Switch Gear and Advance Power

System Protection (EE- 802)

Dr. Paramita Chattopadhyay
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
IIEST, Shibpur
pc@ee.iiests.ac.in

March –April 2020

 Modules
• Distance Protection
• Distance Relaying Scheme
• Reach of Distance Relay
• Type of Distance Relay
• Selection of Distance Relay
» Impact of Arc Resistance
» Impact of Power Swing
 Modules (Cont.)
• Numerical Relay
• Why Numerical Relay??
• Comparison
• Advantages of Digital Relaying
• Block Schematic of Numerical Relay
• Anti aliasing Filter
• Sampling Frequency and Aliasing Effect
• Data window
• Digital Protection of Transmission Line
• Phasor Estimation
• Fourier Based Algorithms
• DFT
– Full Cycle Data Window
– Half Cycle Data window
• Extraction of Fundamental Frequency Component
• Computation of Apparent Impedance
• Frequestimation

1
Limitations of Over Current Protection
• Single input ( Current only)

• Shifting of balance point/reach with

• Type of faults (Phase fault/ ground fault)

• Changes in Generation
• Switching instant
 Distance Relaying Scheme
• Dual input comparator,
supplied with current through
CT and voltage through PT

• Phase relays are supplied with

line voltages and line currents
• Ground relays supplied with
phase voltages and phase
currents
• Reach of the Distance relay
does not shift with type of
fault or generation voltage

2
 Reach of Distance Relay
A Distance relay operates when impedance or a
component of the impedance as seen by the
relay is less than a preset value. This preset
impedance or its component or corresponding
distance is called the reach of the relay. In
other word, it is the maximum length of the
line upto which the relay can protect

3
 Under Reach & Over Reach
• When a distance relay fails to operate
even the fault point is within its reach, it
is called Under reach. Due to presence of
arc resistance it may happen.

• The tendency of a distance relay to

operate when the fault point is beyond its
protected length(reach), is called the
Over reach. Because of the presence of
DC offset in the fault current, the
impedance seen by the relay may be
smaller than the actual impedance of the
line up to the fault point.

4
Type of Distance Relay

Distance Relay

Angle Impedance Angle

Plane Impedance
Relay or Admittance Relay
Relay
Reactance Relay or MHO Relay

5
Typical Distance Relay characteristics
Zone of Protection of Distance relay
 Distance Protection Scheme
• Distance protection provides both
primary and backup protection.

• Three units of impedance relays are

required at a particular location for three
zones of protection

• Zone I : The first unit protects only 80-

90% of the protected line. It is very high
speed relay, operates within 1-2 cycles.

• Zone II: The second unit protects the rest

part of the line 1 and 50%of the line 2. Its
operating time is usually 0.2 s to 0.5 s

• Zone III: Third unit protects the rest 50%

of the second line. The third zone of
protection is provided for back up
protection of the adjoining line. The
protective zone of the third zone covers
the first line i.e. protected line plus the
longest second line plus 25% of the third
line. Its operating time is usually 0.4 s. 8
Three Zone of Protection of Distance
Relay
Overlap Problem for zone II
Problem of Load Encroachment
Modified Distance Relay Characteristics Due to
Load Encroachment
 Impedance Relay

• It computes only impedance upto the fault point

•Non directional in nature

•Relay Characteristics is bulky, as its radious is ZR

• Reach of the plane impedance relay is moderately
affected by the arc resistance and the power swing

6
 Reactance Relay
• A reactance relay measures the reactance of
the line at the relay location

• Not affected by the arc resistance during the

occurrence of fault

• Its characteristics is a straight line parallel to

R-axis

• Non directional relay

• To prevent false tripping under high power

factor load, a MHO relay is used as a starting
unit

• Suitable for protection of short transmission

line

7
 Need for Staring MHO unit for Reactance Relay
Under normal operating
condition, with a load of high
power factor, the reactance
measured by the relay may be
less by its setting. To prevent
false tripping under such
condition the reactance relay
should be supervised by a
staring unit of MHO relay
 MHO Relay
• MHO relay measures the admittance up to fault point

• When plotted in R-X plane, it is a circle passing through

origin

• Greatly affected by arc resistance

• Suitable for protection of large transmission line, as it is

less affected by power swing

• MHO relay with blinders are used for Extra Long lines,
which are more prone to power swing

• Offset MHO relay has more tolerance to the arc resistance

• Offset MHO relay is applied busbar zone back up

protection and power swing blocking

7
 Performance Analysis of
Distance Relay
The performance of the distance relays are
greatly affected by the

 Arc resistance
 Power Swing

9
 Impact of Arc Resistance on
Distance Relay
The arc resistance causes the under reach of the
different distance relays:
Impedance • Moderate
Relay

Reactance • None
Relay

MHO Relay • Maximum

10
 Power Swing
In an interconnected power system, phase angle
between generated voltages changes during
disturbances which may arise due to removal of a
fault or sudden changes of load. During
disturbances, the rotor of the generator swing
around the final steady state value. When the
rotor swings, the rotor angle changes and the
current flowing through the line also changes.
Such currents are heavy and known as Power
Surge. Power surge seen by the relay appears like
a fault which is changing its distance from its
relay location.
11
Power Swing
Power swings refer to
oscillation in active and reactive
power flows on a transmission
line consequent to a large
disturbance like a fault. The
oscillation in the apparent
power and bus voltages is seen
by the relay as an impedance
swing on the R-X plane. If the
impedance trajectory enters a
relay zone and if stays there for
sufficiently long time, then the
relay will issue a trip decision on
power swing. Tripping on power
swings is not desirable. We now
investigate this phenomenon
and then discuss remedial
measures.
 Impact of Power Swing on
Distance Relay
Impedance • Moderate
Relay
Reactance • Maximum
Relay

MHO Relay • Least

12
 Selection of Distance Relay
• Reactance Relay: Ground fault and Phase fault of the
short line. Because arc resistance mostly affects the
short line. Where as the short lines are least affected
by the Power Swing. The predominant factor is the
effect if arc resistance
• MHO relay: Suitable for longer lines, as it is least
affected by the Power Swing. MHO relay with blinders
is quite suitable for protection of extra long line,
because area on R-X plane is the least to make it
suitable to avoid over reach due to power swing.
• Impedance Relay: It is moderately affected by both arc
resistance and power surge. So it is better suited for
medium line.

13
Typical Distance Relay characteristics
 Numerical Problems
1.Draw impedance, reactance and MHO
characteristics to protect 100% of the line
having (2.5 + J6)) ohm impedance. A fault may
occur at any point of line through an arc
resistance of 2 ohms. Determine the
maximum percentage of line section which
can be protected by each type of relay.
[ Ans. : 83%, 100% and 77%]

14
Digital Protection of Transmission Line

15
 Protection Scheme of Transmission Line
Earlier Over current relays were used for transmission line protection.
However over current relays have numerous shortcomings as
discussed in the earlier slides. So for transmission lines exceeding
50 KV, only distance relaying schemes are used. For phase faults
involving two or more phases, phase relays are used and for ground
faults i.e. LG fault, ground relays are used. Phase relays are supplied
with delta voltage i.e. line to line voltage and delta current i.e.
difference of line currents. Ground relays are supplied with star i.e.
phase voltage and phase current. With such connections, the reach
of the distance relaying schemes do not shift with the change in
types of faults, change in generation level or due to switching. MHO
relay is preferred for phase faults in a long and heavily loaded lines
while Reactance relays are preferred for ground fault. However
reactance relay is always associated with a directional starting MHO
relay. Tripping is done within the zone between the MHO relay and
the reactance relay.

16
 Why Numerical Relays??
• To improve reliability as well as security
• Self checking facility
• Immune to variation in parameters of individual
components
• Very low burden
• More flexibility because of programmable capability
• . Fiber optical communication with substation LAN
• Adaptive relaying schemes
• Permit Historical data storage
• Allow GPS (Geographical Positioning System) Time
stamping

17
 Merits of Numerical Relays
Features Numerical Solid State Electromagnetic

Self Checking and

Reliability

System Integration
and Digital
Environment
Multifunctional

Functional Flexibility
and Adaptive
Relaying

18
 Challenges in Designing Numerical
Relays
• Economy and performance
• Dependability and security
• Complexity and simplicity
• Speed and accuracy
• realistic and conceivable

19
 Advantages of Digital Relaying

• Less sensitive to temperature, aging, noise

• Economical because can be produced in
volumes
• Accuracy Using Digital implementation the
realization Polygon in R-X plane for distance
relaying is possible
• Signal storage is possible
• Ease of communication
20
 Block Schematic of Numerical Relay

Binary
Signal Anti Aliasing Microprocess
Conditioner Filter
S/H Circuit ADC
or//DSP Decision/
Trip Signal

Digital relaying involves digital processing of one

or more analog signals in three steps:
• Conversion of analog signal to digital form
• Processing of digital form
• Boolean decision to trip or not to trip
21
 Anti Aliasing Filter
• Post-fault power system signals contain DC offset and harmonic
components, in addition to the major fundamental power
frequency component.
• If these signals are not sampled with appropriate rate, these high
frequency component in the input signal may be interpreted as low
frequencies. This kind of manifestation is known as ”aliasing“ effect
• Anti Aliasing filter is a low pass filter, which removes most of the
high frequency components from the relaying signals to avoid
aliasing effect

22
 Analog Interface
• Analog interface makes the signal compatible with the processor

•It consist of S/H circuit, Analog multiplexer and ADC

•Analog voltage and current signals would be sampled at

appropriate frequency, converted into digital form and acquired by
a micro processor or a DSP.

23
 Sampling :
Non Simultaneous VS Simultaneous

•For relaying decision making we need to estimate the voltage and current
phasors.
•Presence of noise in any measurement is unavoidable.
•Effect of noise in phasor estimation can be minimized if redundant
measurements exist.
24
 Sampling Frequency and Aliasing Effect

According to the “Shanon sapling Theorem” or “ Nyquist sapling Theorem” the signal
must be sampled at a frequency at least twice the largest frequency component present
in the sampled signal to preserve the information contain in a signal. Anti aliasing filter
plays a vital role to make the sampling rate lower by removing the higher harmonics and
noise from the relaying signals.
25
Sampling Frequency and Aliasing Effect
(cont.)

26
 Data Window
• For simplicity, imagine a single phase circuit and assume that the
frequency of the supply only.
• The concept of data window for phasor estimation. This window
contains the ‘active’ set of samples which are currently being
processed for phasor estimation.
• Each consecutive window, differs from the previous window by
adding a new sample and by removing the oldest active sample.

27
Digital Protection of Transmission Line
• Digital protection scheme aims to extract the
fundamental power frequency components of
voltage and current signals from the complex
post-fault waveform using suitable filters.

• From the fundamental components the apparent

impedance seen by the relay is calculated.

• Based on the magnitude of the impedance

relaying decision ( block/trip) is taken

28
 Phasor Estimation
Main objective of the digital relaying is the phasor
estimation of fundamental frequency current and
voltage from the sampled values of complex post
fault current and voltage signals containing transient
DC offset component and harmonic frequency
components in addition to fundamental power
frequency component.

29
 Fourier Representation of Signals
• Fourier Series are used to decompose periodic
signals into sum of sinusoidal components of
appropriate amplitude.

30
 Fourier Based Algorithms
• Discrete Fourier Transform(DFT)
DFT is used to evaluate the Fourier coefficients from N samples of x(t) taken at
a time t=0, 2Ts, 3Ts, …..(N-1) Ts, where Ts is the sampling frequency.
In the complex from the Fourier coefficients can be written as:
Therefore,

Where ,

The DFT eqs. (2) & (3) can easily be implemented on microprocessor or other
embedded platforms in order to obtain the Fourier coefficients
corresponding to any frequency component.

31
 DFT Algorithms
• Full cycle Data Window DFT Algorithm:
A sequence of N uniformly spaced data samples obtained over
full cycle data window is used to compute the real and
imaginary components of any frequency phasor.
• Half cycle Data Window DFT Algorithm:
Half cycle data window DFT Algorithm is used on the basis of
the assumption that the relaying signals i.e. current and
voltage signals contain only odd harmonics and transient
DC offset component is filtered out from the incoming raw
data samples, prior to they are being processed. Here only
N/2 samples are acquired over half cycle data window are
used for computation of real and imaginary components.

Distance protection scheme prefers half cycle data window algorithm, as the
relay’s operation within a cycle after the fault inception is desirable.

32
Recursive and Non Recursive updating
of DFT
DFT of data sequence xm, m = 0, 1, 2, ….., (N-1)

DFT of data sequence xm, m = 1, 2, 3, ….., N

33
 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
FFT is the fast algorithm for efficient
computation of DFT. This algorithm drastically
reduces the arithmetic operations and
memory requirement to compute DFT. For
FFT we have to take the number of total
number of samples in a period of fundamental
cycle N = 2n , where n is an integer
The FFT has accelerated the application of Fourier Techniques in digital signal processing in
many applications other than digital relaying. In relaying application N is small( 4 to 20). So
A very few coefficients are required.
34
 Distance Relay and Extraction of
Fundamental Frequency Components
• The distance relay aims to calculate the apparent
impedance of the line from the relay location to
the fault point to determine whether the fault lies
within the protection zone or not.
• Impedance of the linear system is defined in
terms of the fundamental frequency voltage and
current sinusoidal waves .
• It is necessary to extract the fundamental
frequency components from the complex post
fault voltage and current signals
35
 Computation of Apparent Impedance

Estimation of voltage Compute Apparent

Removal of DC offset and current phasor of Impedance by half
from current samples fundamental cycle window DFT
frequency component algorithm

The exponentially decaying DC offset present in the relaying signals gives rise to fairly large
errors in the phasor estimation unless offset terms are removed prior to the execution of the
algorithm. In practice, decaying DC component in the voltage signal is so small that it can be
neglected. The DC offset component of the current signal is filtered out by employing replica
impedance filtering technique. The conventional method of eliminating the Dc offset
component is with the use of a mimic or replica impedance across the CT secondary terminals.
This mimic impedance plays a role of analog filter to remove the decaying DC component
when x/r ratio of the mimic impedance matches with the X/R ratio of the fault circuit or
primary circuit. However in other hand, it increases the high frequency noise. The best way is
to remove the decaying dc by digital replica impedance filtering technique.
36
 Computation of Apparent Impedance
(Cont. )
The real and imaginary components of fundamental frequency voltage phasor is Vs and Vc
The same for the current is Is and Ic. Z is the apparent impedance. R is the resistance; X is
the reactance

37
 Computation of Apparent Impedance
(Cont. )
Vs, Vc and Is, Ic can be computed using half cycle
data window DFT algorithm as expressed
below :

Where N is the number of samples per fundamental cycle

38
 Frequency Estimation
• Deviation of Nominal frequency must be taken
into account to eliminate leakage in frequency
spectra