human Communication
• Any communication has purpose/ objectives. The main objective of communication is
transmission of meaning where the intended message is successfully received by the
recipient.
• Communication is an exchange of messages; that is to say, communication always takes
place between two or more parties.
• Communication involves interdependent or interrelated elements such as sender, receiver,
message, channel, context etc.
• Communication uses symbolic language, the words we speak are accompanied by non-verbal
cues such as gestures, facial expression, postural expression, tone of the voice among others.
All these are used symbolically to communicate meaning or message.
• In order for communication to take place, communicators have to have common meaning for
words, phrases and non-verbal cues.
• Feedback is an essential aspect of communication. The process of communication is said to
be complete when the receiver of the message is able to decode, understand and provide the
required feedback to the sender.
• It is a two-way process, which involves sending and receiving messages as well as feedback.
For that case, it is interactive (exchange of message between the sender and receiver).
• It needs a subject matter (content).
• It is a continuous process depending on type of communication.
• Communication can be verbal or non-verbal; that is to say, using spoken words or symbols
and signs.
Importance of Communication
Dear learner, communication is vital to different groups of people including society, people as well
as in organizations because it enables people to interact and perform social and economic activities.
The following justify the importance of communication.
• Communication enables one to obtain the required information.
• Communication enables people to acquire knowledge in different areas. For example.
• Communication serves to influence other people. For example,
• It helps in establishing, developing and maintaining social relationship. For example
• Communication helps people to meet human needs such as food clothing, and shelter, to
release stress, to kill boredom. For example,

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• Communication serves to fulfill social obligations such as greetings, chatting with them
wherever they meet.
• Communication helps in solving social problem. For example
Components or Elements of Communication Process
Dear learners, having seen the concept of communication, there are important aspects to be
considered in understanding clearly the concept of communication.

Components / Elements of Communication

Dear learner, in the previous subsection we learned about the concept of communication, models and
importance of communication. In communication, there are five stages that the message goes
through, namely, sender, message, channel, receiver and feedback.
a) Sender – the sender is also known as encoder. This is a person who sends the message. The
word encoder means a person who translates thought into meaningful words; and encoding is
the process of putting one’s thoughts into words. For example, if you ask your friend a
question, you are the sender. This also applies when you write a message, a note or letter to
someone or a group. You always send WhatsApp messages to friends and groups.
b) Message – This is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. In other words, message
refers to the subject matter of any communication. It can be verbal or non-verbal form of an
idea, thought, feelings that the sender intends to communicate to the receiver (s).
c) Channel - sometimes known as medium is a means used for exchanging or transmitting the
message. This can include radio, television, internet books, letters and magazines. The
correct choice of a channel is essential for making the message effective and properly
understood by the receiver.
d) Receiver /Decoder – is a person for whom the message is targeted. The decoder is the
translator of a message and decoding is the process of giving meaning to the encoded
message.
e) Feedback – It is the reaction or response to the sender’s message. Feedback allows a sender
to analyse the effectiveness of the message and helps a sender in confirming whether the
message was correctly understood.
f) Context - is the environment in which communication occurs. This environment could be
physical, social or cultural. The sender chooses the message to communicate within a
context. For example, conversations in the office are quite different form conversations in the
bus.

Dear leaner, we have seen the components of communication. For the communication process to
take place, there should be some aspects to consider including; the source of communication (sender/
encoder), the contents of communication (message).
i. The process by which communication is produced (dictation or typing)
ii. The method by which communication is transmitted also known as communication channels
(letter, telephone)
iii. Procedures involved in receiving a communication (mail handling, distribution)
iv. The destination of the communication (Receiver/ Decoder/ Recipient)
v. The understanding of the communication by the recipient and interpreting it (encoding)

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Dear learners, from the above facts, we come up with the conclusion that communication situation
exists when:
1. There is a person (sender or transmitter) desirous of passing on some information
2. There is another person (receiver) to whom the information is to be passed on
3. The receiver, partly or wholly understands the message passed on to him/her
4. The receiver responds to the message; that is, there is some kind of feedback.
Communication Process for Effective Conveyance of Messages
Dear learner, having seen the general characteristics of human communication, let us describe the
stages of the communication process. A process is a series of stages presented in a chronological
order that lead to particular results. The process of communication is illustrated in the receiver and
the receiver’s feedback or reaction to the senders constitutes the communication process.
In order for effective communication to take place, all stages and components of communication
should be involved in the process. The illustration below indicates the stages and components in the
communication process.

 
  Message  
Sender   Encoding   Decoding   Receiver  
Media  

Feedback   Response  

Figure 1.2: The Communication process and Components

The stages for communication process as illustrated in the above model can be summarized as
follows:
(i) Conception of the message
At this stage, the sender initiates the process of communication by first conceiving the idea or
thought which she/he intends to communicate. The person should be clear about the purpose of
communication and the target of the audience or receiver to whom to send a message. The sender
has to decide what information to convey and create the message or content to be conveyed using
words or other symbols which can be understood by intended receiver. This conception is
triggered by certain stimuli either internal or external.
(ii) Encoding of the message
This is the second stage of communication process. At this stage, the idea, information or
thoughts are formulated into messages. The process of putting the idea into symbols is called
encoding. In order to encode, the sender has to select suitable symbols which can represent the
idea so as to be understood by the receiver.

(iii) Selecting the Appropriate Channel

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This is the third stage of communication process. At this stage, the sender selects a suitable
channel or medium like mails, telephone, face to face by which the message can be sent. The
choice of the message depends on several factors like urgency of the message, availability and
effectiveness of the medium as well as the relationship between the two communicators.
(iv) Reception
This involves the physical act of receiving the message through any of the five senses. The
receiver becomes aware that the message has arrived the audience/ recipient perceives it with his/
her senses (he may see, hear, feel etc) and also attend the message involved.
(v) Decoding the Message
The process of translating the symbols into ideas and interpreting the message is called decoding.
Interpreting is a complex activity which involves using knowledge of symbols, drawing upon
previous knowledge of the subject matter, ability to understand attitudes, and values so to create
meaning. The receiver understands and interprets the message on the basis of previous
knowledge. The meaning that the receiver gives to the words and other symbols is influenced by
his/her knowledge, intelligence, past experience and relation with the sender. If the two have a
common field of experience and background, the receiver will easily understand the message.
(vi) Supply of Feedback
This is the last stage of the communication process. In this stage, the receiver responds to the
message using symbols and signs that the sender can understand and sends it back to the
originator of the message. The sender will then go through the same process of decoding the
response given by the receiver of the message. It is only then that we say communication has
taken place.
Dear learner, from what you have observed on how people start a conversation; you might have
noted that communication is a process. It is a process in that it takes place when someone sends
a message that is received by another who will then respond to the sender (feedback). The way a
message is sent affects how it is received and how it is responded to.
Models of Communication
Dear learner, in the previous sub-section we discussed the process of communication indicating the
six stages involved in the communication process. In this sub-section, we are going to learn the
models of communication which explains human communication process. The major models of
communication are linear model, interactive model and transactional model as described below:
Linear model
Dear learner, the linear model of communication was explained by Shannon and Weaver, who
advocates the notion of one-way communication. The model depicts a source at one end of the
spectrum that encodes and sends information. The encoded message then travels through a medium
until it arrives at the mind of the other participant, who then receives the message. The following
simple illustration depicts the linear model in which message from the sender goes to the receiver
without any feedback.
Sender Message Channel Receiver

Figure 1.3: The Linear Model

Dear learner, the model suggests that, at any given time during a conversation or communication
between people, only one party is expressing the information because the other party is exclusively
absorbing the information. The model is challenged in that, it does not account for simultaneous

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interaction and transactional feedback. The model suggests that at any given time, one person
exclusively sends information while the other party exclusively receives information.
The transactional and interactive communication models point out that communication and
conversations entail both parties sending and receiving information simultaneously. For example,
when one person is telling a story to a friend, the friend is not just a passive listener but instead,
she/he is constantly contributing to the conversation by interpreting the meaning of the story and
sending information back to the speaker as a feedback
  Information   Received       Receiver    
Message   Transmitter  
   
Signal   Destination  
source   signal  

Message  

  Noise  /source  

Figure 1.4: Shannon and Weaver model

(a) Lass well’s Model
This model consists merely of a series of questions. They are: Who? Says what? In what channel?
To whom? With what effect? Lass well’s model ignores the essential elements of the communication
process and instead he posed the above questions.

 
Who   What   Channel     Whom   Effect  
(speaker)   (message)   (Audience  
(or  medium)   or  
listener)  
Fig. 1.5: Lass well’s model

 
Who?   Says  what?   In  which   To  whom?   With  what  
channel?   effect?  
     
  Effect  
Sender   Message   Receiver  
Receiver  
Media  

Fig. 1.6: Lass well’s model

Lass well’s model covers the five elements in the process by putting forth the following questions
and he emphasizes on the effects of communication and the response of the receivers. According
to him, the behavior aspects of the sender are the important elements in the process as explained
below:
1. Why?
Why do we want to communicate? What is the purpose of the communication? Is it to persuade
or to inform? Is any particular action required?
2. What?
What do we want to communicate? It may be an order, an attitude, an idea or a feeling. What
form of words or possible actions suits the situation?
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3. How?
How are we going to communicate? In what form will the communication get home the message
fastest? What impact will a particular form have on the recipient?
4. Who?
Is there a key to the communication situation? How does he/she feel about me, about this
situation?
5. When?
Finally, when is the right time to get across this message? When is the receiver likely to give it
the most attention? Is timing critical to the success of the communication?
Dear learner, having seen the linear model and the founders of this model, let us have a look of
another model which is interactive model.

Interactive Model
Dear learner, Schramm come up with interactive model in 1955. This model implies that both the
speaker and listener take turns to speak and listen to each other where the feedback is generated.
Interactive model explains that the speaker and listener communicate better if they have common
fields of experience. However, the main drawback in the interactive model is that it does not show
that communicators can both send and receive messages simultaneously. Also, it fails to show that
communication is a dynamic process which changes over time.

Sender Feedback Receiver

Message Sender
Receiver
 
Feedback

Figure 1.7: The Interactive model

Unlike the linear models, the interactive/interactional model include the recipient as getting and
exchanging information. One person sends a message and the recipient responds to the message.
Furthermore, interactive model suggests that each person in the communication process reacts
depending on factors such as their background, prior experiences, attitudes, cultural beliefs and self-
esteem. Yet, the models have their limitations. These models do not take into effect the relationship
between the sender and the recipient nor does it take into account multiple messages operating
simultaneously.

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Information source Transmitter Receiver Destination
 

           
Message Signal Received message
 
Signal
 

   
 

  Noise source
Feedback
 
Fig.1.11:An interactional model
 

 
1.8 Communication Process through Interactive Model
 
(iii)Transactional Model
 
Dear learner, the transactional model points out that communication is an ongoing and continuously
  changing process. This means that the people with whom you are communicating are changing and
your environment is also continually changing as well. Also, it explains that each element exists in
 
relation to all other elements. For example, there can be no sender without a receiver and no message
without a sender.

Co-­‐creating  of  
Sender meaning   Receiver
 

Figure 1.9: The Communication process and Components

Transactional Models
While the sender is continually generating messages and the recipient is continuously providing
feedback through verbal and non-verbal cues, messages do not occur one at a time but

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simultaneously. Yet, with this model, recipients focus more on behavioural pattern instead of the
message

 
Encode  with   Message  in  medium  
Received  and  
language   interpret  
 
interpret  
Communicator  B  
Communicator  A    
 
 
Encode  with  
Received  and  interpret   Message  in  medium   language  

Fig1.10: Communication Process through Transactional model

Dear leaner, in the above sub-section we have discussed the models of communication. Having seen
the models then, let us go to another subsection which explains the types of communication. You are
welcome.

Types of Communication
Dear leaner, the types of communication are categorized depending on different criteria. Basing on
the number of communicators (people) involved in the communication process and the code of
communication used, the following are the types of communication applied in different contexts.
a) Intrapersonal communication
Dear learner, when you communicate on a one- to-one basis, it is called interpersonal
communication. This kind of communication occurs mostly between two people, though it may
include more than two. This happens in our daily life. In the morning you get up and meet your
parents, brother or sisters. You wish them or speak to them. When you go outside you meet your
friends and talk to them. You go to a doctor and discuss your problems. If you want to book a bus
ticket, you go to a booking counter and speak to the person sitting there. All these are examples of
interpersonal communication. Most of us engage in interpersonal communication every day.
Interpersonal communication being face –to- face generally takes place in an informal, friendly
atmosphere. However, there are occasions when it is formal. For example, a police officer
questioning a suspect or a lawyer examining a witness in a court. We practice intrapersonal
communication all the time. For example, when thinking without involving another person. This is
to say intrapersonal communication is communicating within oneself.

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Fig. 1.5: Intrapersonal communication

b) Interpersonal communication - this kind of communication takes place on one to one basis
(face to face). It mostly involves two people. When you communicate on a one- to-one basis
it is called interpersonal communication. This type of communication is a two-way traffic
since it involves two or more people or sides. For example, when you go to a doctor and
discuss your problems.

Fig.1.6: Interpersonal Communication

c) Group communication
Dear learner, group communication involves more than two people. There are two types of
group, namely, small and large group. Your study group is an example of a small group
while a class meeting would be considered as a large group. In understanding group
communication, let us think of a group of people meeting for a particular meeting for a
particular reason. It may be for example, a group of villagers or students meeting their
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facilitator or a student leader. In the first case, the group will be addressed by a leader or a
chairperson and then others, who are known to each other, may also participant in a
discussion. Such situations in which a group of people, generally known to each other meet
and talk to each other are common. This may be called group communication.

Fig. 1.7: Group Communication

d) Public Communication - this kind of communication involves many people, they may be
hundreds or thousands. The speaker speaks and a large number of people will be listening.
For example, religious or political party meetings. Dear learner, have you ever attended an
election meeting of a political party or herd religious or spiritual leader giving a discourse?
Such meetings and discourses are part of our public life today. Generally, there is a stage or
platform for such a speaker to stand and speak. Many people may be hundreds or even
thousands can be seen waiting for the speaker to begin. When the speaker speaks, a large
number of people will be listening.
In this picture, one person here is speaking to a large number of people. Such communication
is called public communication. The speaker can identify only those who sit in the front
rows. Therefore, messages are given not just to one or two persons but many. Unlike
interpersonal communication, here, the speaker cannot see all the audience and people may
not know each other.

Fig. 1.8: Public communication

e) Mass Communication - Dear learner, let us consider an example of a news bulletin on radio
or television or news item in a newspaper. This is what constitutes mass communication. Use
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your knowledge or consult a dictionary and look up the word mass; what does it mean? Mass
communication is public communication that is transmitted electronically or mechanically.
Therefore, a message is sent to a wide range of listeners, viewers or readers. For example,
through radio, television, newspaper and internet. Mass communication informs us of some
events or happenings. What did you learn from mass communication recently?
Dear learner, to understand more about mass communication, let us consider the example of
a news bulletin on radio or television or news item in a newspaper. They inform us of some
events or happenings…” A new President is elected”, “30 killed in a bomb blast”, Tanzania
has beaten Uganda in cricket”…. All these inform us. These are properly designed or written
messages given by authorized or professional people. A doctor speaks on radio or television
or writes in a newspaper about how to prevent a disease. Experts tell farmers on radio or
television about a new crop, seed or agricultural practice. People watch an advertisement on
television and buy the product. It is therefore true that mass media have tremendous impact
on their readers, listeners and viewers.
Mass Communication, therefore, may be defined as “public communication transmitted
electronically or mechanically”. In this way, messages are transmitted or sent to large,
perhaps millions or billions of people spread across the world. The messages are sent through
different forms of mass media such as newspapers, magazines, films, radios, televisions and
internet.
 

Fig. 1.9: Mass Communication

Dear leaner, we have reached the end of Unit One. I am sure you have enjoyed a lot and
understood well the content of this unit. Now it is time to check on our understanding by
doing this simple exercise. You are welcome.
Revision Questions
1. Define the concept of communication.
2. Explain five characteristics of communication.
3. Using a diagram, explain the communication process.
4. Differentiate these two terms: interpersonal and intrapersonal communication.
5. Explain five factors to consider when choosing a communication media.
6. Describe the elements or components of communication process
7. Briefly compare and contrast linear, interactional and transactional models of
communication.
8. With vivid examples, briefly, compare the communication process and
communication models.
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Basics Communication Skills in Distance

Education
Unit 2

2.0 Understanding Forms and Different Media of Communication

Introduction
Dear leaner, this unit is the continuation of unit one, which explained the communication theory and
process. In explaining the theory of communication, we conceptualize communication and its
characteristics, elements or components of communication, communication cycle and process for
effective communication, models of communication and lastly, explaining the types of
communication. This chapter continues with Communication theory and process where the forms
and types of communication media will be covered.
Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:

• Define the concept of communication media
• Describe the types of communication media
• Explain merits and limitation of each medium
• Describe the forms of communication
• Outline the examples of forms of
communication

Dear learner, regarding forms and media of communication, we usually use them in our daily life
when we always communicate and interact with a friend, watch TV show or listen to radio. All these
kinds of communication belong to a respective form of communication. The forms of
communication can be either verbal or non-verbal or written depending on the choice and purpose of
communication. Dear learner, you are welcome to start our lesson on the forms of communication.
The Main Forms of Communication
Communication can be categorized in two main forms as follows:
(i) Verbal Communication (Oral or written Communication)
Dear learner, in verbal communication, the information can either be through a word of mouth
(orally) and writing. For example, phone calls, interviews, meetings, conferences, email and
speeches. In verbal communication, one gets immediate feedback, an opportunity to ask questions if
the meaning is not clear, its time saving, flexible and can be used in different situations. However, if
the presentation is poor, there can be a misunderstanding or wrong feedback, if the meeting or
speech is long, it consumes a lot of time. Therefore, needs concentration and attention on the part of
the receiver. On the other hand, dear learner, hand written communication can be used to give
complicated instructions, as future references and they are clear and precise. However, some of its
shortfalls are the receiver may not read them, they are expensive, time consuming and feedback is
not prompt.
(ii) Non-Verbal Communication

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Dear learner, non-verbal communication is communicating without using spoken words. It involves
the use of gestures and body language to communicate as well as written communication. For
example, facial expressions, feelings, attitude, touch and smell. Dear learner, we use non-verbal
communication to show emotion, perform ritual such as shaking hands (greetings) and to interact
between a sender and a receiver. Non-verbal helps to communicate with someone who cannot hear
you and makes the conversations short. However, the use of non-verbal communication varies from
one culture to another and it cannot be used everywhere according to different contexts. Deer leaner,
we have just seen the main forms of communication, now let us see the types of communication as
follows:
Types of Communication Media
Dear leaner, having seen the main forms of communication, there is also a need of understanding the
communication media as well. This sub-section starts by defining the concept of media and the
factors for appropriate selection / choice of media. The term media of communication refers to the
ways or means or medium of transmitting information from the sender to the receiver. A medium of
communication is the vehicle that carries the message from the sender to the receiver. Just like
vehicle, different media of communication are suitable for different purposes. This therefore, means
that before choosing a media of communication for your message, there are various factors you need
to consider in order to have effective communication. These factors include the following:
• The urgency of the message: Some media transmit messages faster that others depending on
the urgency, importance or relevance of the message.
• The need for confidentiality of the message: Whether the message is sensitive or
confidential it is matter of concern since all media do not have the same level of privacy. If a
message is confidential then use the type of media which is going to ensure the
confidentiality. For example written form of communication of face to face can be used to
maintain the confidential messages rather that telephone conversation.
• The feedback capacity of the medium: Does your message need immediate feedback. If so
you have to use media which will enable you to get it at once.
• The need from permanent records: Keeping message/correspondence for future reference
or to save as evidence need forms or media of communication which can maintain the
message for a long time. For example, written communication or audio-visual
communication.
• The cost of communication: Before choosing a medium of communication, you have to ask
yourself; if the cost of sending the message affordable to the sender? For example, letters.
Emails, fax depending on the type of communication.
• The physical distance between the sender and the receiver. For example, communicators
should conduct their communication while they are closer to each one, but when they are far
from each other, it can affect the communication.
• The complexity of the message whether the message is simple or difficult or having a lot of
issues.
• Need for precision and accuracy in transmission of the message.
• Availability of the particular medium must be suitable to the content to the content. For
example, telephone, fax, letter and emails.
Dear learner, having seen the factors to consider when selecting the most suitable medium for
sending your message, let us now look at the types of media of communication that we have and

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then discuss each of them at length including their advantages and weaknesses. These include Oral
medium, written medium, visual medium and audio visual are as explained below:
Oral Communication
Oral communication takes place when the sender conveys a message with the help of spoken words.
Here, the speaker encodes his/her message using words and then utters them in order to
communicate. On the other hand, the receiver perceives the message through ears, pays attention to
it in order to understand it. Therefore, oral communication uses both speaking and listening skills to
communicate. Just like we can’t have effective written communication without proper writing and
reading, no oral communication can be effective without proper listening and speaking. Oral
communication takes various forms such as face to face conversation, telephone conversation, radio,
broadcast, interviews, group discussions, speeches, meetings, conferences and seminars,
announcements over the public address system and the speeches.
Merits of Oral Communication
• Oral communication serves time.
• Oral communication is economical, in the sense that it saves money spent on stationary in
organization.
• The speaker can immediately find out how the message has been received
• Oral communication is reinforced by non-verbal communication hence it is more reliable
than written medium
• It is the best way of problem resolution as the conflict, disputes and many issues can be put
into an end by talking through oral communication
• Oral communication helps to promote friendly relations between the parties communicating
with each other
• Oral communication is extremely useful while communicating with groups at assemblies,
meetings.
• With the help of variation in the tone, pitch and intensity of voice, the speaker can convey
shades of meaning
• It provides an opportunity for immediate feedback to the participants in the communication
event.
• It provides an opportunity for the speaker to adjust his messages accordingly. It provides an
opportunity for speaker to correct himself on the spot and clear any uncertainties.
• There is flexibility in allowing changes in the transmission of the message in case errors and
mistakes.
• In oral communication the decision can be made quickly without any delay.
• Immediate clarification of the message is possible in the sense that people listening to the
speaker can ask questions, make comments, and add to the information provided by the
speaker on the spot.
• It is the most appropriate medium to use when the receivers of the message need to be
convinced to accept the message or to do something because speech is a more powerful
means of persuasion and control.

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• It is appropriate when immediate action is required to be taken immediately or when urgent

news need to be conveyed since it is very fast.
Limitations of Oral Communication
• Oral communication is not possible if the communicator and the receiver who are far
removed from each other and no mechanical devices
• Long and complex messages are not suitable for oral transmission
• Oral messages cannot be retained for a long time.
• Oral messages do not have any legal validity unless they are taped and made a part of
permanent records.
• Although oral messages offer a great opportunity for clarifications, there are also inherent
in their greater chances of understanding.
• In oral communication, responsibilities for mistakes, if any, cannot be specifically
assigned.
• If we consider legal point of view, oral communication has no legal validity as there is
no permanent records unless what has been said is recorded.
• Oral messages are not convenient to the receiver in the sense that they cannot be listened
to when the schedule of the receiver permits unless tape recorded which may not always
be possible.
• It is difficult to assign responsibility for anything going amiss or any mistake by omission
in oral communication.
Dear learner, as we have just covered the forms of communication including the merits and demerits
of these forms of communication. As presented below, the following are the five level of
communication. Now, let us take a few examples of oral communication and study them in details.
These examples are explained below:
(i) Example one of oral communication: Face to face communication
Face to face communication may appear to be identical with oral communication. However, it is
possible to visualize certain situations in which the two get distinguished. Telephone conversation
for instance, is oral but we cannot call it face to face conversation. In most of the situations, all face
to face communication are also oral because they involve a word of mouth. Face to face
communication has its merits and demerits as follows:
Merits of Face to face communication
• Since face to face communication involve facial expression and gestures, they help to
communicate better.
• Particularly suitable for discussion, for there is immediate feedback for the total personality
including the personality.
• Makes communication to be live and real
Limitations/ Weaknesses of Face to Face Communication
• Difficult to practice in modern large-sized organizations particularly in their various units or
departments are situated in different places.
• Not effective in large gathering
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• Ineffective if the listener is not attentive

(ii) Example oral communication: Giving oral Instructions
One may often be required to give oral instructions to other learners, employees et.c. It is an
important job which needs very careful handling. The following hints should be found helpful for
this (when giving instructions:
• Don’t assume that your listener (audience) has any prior knowledge about the subject. For
that case, start giving instructions as if the listener knew nothing about the idea you want to
instruct.
• Select a proper time to give these instructions. Be sure that neither you nor your listener is in
a hurry, and that you have enough time to explain all the details.
• Organize your instructions so as they make sense to the listener. Ask yourself, whether your
listener is able to understand exactly what you are asking him to do.
• Use simple, clear, concise and accurate language.
• Do not give any irrelevant or unimportant details. Do not load the listener’s mind with
information unrelated to the matter.
• Carefully watch the expression of your listener’s face in order to find out whether you
message is getting through or not. In the light of indications from the face, you can perhaps
explain a point again.
• Allow opportunities to your listener to ask questions. Ask your listener if he has clearly
understood the point you are making.
• Repeat complicated instructions. It is also advisable to ask your listener to repeat these
instructions to you.. This will ensure that he has understood.
• If desirable, follow up detailed oral instruction in writing.
Dear learner, we have just seen a few examples of oral communication forms, as it has been known
that, there are many examples of oral communication, you will take more to study as examples as
well. Having seen the oral communication, let us shift to written communication and see its merits
and limitations. You are welcome.
Written Communication
Dear learner, written communication is a form of communication expressed in terms of words alone
in the written form. Basing on the its modality of expression, written communication can be
regarded as part of verbal communication as verbal communication has got something to do with
spoken or written words. Examples of written communication include letters, circulars, memos,
reports, telegrams, minutes, forms and questionnaires. Everything that has to be written and
transmitted in the written form falls in the area of written communication.
Merits of Written Communication
• It is accurate and precise
• It can be repeatedly
• It is a permanent record
• It is a legal document
• It facilitates the assignation of the responsibility
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• It has a wide access

Limitations of Written Communication
• It is time consuming
• It is costly
• Quick clarification is not possible
Dear learner, we have just discussed several examples of oral communication, their merits and
limitations. Now let us switch to another medium of communication known as visual medium
communication.
Visual Medium of Communication
Dear learner, Visual medium of communication refers to means of sharing messages through forms
that can be read or looked at. That is, it relies on vision and is primarily presented through two
dimensional images. It encompasses various forms such as gestures and facial expressions, tables,
charts, graphs, diagrams, posters, slides, film strips. Mime is also an oldest art in which ideas and
emotions are communicated through facial expression and gestures Communication through visual is
effective because it is reliable and instantaneous- no words uttered or written yet the message is
clearly understood. Visual communicate alone is mostly used in communicating simple ideas, orders
and warnings. But visual communication can alone is not enough.

Dear learner, for the visual communication to be more effectively, it should accompanied by other
types of media. For example, you can combine pie charts, tables, charts and pictograms with written
information of what is shown in them. Such forms are very useful in the representation of statistical
data. The diagrammatic representation combines the written with visual. Pie charts and pictogram
also combine the two for there is always a written indication of what is shown in them. In cinema
we often see a slides having different pictures, Communication through such visuals I very effective
because it is sure and instantaneous. No words are uttered, no signs are made, and yet messages gets
across.
Dear leaner, having seen different examples of visual medium of communication, it is time now to
discuss a bit about the merits and limitations of visual communication.

Merits of Visual Communication

• Materials involving sight tend to be remembered faster and are more permanent that hearing
because what you see can be stored in the long term memory.
• Visual are important in the sense that they can easily stimulate the imagination when used.
• Visuals like pictures can also be used as a starting point for discussion and debates.
• Complex fact and figures can be much more easily understood.
• Visuals such as posters are very effective means of advertising. They immediately attract the
attention of the public/ potential buyers.
• Visuals such as colourful paintings, photograph and posters make communication interesting
and motivate the receiver of the message.
• Visuals economizes on verbal communication that is to say what cannot be said in so many
ways can be easily conveyed in visual terms.

Limitations of Visual Communication

• Due to lack of sounds it is limiting especially to those with sight impairment.
• It requires one to be present to use unlike a radio where you can listen and gather information
from a distance.
• Visual communication alone can communicate only simple ideas, orders and warnings.
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• Body language is quite likely to misunderstood due to its ambiguous nature.

• It is no at all easy to draw effective pictures or posters. It requires greater skills on the part of
artist to be able to get the exact idea.

Dear learner, we have just passed through the visual medium of communication, including its forms,
merits and limitations. Now let us go to another type of medium of communication known as Audio-
Visual Medium of Communication.

This kind of medium employs a combination of sight and sound. Therefore, the receiver uses both
eyes and ears to perceive the sender’s messages. This being the case, the audio visual
communication is a bit advantageous over the visual mediums as it makes use of more sense of
organs thus information received through audio-visual means it retained much longer than any other
means. For examples of audio-visual medium include televisions, films, video tapes, etc. These
forms are most suitable for mass publicity, mass propaganda and mass education. For example, with
an organization, the workers can be educated by giving suitable demonstration on the close circuit
television screen.

Dear learner, visual communication is not found to be adequate in itself. People will just casually
glance at it and let it go like that. It is quietly likely that they will miss the message. To improve the
effectiveness audio-visual communication, the films and slides should be accompanied by
explanations and narrations to facilitate the interpretation and ensure that the message is delivered
and brings feedback.

Dear learner, I am sure we have exhausted different types of medium of communication. I think you
have enjoyed the lesson. Now this is the end of unit two. Having gained a lot of knowledge on the
medium of communication, let us do a simple exercise regarding media of communication.

Revision Questions
1. Define the concept of media of communication.
2. With examples, describe different medium of communication.
3. Briefly, explain the merits and limitation of oral communication.
4. Mention the merits and limitations of written communication.
5. Explain the main forms of communication.
6. How can the process of giving oral instructions to learners or workers be made more
effective?
7. Write brief notes on the following:
(i) Visual Communication (iii) Verbal Communication.
(iv) Non-verbal communication (iv) Audio-Visual Communication.
8. The choice of medium of communication is very important aspect in the communication
process. With examples, explain the factors for the choice of communication medium or
channel and show the effects of wrong choice of medium as well.

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Basics Communication Skills in Distance

Education
Unit 3

3.0 Principles of Effective Communication and Managing Communication Barriers

Introduction

Dear learner, in the previous unit we learned the forms of communication and types of
communication media. In this unit, we are going to learn effective communication and ways of
managing communication barriers.
Dear learner, in communication, whether written, pictorial or non-verbal, if the message is altered in
any way, we have not communicated our true meaning. This forms the basis of misunderstanding
and miscommunication. How and why do these misunderstandings occur? Unfortunately, it might be
because we interpret meaning from what we see and hear, based on our experience. In order to
manage these misunderstandings, we have to think of ways of making and maintaining effective
communication.
Therefore, this unit will equip us with valuable skills pertaining to effective communication,
characteristics, barriers as well as ways of managing these barriers. It is my hope that you will enjoy
learning this unit.
Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this unit, you will be able to:

• Define the concept of effective
communication.
• Outline guideline/ principles for effective
communication.
• Describe characteristics of effective
Communication.
• Define communication barrier
• Identify types of communication barrier
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• Explain the sources of communication barrier

• Describe the impact of communication
barrier
• Explain ways of overcoming communication
barriers

Dear learner, let us start our unit with a clear understanding of the concept of effective
communication.

Meaning of effective Communication

Effective communication can be defined effective as a type of communication which the intended
message is delivered clearly, easily understood and desired feedback is attained. Effective
communication takes place if the massage has reached the target audience (the persons to whom it is
sent) and has been understood in exactly the same way as was intended by the sender. The response
of the receiver to the sender is the indicator that the message was successfully delivered and
interpreted. However, if there are discrepancies between the intent of the message sent and the way
and the way it has been perceived, the communication has not been effective. Therefore,
communication cannot exist in the absence of any of these above mentioned components.

Characteristics of Effective Communication

Dear learner, communication is a process, which starts from the source to the sender. If the
communication has successful taken place, the feedback is generated. Dear learner, since
communication has different forms, each form has its qualities and essentials. Now let us see the
essentials for communication focusing on oral and written medium of communication. Starting with
oral communication, the following are the essentials of effective oral communication
1. Clear pronunciation: Words should be pronounced clearly and correctly. Oral messages are
often misunderstood because the speaker does not talk distinctly. For example, if a speaker or
produces incorrect pronunciation, the intended message will not be delivered. This mighty be
attributed by mother tongue and make the speaker produce incorrect pronunciation, for
example the speaker may say clying instead of saying crying. This can even distort the
meaning and lead to misunderstanding between the sender and the receiver.
2. Brevity: It is important to keep the message as brief as possible. For example, the message
should be short and clear.
3. Precision: Precision can make oral communication very effective
4. Conviction: A person communicating orally must have conviction in what he says. Lack of
conviction causes lack of confidence.
5. Logical sequence: If the speakers has given a proper thought to his message
6. Avoiding hackneyed phrases thought to his message
7. Avoiding hackneyed phrases and clichés such as, “what I mean”, I see”, “do you follow”.
8. Natural voice: Some speakers deliberately cultivate an affected style under the impression
that it would make them look more sophisticated.
9. Finding the right register.

Guidelines / Principles for Effective Communication

Dear learner, in designing a message, we ensure that it is clear and easily understood by the receiver.
In order to compose effective messages, there are several requirements that we must put into
consideration. These are attributes or principles that enhance or make communication more effective
by providing guidelines for choice of content and styles for presentation. They therefore help the
sender in transmitting his/her messages with ease and accuracy.
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Dear learner, the principles of communication are those scientific aspects which must be taken into
account in all media of communication. These principles help to make various forms of
communication such as letters, reports, presentation more effective. Although these principles are of
fundamental importance and relevance to all media, they are most important in written media. These
aspects or principles of effective communication are clarity, completeness, conciseness,
consideration, courtesy and correctness as explained below:

The 7Cs for Effective Written communication and which can be applied in other media of
communication as well

(i) Clarity
When communicating the receiver should be able clearly understand the speakers. In other words,
the receiver should not face any problem in getting the meaning of the message. The communicator
must therefore be clear in both thought and expressions. The clarity of thought involves the mind of
the sender while clarity of expression is concerned with transmission of the message in the way that
makes it easier for the receiver to understand the intended message. Regarding the clarity of
expression, the following points about the choice of words deserves attention:
• Use simple words. For example…start instead of commence/ resume…….
• Use concrete expressions. For example, using physical and tangible things instead of abstract
things
• Prefer active constructions. For example, constructions which are positive rather than being
negative.
• Avoid excessive use of infinitive. For example, to-infinitive such as to climb or to sing.
• Avoid jargons. For example,
• Avoid ambiguity. For example, you can say, “Esther went to the bank” this expression can
imply bank as an institutional government or sides/ ban of the river

(ii) Conciseness
When communicating the sender should make every word counts. Conciseness involves encoding
the message in the fewest words possible to ensure that the receiver does not waste time and energy
in trying to understand the message. This entails that the message should be as short as possible, but
it must contain all the necessary details. In order to achieve conciseness the following points should
be considered:
• Avoid unnecessary repetition (redundancy) of the same ideas and words. For example, “In
each and every employee”, instead of saying each employee. Deletion unnecessary elements.
• Include only the relevant facts.
• Eliminate wordy expressions.
• Never use long words when a short one will do that is to say avoid trite and wordy
expressions
• Organize your message well

(iii) Completeness
In communication, the message communicated should be complete so as bring a complete meaning.
If the message becomes incomplete, it can create misunderstanding between the two parties, since it
keeps the receiver guessing and may delay action. Therefore, any message sent must always be
complete. In your communication should organize your message in such a way that the receiver is

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not a doubt about anything contained in it. In this regard the following aspects should be taken into
consideration:
• While answering a letter or any oral form of communication, make sure that you have
answered all the questions.
• Checking for the five ‘W’ what, who, where, when and why

(iv) Consideration
To ensure consideration in your message, always put yourself in your receiver’s position and design
the message in accordance to his or her needs. Abraham Lincoln expressed the importance of
consideration in the following quotation, “Whatever men do, they do in response to motives.
Discover the motive that make them to act, and you can make them do your bidding”. In order to
achieve consideration in your message:
• Adopt ‘you’ and ‘we’ attitude in your message instead of ‘I’
• Impart integrity to your message that is to say never give false hope or make a promise to
your receiver which you cannot fulfill
• Emphasize positive, pleasant facts in your message. For example, “We do not refund if the
retuned item is soiled and unsalable”, instead you can say, “We do refund if the returned item
is clean and sealable”.

(v) Courtesy
Courtesy is the politeness that grows out of the respect and concern for others. A courteous message
is sensitive to the feelings of the receiver. This can be achieved by using polite and friendly words
and gestures, being appreciative, thoughtful, tactful and showing respect to the receiver. Courtesy is
a matter of polite tone, good manners and having a thanking nature. A courteous man neither
criticizes the other part for their mistakes nor uses harsh and bitter words in their delivery of
messages. Courtesy can be achieved by following the guideline below:
• Use positive language in order to build good will for you and your organization
• Answer the letters or mails promptly
• Make use of courteous words such as please, thank you and sorry as the situation requires
• Omit irritating expressions by avoiding expression that might hurt or cause mental pain to the
receiver. For example, You have failed of you have no choice
• Apologize sincerely for an omission/ thank generously for a favour
• Express appropriate feeling according to the situation, for example, express sympathy when
someone suffers.

(vi) Correctness
The message should be correct for the intended audience. For a message to be correct, it should fit
the intended audience. Therefore at the time of encoding, the sender should ensure that his
knowledge to the receiver is comprehensive. The sender should aspects some have in mind some
aspects like the level of knowledge, educational background and the status of the decoder in order to
formulate correct messages. In general, the overall correctness can be ensured by the following
guidelines below:
• Use correct level of language
• Give and incorporate only correct or accurate facts
• Be sure to use the write words, phrases and sentences
• Send your message at the right time
• Send you message in the correct style

(vii) Concreteness
When communicating, you should avoid vague and general statements. Instead, use specific, definite
and vivid words that creates a clear and real picture in the mind of the receiver. When you message
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is concrete, then the receiver, then your audience has a clear picture of what you are telling them.
For your message to be concrete avoid vague phrases such as “in due course or “at your earliest
convenience”

Dear leaner, we have just passed through seven principles for effective written communication. In
the course we have been told that, these principles can also be applied in other forms of
communication. Now let us see the other seven C’s which are also known as essentials for effective
oral communication but can also be applied to other media of communication:

The 7C’s for Effective Oral communication and which can be applied in other media of
communication as well
For oral communication to be effective it must have the seven qualities. Dear learner, there are seven
principles or qualities for effective communication. These seven principles are called the seven C’s
for effective communication because they start with letter ‘C’. While these letters are usually
discussed in terms or oral communication by some authors, they are all important and applicable to
all media of communication including written, visual and audio-visual. According to Francis J.
Bergin, a person engaged in oral communication must remember the 7 Cs of communication as
follows: Clear, concise, concrete, correct, coherent, complete, courteous as explained below:

i. Clear – a message should use a simple language and easy sentence.

ii. Concise –a message should be brief and straight to the point.
iii. Concrete –a communication should have facts to support the idea.
iv. Correct- a communication should be in a proper format e.g. spelling, grammar and language.
v. Coherent – all points should be arranged logically and be relevant to the topic.
vi. Complete –a message should provide all necessary information.
vii. Courteous – a communication should be friendly, open and honest and respectful.

Barriers to Effective Communication

Dear leaner, as we know that in life we communicate all the time but not all communication is
effective. When communication is not effective, it creates room for misunderstanding and fails to
give the desired results. Misunderstanding can occur at any time. We do not always listen carefully
to what we are being told, and often do not clarify the meaning of what we are hearing. Instead we
end up putting our own interpretation on the message and our understanding of what we have heard
may be very different from the intention of the speaker. The same misunderstandings occur through
the written word. We read between the lines and jump to conclusions, that may be very different to
the intention of the writer. If we do not check out meaning with the person we are conversing with,
small misunderstandings can rapidly lead to deterioration in relationships and even lead to major fall
outs. Following this we have to understand the things which hinder effective communication as
explained below:

The Meaning of Communication Barrier

Dear learner, before embarking to the concept of communication barrier, let us start by defining
what the barriers is. A barrier is anything that hinders communication. Therefore, communication
barrier refers to anything that blocks the sending and receiving of messages either totally or partially.
Barriers usually occur when, in the process of transmitting the message from the mind of the
transmitter to the mind of the receiver, what is transmitted is not exactly the same.

Types Barriers to effective communication

Dear learner, communication is the most effective when it moves speedily and smoothly in an
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uninterrupted flow. But frequently the free flow of communication breaks down due to various
physical, cultural, language and psychological barriers. Breakdown in communication proves costly
to the organization not only in term of disruption of efficient functioning of the organization, but
also in terms of frictions and misunderstanding among staff with consequent adverse effect on
morale. It is advisable to quick locate and identify the barriers causing breakdown and take remedial
measures to overcome them. There are a number of obstacles that can occur in the process of
communication. The natural result of such obstacles or interfering factors is the misunderstanding of
the message. These barriers are wrong choice of medium, physical, sociological and psychological
obstacles, semantic and language barriers that interfere with the planning, organizing, transmission
and understating of the message. These types of communication barriers are explained below;

(i) Wrong choice of medium/ Faulty transmission

Sometimes unsuitable medium may act as a barrier to effective communication. Message must be
transmitted the appropriate medium of communication. If the sender choses inappropriate channel of
communication the process of communication may fail. For instance, a policeman uses oral medium
instead of blowing the whistle or use hand gestures to guide vehicles in traffic jam, communication
is bound to fail. Similarly, detailed instruct presented over the telephone conversation may be
frustrating for both the sender and the receiver. On the other hand, audio – visual medium will be
suitable in instructing a group of educated workers, especially in rural areas rather than using the
written medium of communication. In addition, urgent message should be transmitted using phone a
while a long-detailed massages should be communicated using written medium.

(ii) Physical barrier

Physical communication barriers can be caused by the nature of environment, for example, outdated
equipment and noise. These barriers may due to inadequate staff, faulty procedures, inaccuracy in
processing and delivery of communication, loss of documents and files, failure of the staff or
students to follow the procedures laid down. In this regard, the following may cause physical
barriers.

(a) Noise
Noise is quite often a barrier to communication. The word noise is also used to refer to all kinds of
physical interference like loud sounds attractive sights, illegible hand writing, dirty copies of the
document. It interferes with the transmission of the signals. It also refers to the unwanted signals of
the message, which interferes and disturbs the reception of the wanted signals. This disturbance is
usually in the form of sounds, but it can also be in visual, audios-visual, physical or psychological
form. In industries for instance oral communication are rendered difficult. For example, loud sounds
made by machines in a factory may hinder oral communication. Visual noise can also be
experienced when student arrive late in the class and all students including the lecturer are distracted
by his arrival. Poor telephone connections which interrupts a conversation is another form of noise.
Dear learner, we have seen that ‘noise’ does not refer to disturbance in the form of sound alone. If
you attend a meeting late at the meeting hall and the committee members are distracted by your
arrival that is noise. If you have bad handwriting that cannot be read clearly, it is also noise.

(b)Time
The frequency of communication encountered affects the human relationships and the intensity of
human relations is affected by the amount of time that passes between these encounters. A guest who
arrives at midnight will not be able to communicate well with the host who might feel embarrassed
or disturbance in his on her sleep. If a husband and a wife stay away from each other for a long time,

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it may create a communication gap between them, which may affect their relationship. Also, a phone
call at mid night can irritate or embarrass the receiver.

(c) Distance
The distance between the communicator and the receiver can be a strong barrier to communication,
if the technical devices of communication like telephone are not available to link them. Faulty sitting
arrangement in the class may create a kind of communication gap, which can be eliminated by
adjusting the distance. If a person considers himself or herself to be a person who knows ‘all’ about
a particular subject, it is very difficult to communicate with him or her, such as person is not
prepared to receiver any message on a subject about which he assumes to know everything. His or
her mind is therefore closed to new ideas facts and suggestions.

(iii) Language barrier

When one is not familiar with the language or meaning of words or vocabulary used in
communication it might hinder the communication process hence lead t ineffective communication.
Therefore, the language barrier includes several aspects such as lack of common languages between
those who communicate as well as lacking semantic knowledge in allocating the meaning of words
and choice of vocabulary. Language uses oral or written symbols to transmit meaning from one
person to another. Every human language has its own vocal symbol system and its own grammatical
structures. If the communicator and the receiver belong to different language groups, their ignorance
of each other’s language or the lack of common language will be a barrier to communication
between them. Communication between them will may be possible only if both of them know a
common language, say Swahili or English. It is not possible for them to communicate with each
other unless they know some common language, which is properly understood by both of them. For
effective communication to take place, the receiver must be able to assign the same meaning as that
which exists in senders mind.
(iv) Semantic Barrier
Words are said to have no meaning but they represent arbitrary meaning associated with them. A
word may have a variety of meanings and the meaning attributed to a word by the communicator
may not be the same as that of the receiver’s attributed meanings of that word. A word can have
different meanings to different people at different occasions. Therefore, the sender and the receiver
are, at a time, likely to attribute different meaning to the same word. Sometimes, they may use
different words to communicate the same meaning.
• Interpretation of Words
Most of the communication is carried on through words, whether spoken or written. But
words are capable of communicating a variety of meaning. The receiver of the message may
not assign the same meaning as what has been intended by the sender/ transmitter. This may
lead into miscommunication. For example, allocating incorrect meaning of words may lead
to miscommunication.
• Denotations and connotations
These are the two types of meaning allocated to words. Words have two types of meaning. It
just informs and names objects without indicating any positive or negative qualities. Words
such as table, book, accounts, meetings are denotative. In contrastive meaning arouse
qualitative judgements and personal reaction such as honest, competent, cheap, sincere are
connotative words.

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• Poor Vocabulary
Poor vocabulary makes our message more difficult and less effective since words have different
connotative and denotative meanings. The communicator needs to know them clearly in order to use
them with clarity and precision. Poor vocabulary does not allow the communicator to write or speak
effectively. Poor vocabulary makes our message more difficult and less effective. The words have
different connotative and denotative meanings. The communicator needs to know them clearly in
order to use them with clarity and precision. Poor vocabulary does not allow the communicator to
write or speak effectively. For example, wrong construction of sentences without considering the
concord whether, subject to verb concord. The first sentence has used incorrect grammar since the
subject Juma is 3RD Person singular, there for it is supposed to be goes instead of Juma go.
• Poor grammar and punctuation
Poor grammar and punctuation is a barrier to verbal communication. A good vocabulary is
useless unless the communicator acquires the knowledge of how to use it in a sentence. An
understanding of grammatical structures provides excellent basis for effective writing,
speaking, listening and reading skills. It must be remembered that, the faulty and proper
punctuation can change the intended meaning of the sentence. The absence or misplacement
of a ‘comma’ for example can prove to be misleading to the reader.
• Roundabout Verbiage
This is the use of too many words or of more difficult words than are needed, to express an
idea. If we can avoid roundabout verbiage which usually causes a misunderstanding and
confusion, we can add a good deal of liveliness and simplicity of expression of our written as
well as our oral communication. For example, instead of saying’ in the majority of cases ‘or
in a number of instances’, we can say ‘some’ or ‘usually instead of saying ‘commence’ we
can use ‘start’ or ‘begin’.
• Bay-passed Instructions
By-passing is said to have occurred if the sender and the receiver of the message attribute
different meanings to the same words or use different words for the same meaning.

(v) Socio-psychological Barriers

These are types of barriers caused by social and psychological states of the communicators as
discussed below:
• Status of Consciousness
This is the position or rank of a person in a group. It depends on person’s abilities, amount of
pay, job skills, type of work assigned, age etc. State of conscious may cause pathological
fear. In the one hand, for instance a people from higher ranks or position may develop fear to
share personal problems with their subordinates (employees from lower positions) while feel
secured with people of the same rank. On the contrary, employees from lower positions may
fear to share their person problems with their bosses.

• Attitude and Opinions

An attitude can be defined as a tendency to feel and behave in a particular way towards
someone or something. The attitude may be attributed with religion, nationality, ideas of the
community to which one belongs, place of living or family ideas. Personal attitudes and
opinions often act as barriers to effective communication. If information agrees with our
opinions and attitudes, we tend to receive favourably and it fits comfortable in the filter of
our minds but if information disagrees with our views tends to run contrary to our accepted

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beliefs. Now the disagreement of attitude and opinions by our mind hinders the transmission
of message hence ineffective communication.

• Closed mind
A closed mind person is the one who is ready to receive any message on the subject to be
communicated. The person may assume that he/she knows everything or decide not to listen.
His mind is also closed to new ideas, facts, revelations or suggestions. Closed –mindedness
may be caused by prejudices, limited intellectual backgrounds, limited reading and narrow
interests. If closed- minded people can be encouraged to state their reasons for rejecting a
message or a proposal. They may reveal deep routed prejudices, opinions and emotions.
Perhaps one can make an attempt to counteract those prejudices, opinions. But if they react
only with anger and give a sharp rebuff to anyone who tries to argue.

• Emotions
Emotion refers to the state of mind which play an important role in the act of communication.
If the sender is worried, exited our feelings about the world around us also become affected.
Emotions can act as barriers to effective communication. For example, a nervous speaker is
an able to organize his message properly. His excited and nervous state of mind does not
allow him to think clearly. With emotions, he cannot even grasp the message sent by the
communicator in its true sense. A hot-tempered person may quickly or prematurely respond
to the message without getting complete information first. Such reaction is called snaps
reaction and may prove to be barrier to communication. Too much pain, sadness and
happiness

• Poor retention
Poor retention of communication also act as a barrier to communication. Some studies
indicate that most people retain only 50 per cent of the information communicated to them.
The rest is lost due to poor attention and bad listening. Thus, if the information is
communicated through three of four stages, very little reaches the destination, and of that
very little only a fraction is likely to be retained. Poor retention may lead to imperfect
responses which may further hamper the communication process.

• Poor Attention / Bad Listening: Poor attention or bad listening is one of the major
communication problems which at as barriers of communication. Misunderstanding and
conflicts can be reduced if people listen to the message with enough attention. Most people
do not listen very well due to various destructions, emotions, excitement, indifferences,
aggressiveness and wandering attention. One of the major reasons for bad listening is an
individual’s continual thinking about his own problems and worries. The poor listeners
always feel that the thought in their minds is more interesting than what the speaker is
saying.

• The Source of Communication: If the receiver has suspicion with the prejudices against the
source of communication, there is likely to be barrier to communication. People more tend to
react more accordingly to their attitude to the source of facts themselves. If the statement
emanates from a grapevine, informal channel of communication, the manger will not give it
credence to it, but the same statement a trusted supervisor, will immediately be believed.

• Inattentiveness: People often become an attentive while receiving a message, in a particular,

if the message contains a new idea. The adult human mind usually resists change makes
things uncertain. It is also threatening security and stability. Whatever be the mode of
working, people often accustomed to it and do not like to change it. Therefore, the moment
the idea is presented to them, they unconsciously become inattentiveness.
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• Faulty Transmission: A message is never communicated from one person to another there
is faulty transmission. In the process of interpretation, simplification of translation, a part of
message gets lost or distorted. A scientific study of the communication process has revealed
that successive transmission of the same message decreases accuracy. In oral communication
something in the order of 30 per cent of the information is lost in each transmission. This is
true particularly in oral messages. It the decision has been taken by the Board of Directors, it
must be in form of a lengthy worded resolution.

• Difference in perceptions: Difference in perception between the sender and the receiver act
as barrier of communication.

• Body disability: Body disability such as hearing and sight problems can act as the barrier of
communication since the message will not be delivered effectively.

(vi) Different comprehension of Reality

The reality of an object, an event or person is different from different people. Reality is not a fixed
concept, it is complex, infinitive and continually changing. Besides each human being has sensory
perception and unique mental filter. No two perceive reality in identical manners. On account to
different obstructions, inferences and evaluations, they comprehend reality in a different way. This
may sometimes lead to communication. These kinds of barriers include:
• Abstracting: The process of focusing attention on some details and omitting others. When
abstracting we have to make our abstract as fairly representative of the whole situation as
possible. We should realize that communication can pick different ideas and the facts from
the same situation and we should be mentally prepared to consider what they have to say
about it.
• Slanting: Is the act of giving a particular bias or slant to the reality. To overcome this barrier,
we should try to be objective in our observations and assessment and we should try to avoid
the mistake of judging the whole by what
• Inferring: Refers to what we direct see, hear, feel, taste, smell or can immediately verify and
confirm constitutes a fact.

• Barriers to Listening: The following some of the barriers to listening; Noise, being
judgmental or jumping to conclusion before we understand what is being said. Being
inattentive - thinking about something else entirely. You do not want to hear what the person
has to say. Subjective biases based on ignorance or prejudice.
Measures or Ways in Overcoming Communication Barriers
• For effective communication to take place, communication barriers should be avoided/
minimized. Therefore, we should always think of ways of improving communication by
eliminating the barriers which have been mentioned
• Always choose appropriate medium when communicating your message
• Communication must be well planned and constructed. Why, to whom and when are the
best questions to be considered in planning the communication process
• The communicators should constrain their emotions, especially when discussing a sensitive
issues by controlling or managing our emotions when communicating
• The status barriers can be managed only by making a conscious effort
• Send your message in the correct time

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• Communication structures in an organization, for instance should be straight forward to

make communication simple, clear and direct.
• Send your message in the correct style
• Be attentive when communicating with different people
• Language barriers which include semantic barrier, poor grammar, poor vocabulary,
roundabout verbiage should be avoided. There should be proper usage of language to avoid
language barrier. Therefore, Language barriers can also be managed by being careful with
the language use.
• Physical barriers: Avoiding physical barriers by communicating in a conducive
environment free from physical barriers such as building, mountains or any object which
could act as an obstacle

• Poor delivery of the message that is poor means or channels: Use proper means or channel
in delivering the messages
• Emotional barriers such as pain, happiness, sadness, anger: Control emotions while
communicating in order to make it be effective
• Time barriers: The frequency or duration for communication should be properly allocated.
Time to communicate shouldn’t be too long or too short since frequency of communication
and amount of time allocated affects human relationships.
• Differences in perception: The listener and the presenter should be positive and flexible for
any topic to be presented. There shouldn’t be any perception differences between the two
parts during communication.
• Disability of body parts: Those with disabilities should be provided with devices or any
assistance to help them.

• Bad Listening/ Poor attention: There should be active or effective listening by employing
the techniques such as making eye contact, adjusting body posture, giving verbal and no-
verbal acknowledgement, having a clear mind, avoid distracting behaviours.
Dear learner, in this chapter, we have learned about effective communication in terms of
characteristics, importance, barriers to effective communication and ways of managing these
barriers. Now, let us do the following exercise to check our understanding on this area.

Revision Questions
1. Discuss the general principles of effective communication.
2. Although we can all communicate, not all our communications are effective. With
vivid example, describe the 7Cs of communication.
3. With examples, describe the characteristics or essentials of oral communication.
4. Outline the characteristics or essentials for written communication.
5. Define the communication barriers and explain different types of physical barriers.
6. With vivid examples, describe socio-economic barriers to communication.
7. Show the source of communication barriers and explain ways of managing them.

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Basics Communication Skills in Distance
Education
Unit 4

4.0 Application of Communication Skills in Distance Education

Introduction

Dear learner, in the preceding unit, we learned the principles of effective communication and ways
of managing communication barriers. In this unit, we are going to learn about application of
communication skills in distance education basing on the four communication skills, namely
listening skills, speaking skills, reading skills and writing skills and how they can be applied in
enhancing other skills such as studying skills, academic writings as well as referencing. Every day
we talk, listen, write, read in order to communicate to others. All people communicate, but knowing
how to communicate well is an important skill. Good communication leads to job success and strong
relationship. In this unit, you will develop the ability to use communication skills in Distance
Education.

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

a) Apply listening skills for effective communication

b) Apply speaking skills for effective communication
c) Apply reading skills for effective communication
d) Demonstrate writing skills for effective communication
e) Demonstrate Study Skills in Adult Distance Education
f) Apply communication skills in academic writing skills
g) Use referencing skills for effective.

Application of Listening Skills for effective communication

Dear learner, without listening messages can be easily misunderstood. This causes communication
breakdown. To avoid the breakdown, we need to focus and concentrate to understand what is
communicated. Therefore, we are required to actively listen. Dear learner, listening is the ability to
accurately receive and interpret messages in the communication process. Listening mainly involves
receiving sound (hearing), paying attention, interpreting the words or symbols, remembering the
correct information and giving feedback. Dear leaner, in order to make listening successful, there
should be active listening. Dear learner, to be an active listen one needs to overcome the barriers of
listening. This can be done by improving your listening skills. These include:
Active listening is a skill which consists of reflecting back to the speaker a statement of what you
think you heard. As an active listener, you have to start by understanding your own communication
style.

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Dear learner, the following ate the ways on how you can improve listening skills and become an
effective listener:
• Decide to listen and concentrate on the speaker.
• Use your imagination and enter the speaker's situation.
• Observe the speakers vocal inflection, enthusiasm and style of delivery.
• Pay attention to speaker's facial expressions and other non- verbal cues for more insight into
the message.
• Listen without interruption.
• Provide feedback to the speaker.
• Use paraphrasing or clarifying questions to confirm that received the intended messages.
• Use verbal and Nonverbal Communication.
• Give Feedback.
• Listening and concentrating on the speaker
• Note key phrases or use word associations to remember the speaker’s content
• Ask questions to clarify any issues that you did not understand.

Note: The difference between Hearing and Listening

Dear learner, in understanding the concept of listening, it is worth noting that there is a difference
between the two concepts namely; hearing and listening since there is confusion between the use of
these words. Hearing is a sensory experience that gathers sound waves indiscriminately. We can hear
something without choosing to listen. On the other side, listening is a voluntary activity and includes
more than just sound being received by the ear and transmitted to the brain. It includes interpreting
or processing that sound

Applying Speaking skills for effective communication

Dear learner, not all of us are ‘born speakers’ although we all have the ability to develop effective
oral communication skills. Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves
producing and receiving as well as processing information.
Principles of Effective Speaking
Whether one is speaking informally to a colleague, addressing a conference or meeting, the
following basic principles apply:
• Know your audience.
• Know your purpose.
• Know your topic.
• Anticipate objections.
• Present a rounded picture.
• Achieve credibility with your audience.
• Follow through on what you say.

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• Communicate a little at a time.

• Present information in several ways.
• Develop a practical, useful way to get feedback.
• Use multiple communication techniques.
We can put together the above principles as follows:
Be direct and concise: Be clear about the message and the subsequent meaning you wish to
convey. Communicate directly, concisely and economically as possible, almost as if you have to
pay for every word. Frankly, people do pay for every word-with their precious time and sharing
of mind. Never lose sight of the principle.
Be honest and genuine: Words are uttered and written by you, but true wisdom and inspiration
worth reading and hearing come from within. If you are honest and genuine about your opinions
and express them well, people will be attentive and respond with kindness.
Be present and open: Experience the moment- the here and the now. You can only learn from
the past and plan, but the present packs a tremendous amount of information and content. Listen
attentively, not just to what people are saying, but also to the meaning and feeling behind the
words. That is truly priceless.
Be confident but measured: Be confident and strong in your views and statements, but
remember that whomever you are communicating with him or her has own thoughts, feelings,
perspectives, ideas and objectives.
Be an active listener: Active listening means being focussed entirely on the person speaking and
not interrupting or starting to fashion your response before someone has finished his or sentence.
The moment we start thinking about our response, we stop listening actively. Not only this is a
disrespectful to the person who is speaking, but also we might hear only half of the message and
assume how the message finishes. If we have already come to a conclusion, we have ceased to
listen. Listen twice as much as you speak.
Be non-judgemental: Judging others is not a good basis for building relationships. As human
beings, we seem to be programmed to judge other people. We do it all the time. Being
judgemental simply means that the person who is judging another thinks that “I am right, you are
wrong”. “I am better than you” or “you are better than me” and “my ideas are better than your
ideas”
Value differences: Value the different contributions that people you interact with bring. Their
opinions may be different but not better or worse. If you can create a trusting environment
whereby people know that their contributions will be valued, they are not being judged, people
are respectfully listening to them and appreciating their input, that what they say remains
confidential and that they are being listened to fully, you create an environment for active
engagement and fruitful relationships.
Dear leaner there are different activities where speaking skills can be applied, for example
making speeches, public speaking, in presentations, in debating e.t.c. Dear learner we will take a
few examples of these activities which involve speaking skills as follows.

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In speaking there are varieties of activities including public speaking. Dear leaner before
discussing strategies in public speaking let us have a clear explanation of public speaker. A word
public speaker -as occurred when one person addresses a large number of people I.e. politician
during political campaign such as members of parliament position, presidential position. The
following are strategies in public speaking:

(i) Speeches Making

What is a speech?
Speech is one of the speaking activity and part of presentation which involves presenting an oral
presentation before the audience.
Characteristics of a Good Speech
Any good speech should bear the following characteristics
1. Clarity: This the major characteristic of a good speech. Your speech should be eminently
successfully in conveying to the audience the ideas or emotions or facts you want to
express. If you audience does no instantaneously grasps your point, you have failed as a
speaker
2. It is like an informal talk: A good speech is closer to a person and informal chat between
two intimate friends. When you speak there should be a perfect rapport between you and
your audience.
3. It is vivid concrete: Abstraction can kill a speech, therefore make your speech vivid and
concrete. Include in it concrete facts easy to comprehend and visualize.
4. It should be brief: The concentration of an audience does not last more than fifteen to
twenty minutes. Ideally your speech should not be longer than tis, unless the audience is
motivated to know more. To achieve brevity, it is desirable to include only few points in
your speech and to elaborate at some length. If you say right in the beginning that, “I am
going to present to you the four problems being faced by the sugar industry” and briefly
discuss these problems, your speech will be both brief and clear.
5. A speech should be interesting particularly when it is informative and factual.
6. It should be audience oriented – oriented that means it should focus on the audience. A
good speech is always turned to the wavelength of the audience. Consider the following
in the selecting audience: i. Is the audience general or specialized one? ii. How large is
the audience? iii. What is the age group of the listeners/audience? iv. What is the social
religious, economic and political views and prejudices of the listener?

Types of speeches
Different circumstances call for different types of speeches. Dear learner, one major way to
group these speeches is by amount of preparation time we require. Even though some speeches
are designed to fit the occasion or the purpose,

a) Impromptu speeches: These require very little or no time for preparation. For example,
unplanned speaking because a response is required immediately.
b) Argumentative speeches: They present an opinion which either favours or disagrees
with a topic and must prove a view points by supporting it with facts from the reliable
sources.

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c) Descriptive speeches: They give a detailed explanation about a topic like person, place
or any incident.
d) Narrative speeches: These are used to tell a course of events.
e) Persuasive speeches: These are used to convince the readers to act in support of the view
and believe in speaker’s opinion.
f) Expository speeches: they explain something with facts as opposed to opinion. For
example, speeches that analyze events, ideas, written works or describe a historical
event.
Speech Making Techniques/ Strategies Recall, speech making is one of the presentation skills,
while making your speech, the following stylistics strategies will assist you:
• Do not open your talk with apology
• Introductory greetings
• Enumerate or itemize you’re your points as you make them
• Speak with contagious enthusiasm
• Avoid the funny story opening
• Identify your audience
• Avoid negative stimuli that may upset you
• Act confidentially
• Organize your talk
• Be sure that you are excited about your subject
• Limit your subject
• Fill you talk with illustration and examples
• Humanize your talk
• Dramatize your talk by using a dialogue
• Talk in terms of your listeners’ interests
• Give honest, sincere appreciation
• Make you audience a partner in your talk

Examples of Speeches

Graduation Speech
Good morning family, friends, faculty, and fellow graduates. Well, we did it. We all
accomplished one of the major early milestones of our lives: high school graduation. This is a
major step in the journey of our lives, one that should be recognized for its immense
significance. It is an act not only of personal commitment, but also one of pride. We all worked
hard to get to this day, and our work did not go to waste.

A high school diploma is a wonderful tool in this world, one that opens many doors of
opportunity for anyone who is lucky enough to have one. But graduation is not an end goal in
itself; it is instead a part of the larger journey of life. Wherever your future takes you, let it take
you somewhere. Life is a journey, and all accomplishments we achieve during its course should
be taken as starting points for further achievements.

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Our graduation should serve as such a launching point, projecting us to wherever our futures are
meant to take us, whether we land ourselves a career, take up a trade, or continue our education
at college or Vocational/technical School. But before we can begin to reach for the stars, there is
one more personal milestone that we all need to reach. Most people who graduate from high
school experience only one graduation—that from high school. But we all have one more shortly
ahead of us. We’ve already shown our commitment to personal growth through making it to this
ceremony today, but soon, all of us will experience another ceremony when we graduate from
our programs.

As I said before, life is a journey— we don’t stop growing once we get our diplomas. Life is
about growing, and being in our programs gives each of us new opportunities to continue
growing and to learn new skills that we will carry with us for the rest of our lives. And we don’t
have to stop there! This graduation has already shown us how capable we all are of
accomplishing our goals when we commit ourselves to them. I hope all of us here today can take
this personal accomplishment as an example of how anything is truly possible when we put our
minds to it.

As we all continue on in our lives, let us take each new problem on with confidence, knowing
that we have achieved great heights and are equipped with the necessary tools to tackle our
futures. The road that lies ahead won’t be easy. There will be obstacles and missed exits,
potholes and roadblocks. There will be times when each of us will feel like we cannot possibly
go on. There will be times when each of us will think he or she is alone, a back against the wall.
But we are not alone—we are all in this journey together. We’ve made it this far—why should
we back out now? Nothing worthwhile is easy, and that includes making the most out of our
futures. But that doesn’t mean we give up on ourselves. We will keep pushing, because we know
we can achieve our dreams, and because we are worth it. 2013 Student Graduation Speech From
this day forward, let us make each decision with our best interests in mind. Let us believe in
ourselves so that we may reach our goals and fulfill our dreams.

Let us be the best that we can be so that we may fill our lives and the lives of those closest to us
with happiness and with pride. We’ve already taken the first step by making it to this ceremony
today—now, it’s time to take the next steps in the journey that is our lives and begin to build our
futures.

Congratulations to the class of 2013!

Friend speech

Good evening, everyone. It’s great to see so many people here to honor our good friend and
neighbor, John Smith. Even though we are of many different ages and have all kinds of jobs and
interests, it is certain that we all have one thing in common: our admiration of a man who never
quits until the job is done. That man, of course, is John Smith. I’ve known John for about 10
years. I first met him at a Little League game shortly after we moved here and my wife and I
were watching Timmy play. He was about 8 years old at the time. Anyway, this woman sitting
near us was complaining about the sun.

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I remembered my wife and I were almost annoyed because you expect sun in an afternoon
baseball game and we were glad the game wasn’t rained out. But the woman kept going on and
on about how we needed some clouds to break up the sun. John was also sitting nearby. Not one
to just listen, John went over to the lady and said, “I can’t do anything about the weather but
maybe this will help.” He handed her an umbrella that he had gone to his car to get and urged her
to use it as a shield from the sun. She was ecstatic.

As it turned out, some friends had given her a ride to the game and it was the one chance she had
to see her nephew play. But because she had had some skin cancers removed, she was justifiably
concerned about the sun. Had John done nothing, the rest of us would have continue to listen to
her complaining – which was not something we wanted to hear – and the sun exposure might
have given her more problems down the road. I was so impressed with what John had done, I
knew that this was someone I wanted to know and so I introduced myself. John and I have been
close friends ever since. As all of you know, John is a native of Charleston.

In fact, he’s helped many in this room get to know this city and introduced us to the joys and
peculiarities of Low country life. He knows the high and low places – not that there are that
many high places in the Low country. John can tell you when the first settlers came and where
the pirates stashed their treasure. He knows where to eat, to drink, to play and to escape –
something that many of us do far too seldom. He knows what is in the newspaper before it is
printed, and he keeps his hand on the pulse of the community better than anyone else I know. We
all know something else about John. He doesn’t just look around and see things that need
attention.

He takes action. We all see the same things that John sees. There are jobs that need to be done,
problems that need to be solved. And as we look at those and think about our busy lives, we most
likely say to ourselves, “Somebody will that care of that.” We mean well but we just don’t get
around to doing anything. John is the person who does something. When we look at this
community center – which was only a dream five years ago – many of us were in that camp that
said “We really do need a place where neighbors can meet, where children can play after school
and where senior citizens can get some support and companionship. Somebody needs to do
something.” Well, that somebody was John Smith. He saw possibilities where the rest of us saw
need. He saw opportunity where the rest of us saw problems. He didn’t say, “Let somebody else
do it.”

He said, “I’ll take that on.” With the hustle of the Energizer Bunny, John started talking and
raising money. All John’s talk and enthusiasm gave the rest of us what we needed most – and
that was leadership. He was the quarterback in a drive that took us from a dream to a reality….
the reality of this fine building we will enjoy for years.

So John, on behalf of everyone here, I’d like to say thanks for being a man of action and not just
words. You got us started, rallying many people to work together to complete this community
center. It would never have happened without you.

So join me in giving John a round of applause and a big thank you

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Activity
In your class, ask your fellow learners to split into groups of which you will also be a member in
one of the group. Let one of the member in any of the group be given an impromptu topic by a
member from the other group and be allowed to speak for two full minutes. At this time, the
group which proposed a topic will be following to make sure the speaker does not make any
grammatical mistakes, stopping or hesitation, mispronunciation and misuse of words. Whenever
any mistake is noted, the one who noted it will be given another impromptu topic by a member
from the other group. Practice this activity until at least three members from each group have
spoken. Dear learner, consider how you feel when you are told that you must present a speech.
Can you determine your level of pre -speech anxiety? Is your comfort related to your familiarity
with the topic, the size of the audience, or the existence of camera equipment? Is it related to
your body image or a tendency toward occasional mispronunciations?

(ii) Public Speaking

Dear learner, if you feel nervous about speaking in public, you should know that it is normal to
experience some communication apprehension or “stage fright” when you deliver a speech.
Speakers may experience apprehension in a variety of ways but some of the most common
symptoms include: shaking hands and legs, voice fluctuations and rapid speech. Moreover,
almost all speakers worry that their nervousness is going to be obvious to the audience.
Fortunately, many signs of anxiety are not visible. For example, if your hands sweat or your
heart pounds when you speak, your audience will probably not notice.
Dear learner, the following techniques that can help you manage your fear and become an
effective public speaker.
i. Be prepared-know topic and practice your presentation. Use clear notes to avoid reading
your speech.
ii. Self-confidence-begin your speech with a strong initial sentence. Let your preparation
provide you with practice that builds confidence.
iii. Be organised-have a clear presentation structure with an engaging introduction and a
brief closing.
iv. Engage your audience-talk to your audience and make eye contact. You may ask them
questions to monitor involvement.
v. Speak clearly-Ensuring that your voice can be heard. Make sure your speech includes
smooth transitions. Use supportive materials to support your verbal presentation and
clarify information.
vi. Have Fun: Sharing information with others allows you to share your expertise and
insights. Enjoy the experience. Others will share your pleasure.
vii. Stay Enthused:
The strategies of improving your listening ability during face- to – face module presentation
in open distance learning
• Make eyes contact to the speaker.

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• Avoid distracting behaviors (ie playing with a pen).

• Decide to listen and concentrate on the speaker.
• Observe the speaker’s vocal inflection.
• Listen without interruption.
• Use paraphrasing questions.
• Provide feedback to the speaker.
• Adjust your body posture etc

Application of Reading Skills for Effective Communication

Dear learner, without reading skills, you are more likely to waste a lot of time reading things
which might not be very useful to your purpose of reading. To become an effective reader, you
should first have a clear mind of why and what you want to read. There are different types of
reading skills. Now let look at each of them.

The Concept of Reading

Reading is the act of simultaneously reading the lines, reading between lines. Reading between
lines refers to the cognitive process of decoding symbols and signs in order to construct meaning
from the text. In other words, reading between lines refers to the act of making inferences and
understanding the authors implied message. Moreover, reading beyond the lines, involves
making judgement on the significance of the authors message and applying it to other areas of
background and knowledge. Reading is a complex process that is both visual as well as a mental
process. This means that we use both sight (or touch among the blind) and mind to receive and
understand written and visual messages.

Factors for Effective Reading

Dear learner, for reading process to be effective, the following factors are very important:
(i) Fixations: Refers to the short pauses to focus on the word or group of words. It also
refers to that period of time when the eyes remain relatively still to allow the mind to
respond to the visual information provided by the eyes.

(ii) Recognition Span: This refers to the proportion of the line of a text that a reader absorbs
at a single fixation which normally ranges fro one word to a group of words. In other
words, recognition span refers to the number of words that a reader recognizes and
perceives during one fixation.

(iii) Regression: This occurs when the readers move their eyes back to previously read
information or concepts in the text. Primarily, the frequency of regression depends on
the difficulty of the text and the level of concentration

Reading Strategies/ Techniques

The purpose of reading determines the strategy you should use. As such, there are three
strategies of reading including:
(i) Reading to get the gist of materials; that is skimming
(ii) Reading to get specific piece of information; that is scanning

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(iii) Reading for mastery of the content; that is detailed/ intensive reading

Dear learner, the above strategies or techniques make us have the following types of reading:

Types of Reading
a) Extensive reading–this is reading a long text. In most cases, this is for enjoyment with
emphasis on overall meaning and not on detailed information. For example, reading a
newspaper or a storybook.

b) Intensive Reading – it requires a reader to fully understand and remember the reading
materials and even take notes from it. For instance, a student studying for an
examination.

c) Scanning – refers to reading quickly in search of specific information. For example,

when checking a TV guide or a phone book.

d) Skimming-this is an act of rapidly moving the eyes over text with the purpose of getting
only the main ideas and general overviews of the content. For example, read a title,
introduction, a first paragraph of each chapter completely or sub-headings and look for
relationship among them.

Application of Reading Skills

Dear learner, the application of reading skills can be done in different areas such as studying,
reading books, notices, newspapers, magazines and announcement. The following are examples
of skills where reading skills can be applied:

Studying Skills
Dear learner, good study practice requires self-discipline, good time management, focus, efforts
and good organization. Study skills can be referred to as a skill that can enhance one’s ability to
study and pass examination.
Tips to effective study
a) Any good learner should have a plan to follow without fail.
b) Have a time table with all subjects you study and allocate all subjects equal time and
strictly follow it.
c) Know your best time to study. For example, are you a morning, afternoon or evening
person?
d) Study when you are rested, alert and planned.
e) Do your assignment today not tomorrow.
f) Attend lectures. It is the simplest way to learn how to study effectively.
g) Take notes during lecture because you can use them as reference materials.

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h) Ask questions to make sure that you get the answers to your questions right away.
i) Make small notes of all chapters and revise regularly
j) It is always good to work in groups; many hands make work light. Look for colleagues
whose priority is study and work with them.
k) Make sure the place you study is noise free. Libraries, study lounges or private rooms are
the best.
Formation of discussion groups
Dear learner, distance learner cannot work alone, they need help from each other. This is one the
reason to form a study group and encourage each other. Dear learner, when joining a study
group, bear the following in mind:
i. The characteristics you will like the group to have
ii. Group dynamics
iii. They should have common interests as you
iv. Committed to the group
v. Be manageable group. It should have about 4-8people and have a chairperson.
vi. Respect each member
vii. Be time conscious
viii. Allow each other a chance to actively participate in the discussion.
Note taking
Dear learner, we define note taking as the practice of recording information captured from a
transient source, such as an oral discussion at a meeting or a lecture.
How to go about taking notes
i. Get to the lecture hall on or in time. This allows you to settle down before the facilitator.
ii. Have all the required materials such as pen and note book.
iii. Sit where you can properly see the facilitator and board.
iv. If possible, take notes using short forms.
v. If you fail to understand an explanation, ask the facilitator to go over it again.
vi. Take note of important questions during an oral presentation
vii. Take note of the contributions from the other learners during the discussion group
meetings.

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Dear learner, while taking notes, you may come across different challenges because you have to
listen and write at the same time. The challenges can include misspelling of words and not
hearing properly due to noise or physical maladies.
The tips for effective note taking
• Be careful that you don’t write off topic. Failure to that you will penalizes
• Write I n full sentences where every sentence should contain a subject and finite verb.
• Vary paragraph and sentence lengths. Do not afraid of short sentences. Only a subject and
a verb can form a sentence
• Ensure that the concord of the sentence is correct
• Decide on the most suitable tense for the topic. Make sure that you use the same tense
throughout your piece of writing.

Things to avoid while taking notes

• Avoid Repetition of words and use of too many words when the same idea could be
stated simply and clearly.
• Ovoid overuse of adjectives
• Avoid unnecessary words or statements (Avoid redundancy and tautology; and use word
economy)
• Avoid using difficult or big words unnecessarily.
• Avoid ambiguity; that means words with the same meaning such as synonyms, hyponyms
and homonyms.
• Avoid contracted forms such as don’t, aren’t in writing
• Avoid numerals in writing; instead write the numerals in words.
• Avoid personal forms, for example, I examined these cases; instead it could be these
cases were examined.
• Avoid using the word “not” instead use negative prefixes where possible. For example
disagree, unsatisfactory and impossible.

How to Structure an Essay

Structuring and organization of ideas in an essay follow the following format:
• Paragraphs
• Introduction: The topic sentence which is often the first sentence. It may
summarize the paragraph or contain its main focus. The first paragraph introduces
the topic, it should be short and inviting.
• The Body: This is the part after the body made up of the several paragraphs
which form the body of your essay and explore the topic. The last sentence of the
paragraph may conclude or summarize the idea.
• Conclusion: This is the last paragraph of the composition. It usually expresses
writers’ feelings about the topic where reader should sense finality. Words such as
therefore, conclusively.

The Essay Writing Process

Dear learner, just like any other process, the essay writing process is made up of
several stages. These are

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(i) Formulating the Topic

(ii) Researching the material
(iii)Organizing the material
(iv) Composing the first draft
(v) Revising and editing
(vi) Writing the final draft

Dear learner, having seen the processes involved in writing process, let us discuss different types
of essays as follows:

Types of Essay
Dear learner, an essay is written composition exploring a particular subject. There are four types
of essays, namely, narrative, descriptive, explanatory and argumentative.
(a) Narrative Essays -this type of essay gives an account of events and is mainly used in
creative writing, history and literature review. Narrative essays consist mainly in the
narration of some event, or series of events. For instance, historical stories or legend

(b) Descriptive Essays: Consists of some description of some place or thing, for example
animals, plants, minerals. It describe people, events, places, things such as history

(c) Explanatory Essays-sometimes known as expository essay. This is an advanced

descriptive writing that describes events and people in depth. It involves defining explain
and expounding on an idea.

(d) Expository Essays: Consist of exposition or explanation of some subject, for instance
composition about institutions, industries.

(e) Argumentative Essays -also known as persuasive and is commonly used in academic
writing. It is used to persuade the audience and convince them to accept the writer’s point
of view.

(f) Reflective Essays: They consist of reflections or thoughts on some topic, generally of an
abstract nature.

(g) Imaginative Essays: These are essays on subjects such as the feelings and experiences.
For example, autobiography of a home.

Conclusion
Dear learner, having completed the unity of communication skills in distance education we have
just covered the principles for listening, speaking, reading and writing skills/ Now in the next

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unity, we are going to do see the application of writing skills in different context including letter
writing, note taking, writing MEMOS, notices, CV writing, as well as applying writing skills in
academic writings like citation, referencing et.c. Dear learner, you are welcome to the last unit of
our module.

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Unit 4
5.0 Application of Writing Skills in Distance Education

Introduction

Dear learner, in the last unit we learned about application of communication skills in distance
education. We managed to cover three skills namely; listening skills, speaking skills and reading
skills. This unit is the continuation of unit four focusing on functional writing which enhance the
application of writing skills in different context. Writing skill has many activities (letter writing,
minutes writing, memorandum writing, notice and announcement writing. Therefore, it needs
more practice and time. All people communicate through different ways including writing letters,
emails, MEMOS, announcement, notices e.t.c. Therefore, this unit covers all the writing
activities used to communicate. In this unit, you will specifically develop writing skills in
Distance Education.

Learning Outcomes

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

a) Define writing skills

b) Demonstrate principles of written communication
c) Explain different activities which involve writings skills
d) Demonstrate Writing Skills for Effective Communication

e) Demonstrate ability to express thoughts clearly in writing

f) Applying Writing Skills in in Adult Education (Functional writing)
Introduction
Dear learner, when we look at what it takes to be a good writer we should understand some
principles which will guide us in the writing process. Writing needs real practical work as the
more you write, the better you become at it. In this section, we will discuss writing tips that can
help you improve your writing skills. Writing is a process and requires you to plan and organize
your work. Dear learner, the application of writing skills is also known as functional writing
skills which equip learners with essential skills to write documents in academic and professional
life and casual settings.

The Meaning of Writing Skills

Dear learner, writing is a process of putting thoughts, ideas and concepts into words using a
continuous style. As a writer you need to ask yourself, what do I want to write about and why
am I writing it and to whom am I aiming at. The questions will allow you to brainstorm ideas on

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your topic, focus on your thoughts and ideas as well as organize your work in a reasonable and
chronological manner. Dear learner, having seen the concept of writing, it is time to know the
principles in writing.

Principles in Writing Skills

The writings should be well organized following a certain structure that is good paragraphs allow
you to divide your writing into parts and combine the parts to effectively communicate a
message. A paragraph consists of a number of sentences that deal with one idea or theme. There
are different types of paragraphs. Firstly, a topical paragraph, which is basically a paragraph
made up of a group of sentences arranged around one main idea or one topic. Secondly, special
paragraphs, these includes introductory, concluding and transitory paragraph. Introductory
paragraphs give the reader an insight about the topic while a concluding paragraph provides a
writer with one final chance to leave a lasting impression on the rear and transitory paragraph
shows.
Dear learner, in organizing any piece of writing, you have to divide into three parts, mainly,
introduction, body and conclusion.
Letter writing
Dear learner, in this section, we will focus on acquiring basic writing skills on official documents
such as writing official letter also known as business letter, curriculum vitae commonly referred
to as CV, meeting minutes and memos.

Official (Business) Letter

Dear learner, official letter can be used for different reason. For example, applying for a job,
seeking admission to join any learning institution and seeking permission.
An official letter has the following section as indicated below:
i. Sender’s address (sender)
ii. Date
iii. Addressee’s address (receiver)
iv. Salutation (greetings)
v. Title (purpose of the letter)
vi. Content (introduction, body and conclusion)
vii. Closing (sender’s name and signature)

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Formats for Official Letters

1. Full Block Format

P. O. BOX 68392,
DAR ES SALAAM.
OCTOBER 3, 2013.

THE DIRECTOR,
ABC COMPANY,
P.O BOX 50747,
MWANZA.

Dear Sir/Madam,

REF: APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT ((state the position you are applying for)

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Yours Faithfully,

Signature

Name

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2. Semi Block Format

P. O. BOX 68392
DAR ES SALAAM
10TH OCTOBER,
2020

THE DIRECTOR
ABC COMPANY
P.O BOX 50747
MWANZA.

Dear Sir/Madam,

REF: APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT (state the position you are applying for)

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---------------------------------------

Yours Faithfully,

Signature

Name

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3. Indent Block Format

P. O. BOX 68392
DAR ES SALAAM
3RD OCTOBER, 2020

THE DIRECTOR
ABC COMPANY
P.O BOX 50747
MWANZA.

Dear Sir/Madam,

REF: APPLICATION FOR EMPLOYMENT

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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Yours Faithfully,

Signature

Name

Curriculum Vitae
Dear learner, curriculum vitae (CV) sometimes referred to us a known as a résumé. It is a self-
marketing tool and creates an opportunity for an interview depending on how good is your CV. It
is a summary of your academic, professional and work experience. A CV should be easy to read
and always check your spelling as well as grammar. Dear learner, you CV should be clear and
neat. This helps to avoid dense and too much information. Always remember to view your
experience in a positive light and put important information up-front. Notably, put your
experience and education achievement in reverse chronological order.

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Sample of a CV format
HOSEA JOHN
P.O. BOX 202020, Dar es Salaam
Tel: +255 755 55 55 55
E-mail:hoseajohn@gmail.com
PERSONAL DETAILS
Marital Status:
Date of Birth:
Nationality:
LANGUAGE:
ACADEMIC QUAILIFICATION
2012 – 2014: Start with the highest level of education
2007 – 2010:
2005 – 2007:
1983 – 1990: End with the lowest level of education
PROFESSIONAL QUALIFICATION (if any)
August 2018:
March 2018:
WORK EXPERIENCE
March 2015 – State your current position
REFEREES Tom Fredrick
Director- Marketing and Finance
ASASK Centre
Tel: + 255 712 777 777
E-mail: asask@gmail.com

Minutes Writing
Dear learner, Minutes form an essential part of a meeting. We can simply define minutes as
meeting notes. They and describe and summarise the events of a meeting. Therefore, minutes
give an official account of what happened during a meeting, including any decision and taken
action. Dear learner, before the meeting, preparations which are to be undertaken include
gathering the agenda, sharing minutes from the last meeting with participants (if any), have any
document which will be discussed in the meeting and writing material or tape recorder. During
the meeting, the actual recording of minutes takes place. Thereafter, in writing minutes, it is
important to confirm accuracy before circulating the minutes to all attendees.

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What to include in Minutes

i. Title: Name of the group meeting,
ii. Date, Time, Venue
iii. The names of the participants
iv. Agenda items
v. Actions or tasks
vi. The main points
vii. Decisions made by the participants
viii. Record what is the most important points
ix. Future decisions
Functions of Minutes
a) To record action points, i.e., what actions have been decided upon, who is responsible
and what the milestones and deadlines are.
b) They record summaries of the discussions held at the meeting.
c) Act as a grounding and authentic basis for decisions made.
d) Are legal documents and can be used in courts and in Banks.
e) It is helpful to record the meeting so the recording can be referenced for details and to
clarify information later.
Agenda Writing
Agenda refer to the list of items of business to be dealt with in a meeting. These item are
arranged in logical order so that it will not be necessary to take later item first which may affect
the decision on one of the earlier items. Examples of agenda:
AGENDA
1. Opening of the meeting
2. Adoption of Previous Minutes
3. Matter Arising
4. Plans for the year 2021
5. Letter from the Minutes of Education
6. Recommendation from committee members
7. AOB
8. Closing of the Meeting.
Yours sincerely,
Kaboja K.M
(Secretary)

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WRITING MEMORANDUM (MEMO)

A memo, short for memorandum, it is used for communicating official messages with the
organisation. Memos are brief and friendly. Dear learner, memo is made up of two parts, the
heading and message. Also, memo includes information on the sender, receiver, the date, subject
and location. Dear learner, we use a memo to remind, highlight or recount an issue, to keep
record and to inform or instruct.

MEMO Format
MEMO or MEMORANDUM
TO:

FROM:

DATE:

SUBJECT:
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Application of Writing Skills in Report Writing

A report may be oral or written. An oral report is easy to present. It may consists of the
communication of an impression or an observation. Sometimes it may be quite useful but written
report is always preferred. There are two main types of reports namely: Informative report and
Interpretive Reports

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Characteristics of a Good Report

Grammatical Accuracy: One characteristics of a good report is grammatical accuracy.
Therefore, the grammatical accuracy of the language is of fundamental importance. It is one of
the basic requisites of a good report as of any other piece of composition. Who is going to read a
report if its language is faulty? Besides, faulty construction of sentence makes the meaning
obscure and ambiguous.
Precision: The writer is very clear about the exact purpose of writing it. Precision gives kind of
unity and coherence to the report and makes it a valuable document
Accuracy of Facts: The scientific accuracy of facts is very essential to a good report. Since
report leads to decision making, inaccurate facts may lead to disastrous decision.
Relevance: The facts presented in a report should not only be accurate but also relevant.
Reader orientation: A good report is always reader oriented.
Objectivity of Recommendations: If recommendations are made out of the report they must be
impartial and objective. They should come as logical conclusion to investigation and analysis.
They must not reveal any self -interest on the part of the writer.
Simple and ambiguous language: A good report is written in simple and unambiguous
language. It is a kind of scientific document of practical utility, hence it should be free from
various forms of poetic features like figures of speech which may bring about ambiguity.
Clarity: Clarity means clear, therefore a good report should be absolutely clear. Clarity depends
on the proper arrangement of the facts. The report writer must proceed systematically. He should
make his purpose clears absolutely clear, define his sources, sate his findings and finally makes
the necessary recommendations. He should divide his report to short paragraphs giving them
sub-headings and insert other suitable sign posts to achieve greater clarity.
Brevity: Brevity means brief, therefore a good report should be brief. Brevity in report is the
kind of brevity one recommends for a precise including g everything significant and yet be brief.
Formats of Writing a Report
There are four formats that are used to write reports. These are:
Printed Forms: Reports consisting of questions and blank spaces or multiple choice statements
or answers.
Letter Forms: This format is commonly used for shorter reports (usually five to fewer pages)
Memo Format: Used for short repots to be communicated
Manuscript Format: Used for Long and formal reports.

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Components of the Formal Reports

Dear leaner, a formal report should have the following components:
Part A: The Preliminary Parts which include:
• Letter of Transmittal
• Title page
• Acknowledgement
• Abstract
• Table of Contents
Part B: Body of the Report
• Introduction
• Procedures which include methods of the study
• The findings
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Recommendation
Part C: The Supplemental Facts
• References
• Appendices

Aspects to Consider when Writing a Report

In writing a report you have to consider the following aspects:
• Some guidelines for report writing.
• Follow the same rules as for written communication principles.
• Indicate the nature of the report by giving it a heading.
• Introduction of the report.
• Arrange the information or arguments in a logical order
• Use indirect speeches.
• Plan the lay-out of your report carefully, paying special attention to headings, paragraphs,
some paragraphs and listed pints.

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 VACANCY 66  

• Show the terms of reference

• Show the findings of theSECRETARY  
PERSONAL   report
A  reputable  finance  
• Date services  
and signfirm  
you breport
ased  in  Dar  es  Salaam  is  urgently  looking  
for   an   experienced  
When writing personal   secretary  
a report for   immediate   employment.   Must   be  
you should
fluent   in   English,   Computer   literate   and   ready   to   work   under   severe  
• Avoid clichés hackneyed expressions such as hereby acknowledge, in respect of,
pressure.   supplemental to.
  • Leave out unnecessary words.
Please  apply  in  confidence  with  CV  to:  
• Keep writing simple.
The  Chief  Executive  Officer  
Dar  es  Salaam  • Use short words.
 
Applications  must  reach  the  above  address  not  later  than  two  weeks  after  
Apply Writing Skills in Notices
the  appearance   of  tishis  
A notice advert.  
written or printed news or information usually displayed publicly. We normally hear
expressions such as “pin a notice on the body”. Notices can be of varied subjects,
advertisements, meetings, announcements, call for tenders. A notice should be brief, eye
catching, clear and complete. Imagine of the notice inviting people to a meeting and yet the date
for the occasion is nit indicated no the venue shown.

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Apply Writing Skills in Academic Writings

(i) Referencing
Citing a Source Found/Cited in another Source [APA p. 178]
Often an author writes about research that someone else has done, but you are unable to track
down the original research report. In the sample below, research done by Pithers is discussed
in a journal article written by Lee, and you only read Lee. Include only Lee’s article in your
References list. A 2000 review by Pithers found little empirical research on students’ critical
thinking (as cited in Lee, 2007, p. 83).

The Parts of a Reference

Book, ↓ author ↓ year published ↓ book edition ↓ publisher
th
edition is McWhorter, K. (2010). Academic reading (7 ed.). Boston, MA: Longman.
stated ↑ book title ↑ place published

Journal
↓ ↓ author ↓year published ↓ article title ↓
article
journal name ↓ volume
P Perrey, S. (2017). Do we perform better when we increase red blood cells? The Lancet
Haematology, 17, 2352-3026. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-3026(17)30123-0
↑ page range
Chapter
↓ cha
in an
edited
↓ chap ↓ authors ↓ year published ↓ chapter title ↓ book editors
book ↓ book title
Smith, F. M., & Jones, W. (2004). The college student. In C. Wood, & M. Meyer (Eds.), Cross-
cultural education 75-105). London, Canada: MacMillan.
↑ chapter page range ↑ place published ↑ publisher

Webpage
↓ author ↓ year published ↓ webpage title ↓ date you viewed the
on
webpage
website
Sa Sah, P. (2018). Study habits for success: Tips for students. Retrieved August 23, 2018, from
http://theconversation.com/study-habits-for-success-tips-for-students-89147
↑U ↑ URL for the webpage

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(ii) In-text Citation

When students learn more about the process of learning and begin to incorporate the use of
specific strategies, self-monitoring, and self-reflection into their academic endeavours, they are
more successful in reaching their goals. In their examination of students’ acquisition of learning
strategies, Simpson, Stahl, and Francis (2004) stressed that students will use a strategy if they
understand how, why, and when to use it (p. 3). The researchers explained that learning this
“procedural knowledge would help them understand the steps . . . and how to modify those
steps” (p. 3). Simpson et al. argued that using the specific strategy taught in a course is often not
as important as using the process the students learn of “selecting, summarizing, organizing,
elaborating, monitoring, self-testing, reflecting and evaluating” when working on course content
(p. 4). The researchers recommended that faculty teach students “how to decipher their own
academic tasks” (p. 6). In addition, Lee (2007) argued that once students have acquired a
repertoire of study strategies, they should be taught critical thinking skills to evaluate and modify
their use of specific strategies (pp. 82-83). Acquisition of strategic learning is, as Hadwin et al.
in 2001 explained, “enacted over time through a series of events” (as cited in Simpson et al.,
2004, p. 3). P. Foley, a professor at North London University, observed that motivation is
strongly linked to student use of learning strategies (personal communication, May 16, 2007).
Motivation, in turn, can be influenced by students’ beliefs about learning. Simpson et al. (2004)
commented on such beliefs:

(iii) Sample Reference page

Alberta Social Services and Community Health. (2005). Breaking the pattern: Understanding
wife abuse. Edmonton, Canada: Author.
Ancient tool makers discovered fire treatment. (2009, August 13). The Globe and Mail.
Retrieved from https://www.theglobeandmail.com/
Arnold, A. (1985). Afghanistan: The Soviet invasion in perspective (Rev. ed.). Retrieved from
http://books.google.com/
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support for women during childbirth. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews,
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Brandt, F. (Producer), & Messina, P. F. (Director). (1995). Too smart for strangers [Motion
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Canadian Nurses Association. (2017). Code of ethics for registered nurses. Retrieved from
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Cell division. (2008). In E. Martin & R. Hine (Eds.), Dictionary of biology. Retrieved from

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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. A curriculum vitae is a self-marketing tool and getting an interview can depend on how
good is your curriculum vitae. Design your own CV.
2. Minutes are sometimes referred to as meeting notes. Explain the five major functions of
munities.
3. Write a Business letter requiring for admission at the Institute of Adult Education.
1. With vivid examples, briefly, compare the following concepts;
(a) Reading skill and listening skill
(b) Skimming and Scanning
(c) Extensive and intensive reading
2. In speech preparation, there are six key aspects in speech needed to be asked by oneself.
With examples explain those key aspects on the basis of strategies in speech making.

3. Write a MEMO to your secretary informing her about the meeting which will be held on
1st of May, 2019 at Kawawa Hall in the Institute of Adult Education.
4. Apply your writing skills in composing an argumentative essay with the title “ The
Challenges facing Leaners in accessing Adult Education”
5. Write a letter to the editor on the topic of Eruption of Epidemic diseases such as cholera
asking for immediate measures.
6. “Wherever there is a problem, there is always a way out”. Justify this contention in
relation to communication barriers and the ways to manage them to efficient
communication.
7. Explain the concept of notice and give an example of a notice
8. Write an Email to your friend

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Reference

Adler, R. B. (1989). Communication at Work. New York: Random House.

Brodow, E. (2006). How to Resolve Conflict, Satisfy Customers and Make Better Deals.
USA: Kindle Edition.

Donaldson, M. (2007). Fearless Negotiation: The Wish, Want, Walk Method to Reaching
Solutions that Work. USA Kindle Edition.

Kadeghe, M. (2005). Communication Skills: Theory and Practice. Ahmadiyya Printing

press, Dar es Salaam.

Kadeghe, M. (2002). Communication Skills: Theory and Practice. Ahmadiyya Printing

press, Dar es Salaam.

Macharia, J. M. (2014). Improving Communication Skills. Serengeti Educational

Publishers Ltd, Mwanza, Tanzania

Mwakajinga, L.K.S. (2021) Comprehensive Communication Skills For Colleges and

Universities: Principles and Practices. Karljamer Publishers Ltd, Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania.

Lewicki, R. J. & Hiam, A. (2007). Mastering Business: A Working Guide to Making

Deals and Resolving Conflicts, New York: Burr Ridge.

Saleemi, N.A. (1997). Business Communication and Report Writing Simplified. N.A.
Saleemi Publishers, Nairobi, Kenya.

Wren, P.C., Martin, H., Rao, N.D.V.P (1989). English Grammar & Composition. S.
Chand & Company Ltd, Ram Nagar, New Delhi.

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