Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01351

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

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Case study

Study on electrochemical characteristics of reinforced concrete

corrosion under the action of carbonation and chloride
Kanze Mei a, Zhimin He a, Bing Yi a, Xinyuan Lin a, Jianmin Wang a, *, Hui Wang a,
Junzhe Liu b, *
a
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Ningbo University, 315000 Ningbo, People’s Republic of China
b
School of Construction Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, 266000 Qingdao, People’s Republic of China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Considering parameters of corrosion area ratio and mass loss degree, the half-cell potential
Steel bars method and linear polarization method were applied to study the corrosion state of steel bars
Corrosion under the influence of carbonation, chloride salt and compound environmental action. X-ray
Chloride salt
photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to measure steel corrosion under coupling action and
Carbonation
Electrochemistry
the effect of sodium nitrite rust inhibitor in the compound environment was studied. The results
show that the corrosion rate of steel under carbonation, chloride salt and compound environment
increases in the beginning and then decreases. In the chloride environment, sufficient moisture
inside the concrete at the initial stage of curing induces a faster corroding. With the destruction of
the passive film on the surface of the steel bars together with the balance of internal and external
humidity, the corrosion rate tends to stabilize. At the following curing stage, the corrosion rate
decreases as the degree of steel corrosion increases and the corrosion layer is formed. Carbonation
reduces the alkalinity around the passive film and damages the passive film, which accelerates the
corrosion happening. The following development of the corrosion layer of steel bars limits the
corrosion rate. The corrosion degree in the compound environment is more serious than that
under the condition of single factor action. Under electrochemical action, the order of product
components resulting from steel corrosion are Fe2O3, Fe3+-Ca2SiO4 and FeO from high to low.
Nitrite oxidizes the unstable Fe2+ into stable Fe3+ and precipitates on the surface of the steel to
form a passivation film, which has a good anti-rust effect.

1. Introduction

Corrosion is a vital issue that affects the durability and safety of reinforced concrete structures [1]. The destruction of a large
number of reinforced concrete structures shows that the most important factor causing corrosion of steel bars is the damage caused by
carbonation and chloride ion erosion to the passive film of steel bars [2–5]. When carbonation occurs, calcium hydroxide in concrete
will react with carbon dioxide, resulting in the destruction of the alkaline passive film. When chloride ion corrosion occurs, free
chloride ions can corrode the passive film and enhance the conductivity, thereby accelerating the corrosion of reinforcement. The
corrosion of steel bars in concrete is accompanied by electrochemical reactions [6]. For the corroded steel bars, how to quantify the
corrosion degree is an important issue. General methods include the mass loss method, the electrochemical method etc. The mass loss

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: wangjianmin@nbu.edu.cn (J. Wang), liujunzhe@qau.edu.cn (J. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01351
Received 12 January 2022; Received in revised form 21 July 2022; Accepted 25 July 2022
Available online 27 July 2022
2214-5095/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
K. Mei et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 17 (2022) e01351

method is more traditional but intuitive. There are many types of electrochemical methods [7,8] such as the half-cell potential method,
the linear polarization method, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Electrochemical methods have a good effect to detect
and evaluate the steel corrosion, but the advantages and disadvantages coexist. The half-cell potential method can only qualitatively
analyze the possibility of steel corrosion, but cannot effectively quantify the corrosion rate of steel bars. The measured electrode
potential is possibly and clearly affected by environmental factors and specimen parameters [9]. The linear polarization method is
prone to ohmic drop [10] and uneven distribution of the polarization zone of the steel bars during measurement. At present, most
scholars focus on a single test method for the evaluation of the corrosion status of steel bars, which may cause the results to be
insufficiently comprehensive and objective.
At the same time, much research on steel corrosion were conducted in the field of microanalysis [11,12]. Obvious interface
transition zones (ITZ) exist between reinforcement and concrete. The ITZ is filled with a rust layer, which is a porous continuous
network structure. With the increase of corrosion age, the corrosion layer gradually thickens, and the corrosion layer presents a
compacted layered structure under the constraint of the surrounding concrete. The rust layer contains the corrosion product Fe of the
steel bar together with the hydration products Ca and Si of cement in concrete. There have been many reports on the durability of
concrete under the single factor of chloride and carbonation [13–15]. There are convection zone and stable diffusion zone of chloride
ion erosion in concrete. With the deep-going, the free chloride ion concentration in the stable diffusion zone gradually decreases. At the
same penetration depth, the chloride concentration distribution increases with the water and cement ratio.
Carbonation of concrete is a complex physical and chemical process. Its carbonation rate depends on the diffusion rate of carbon
dioxide gas and the reactivity between carbon dioxide and concrete components. However, there are still many problems needed to be
solved about the durability of concrete under the combined affection of the two main factors. The researches on the passivation film
effect under the affection of carbonation and chloride salt are mostly carried out in the simulated pore solution of concrete based on Ca
(OH)2 as the main component [16–18]. On the other hand, microanalysis is a method of local analysis. Experimental conditions and
sampling detection methods may influence the results. At present, there is a lack of basic understanding on the form and microscopic
composition of corrosion on the surface of steel bars [19]. Therefore, the electrochemical mechanism of steel corrosion under the
affection of carbonation and chloride salt corrosion and the microscopic composition of corrosion products needs to be further studied.
Aiming at the two main causes of corrosion of steel bars, chloride salt and carbonation, cement paste/rebar specimens were made
and cured under the conditions of different concentrations of chloride salt, carbonation and compound environment. Referring to the
ratio of nitrite rust inhibitor [20,21], a controlling group with sodium nitrite rust inhibitor was set up. The electrochemical charac­
teristics of steel corrosion under the action of chloride and carbonation were comprehensively evaluated by regularly measuring the
corrosion area ratio, mass loss degree, half-cell potential method, and linear polarization curve [22].

2. Experiment

2.1. Test materials and matching ratio

Ordinary Portland cement (produced by Zhejiang Ningbo Conch Co., Ltd) with the strength grade being 42.5 MPa is used in the
study. Grade HPB 235 (UNS G10100) plain round steel bars of diameter 8 mm is used in the experiment. Sodium chloride (NaCl),
ammonium citrate (C6H17N3O7), sodium nitrite (NaNO2) with a purity higher than 99.9 % are used. In the experiment, the water-
cement ratio of all groups is 0.4. The content of sodium chloride is set at 0.5 %, 1.0 % and 1.5 % of the cement mass. In each of
the three corrosive environments, a nitrite controlling group is established, with 9.89 g of sodium nitrite added in the carbonation
environment, and the nitrite content in the chloride and composite environments meeting the requirement of n (NO−2 )/ n(Cl− ) being
1:2.

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of electrochemical specimen.

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2.2. Preparation of electrochemical specimens

In the experiment, molds with the size of Φ 40 mm × 160 mm are used to prepare a certain number of cement slurry specimens with
the size of Φ 36 mm × 160 mm, and steel bars with the size of Φ 8 mm × 180 mm are fixed inside. The steel bars are first soaked in 10%
ammonium citrate solution for 3–5 days to remove the oxide film and then rinsed with distilled water. Polishing the steel bars with
sandpaper, cleaning them with 95 % acetone and putting it into the dryer for using. The thickness of the protective layer of the
specimen was 14 mm, and the steel bars at both ends are exposed with 10 mm length. The schematic diagram of the specimen is shown
in Fig. 1. After the specimen is prepared and cured for 24 h, the mold is removed and the exposed part of the reinforcement is sealed
with epoxy resin adhesive. The surface of the specimen is covered with a polyethylene film to prevent water losing. And the specimens
are cured to the specified age under natural conditions.

2.3. Specimen preparation for micro analysis of steel corrosion

The HPB235 grade circular steel bars with diameter of 8 mm were processed into steel sheets with thickness of 2 mm. Soaking the
steel sheets in 10 % ammonium citrate solution for 3–5 days to remove the surface oxide scale, taking them out and rinsing them with
water. The specimens were dried with a towel and put in an oven at about 100 ℃ for 10 min. After polishing with sandpaper, the
grease was removed with anhydrous ethanol and wrapped with plastic wrap. The size of cement paste specimen is
40 mm × 40 mm × 160 mm shown in Fig. 2.

2.4. Test method

The experiment was carried out referring to literatures [23–25]. After curing the specimen for 28 days, the two bottom surfaces of
the specimen were sealed with epoxy resin adhesive to achieve two-dimensional carbonation treatment of the specimen. During the
carbonation process, the carbon dioxide concentration in the carbonation box is controlled within the range of 20 ± 3 %, the tem­
perature are set at 20 ± 5 ℃ and the humidity range is 70 ± 5 %. Beginning putting into the carbonation box, the specimen was
removed and cut laterally every 7 days to test the carbonation depth. In the test, the surface powder was blown off with the ear ball, the
phenolphthalein reagent was sprayed on the cross section, and the carbonation depth was measured with a vernier caliper after
standing for color development. About 21 days, the carbonation of the pure slurry specimen has been basically completed. To ensure
the complete carbonation, the carbonation time was extended to 28 days.
The method of determining the corrosion area ratio is as following, the steel bars were taken out of the split mortar specimen and
the corroded part was described and blackened with transparent sulfuric acid test paper. The area of the corroded part was obtained by
the image analysis program, and the corrosion area ratio of the steel bars was calculated. The corrosion area ratio can be calculated,
s
P= × 100% (1)
so

where P is the corrosion area ratio of the surface of bars, S is the corrosion area of steel bars, and S0 is the original surface area of steel
bars.
The mass loss measuring method follows that, the steel bars were weighed after removed from the split sample specimen. They were
soaked in a 10 % concentration of ammonium citrate solution to remove rust and then weighed again. The mass loss of the steel bars
was calculated [26]. The mass loss can be calculated as following,
mo − m
R= × 100% (2)
mo

where R is the mass loss ratio, m0 is the original mass of steel bars, and m is the mass of steel bars after rust removed.

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of micro test specimen.

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The half-cell potentiometer produced by GIATEC company was used in the experiment. The natural potential of reinforcement
should be measured according to corresponding standards, and the corrosion current should be measured regularly [27].
A two-electrode system was used in the linear polarization method: the working electrode and the auxiliary electrode. The po­
larization interval is ± 10 mV relative to the open circuit potential, and the linear polarization scanning rate is 9 mV/min.
For the microscopic test, the specimens in carbonation, chloride salt and compound environment were cured for one year and then
split. With the steel sheets taken out, the cement slurry on the surface of the steel sheets was gently cleaned with a brush. The specimen
was washed with deionization and acetone filled with argon, and blown dry with argon. Then they were analyzed by XPS.

3. Test results and analysis

3.1. The corrosion area ratio and mass loss ratio of steel bars

After being cured for 360 days, the specimens were split to take out the steel bars. The corrosion area ratio and mass loss ratio of
steel bars of specimens were measured, and the results are shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. The horizontal axis of the figures shows the
experimental groups including different percentages of chloride erosion environments, different percentages of chloride salt in
carbonation environment and compound environment. As shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4, the steel bars had different degree of corrosion
under carbonation, chloride erosion and compound environment respectively. The most obvious corrosion happens in the compound
environment with 1.5 % chloride mixing. In this case, the corrosion area ratio reaches 90% and the mass loss degree being 1.03 %. In
groups with carbonation or chloride erosion individually acting, the corrosion area ratios of steel bars are more than 20 %, and the
mass loss degrees of steel bars are more than 0.3 %. With the increase in chloride concentration, the corrosion area ratio and mass loss
degree of steel bars increased obviously together with the corrosion degree. In contrast, the corrosion area ratio and mass loss degree of
steel bars with only internal chloride salt are lower than those in a compound environment. It indicates that the combined effect of
carbonation and chloride is more obvious than that of only chloride. In addition, under these three environments and the addition of
sodium nitrite rust inhibitor, the steel bars also appear to have a certain degree of corrosion. But the corrosion area ratio and mass loss
degree were much lower than that in the same environment without the addition of rust inhibitor, and corrosion was significantly
inhibited. Under the conditions of 0.5 %, 1 % and 1.5 % chloride salt environment, the corrosion area ratio of steel bars is decreased by
70 %, 70.4 % and 73 % compared with that without rust inhibitor. The corrosion area ratio of steel bars in the compound environment
is decreased by 58.8 %, 70 % and 64.1 % compared with that without rust inhibitor. It shows that the nitrite can have a better effect on
rust inhibition in the environment than that chloride salt individually acting.

3.2. Evaluation of corrosion by spontaneous potential method

The casted specimens were cured according to the conditions specified in the test scheme, and the spontaneous potential was
measured every one month. The relationship of spontaneous potential of steel bars with regard to critical periods are shown in Fig. 5
and Fig. 6.
With the increasing of curing age, the spontaneous potential of steel bars in three kinds of environments decreased continuously.
The spontaneous potential of carbonation or chloride individually acting is higher than that under the compound condition, and it
begins to fall below − 350 mV by the second month. However, the spontaneous potential of steel bars under the compound condition

Fig. 3. Corrosion area ratio of surface of steel bars/%.

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Fig. 4. Mass loss ratio of steel bars/%.

Fig. 5. Spontaneous potential of steel under carbonation, chloride and compound condition.

Fig. 6. The effect of corrosion inhibitor on spontaneous potential under carbonation and chloride.

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starts to be lower than − 350 mV when the curing age reaches 7 days. It indicates that the steel bars under the compound condition
already have the risk of corrosion in the early curing, and the potential value decreases obviously with curing age. With the increase of
chloride salt content, the spontaneous potential curve declines quick which indicates that the corrosion ratio of steel bars increases
with the chloride salt concentration increasing. The corrosion degree accelerates and the corrosion rate is the fastest under the
compound action.
Fig. 6(a) and Fig. 6(b) show the effect of corrosion inhibitor on the spontaneous potential of steel bars under carbonation and
chloride conditions respectively. Under the carbonation acting, the spontaneous potential of steel bars in the specimens with corrosion
inhibitor is in the range of − 150 mV to − 350 mV, and that in the specimens without corrosion inhibitor is in the range of − 300 mV to
− 450 mV. It indicates that the addition of corrosion inhibitor can significantly increase the spontaneous potential. Under the chloride
environment, the spontaneous potential of steel bars in the specimens with corrosion inhibitor is higher than that in the specimens
without corrosion inhibitor. Among them, the spontaneous potential of the steel bars with 1.5 % chloride and corrosion inhibitor is
even higher than that with a chloride salt content of 0.5 % without rust inhibitor. It can be drawn from literature [4] that sodium nitrite
rust inhibitor has a good effect on steel bars.

3.3. Evaluation of steel corrosion by linear polarization method

The spontaneous potential method can determine whether the steel bars are corroded by measuring the self-corroded potential.
However, the parameters are possibly affected by the environmental temperature and humidity, the thickness of the concrete pro­
tective layer, the concrete material and the surface condition of the steel bars. It is easy to cause the data dispersing to influence the
measuring accuracy. In order to study the corrosion of rebar under the condition of chloride salt and carbonation and to better analyze
the action process and mechanism, the linear polarization method [28] was adopted to evaluate the corrosion of steel bars in the
experiment.
Fig. 7 is the polarization curve of the specimen without rust inhibitor under carbonation conditions. The corrosion potential of steel
bars decreases gradually as curing age increases. Table 1 shows the results of the Tafel fitting calculation curve. According to the
literature [29,30], the corrosion trend of steel bars can be reflected by the self-corrosion potential. When the corrosion potential moves
negatively, the corrosion rate of steel bars accelerates and the corrosion of steel bars is more likely to occur. According to Table 1, the
slope of the anode region (βa) decreases gradually. The larger the slope of the anode region, the smaller the change speed of the current
(I) at the same polarization potential (ΔE), the greater the resistance encountered by the electrode in the anode dissolution process, and
the slower the corrosion speed. It can be seen from Table 1 that in the early stages of corrosion, the corrosion rate of steel bars is low.
The corrosion rate increases at first and then decreases with the corrosion time increasing. The reason for the increase in corrosion rate
may be that, the alkalinity around the passivation film decreases with the carbonation depth increasing. The passivation film without
protection appears damage and the corrosion of steel bars begins to accelerate. The reason for the decrease in the corrosion rate is that
the development of the corrosion layer limits the corrosion rate.
Fig. 8 shows the influence of rust inhibitor on the Tafel curve under the condition of 1.0 % chloride salt, and Table 2 lists the results
of the Tafel fitting calculation curve. Among them, Nitrite-7 d and Chloride-7 d respectively represent the curing age of 7 days of
Nitrite chloride specimens and chloride specimens without Nitrite. At each curing age, the corrosion potential and the slope of the
polarization curve in the anode region of the specimens with nitrite addition are significantly higher than those without nitrite
addition. It indicates that the addition of rust inhibitor may improve the corrosion resistance of steel bars, reduce the corrosion rate of
steel bars and inhibit the corrosion of steel bars well. It can be seen from the Tafel curves of Chloride-7 d, Chloride-28 d and Chloride-
270 d that the corrosion potential of the chloride corroded reinforcement increases gradually with the curing age increasing. It

Fig. 7. Tafel curve under carbonation condition.

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Table 1
Fitting results of Tafel curve extrapolation under carbonation condition.
Groups Corrosion current/(A/cm2) Corrosion potential/V βa/mA βc/mV Corrosion rate/(mm/y) Electrical impedance/Ω cm2)
8 5
Carbonation-7 d 6.02 × 10− -0.0540 161.83 36.18 6.99 × 10− 1.16 × 106
8 5
Carbonation-28 d 7.64 × 10− -0.0039 147.93 58.97 8.86 × 10− 8.38 × 105
8 5
Carbonation-270 d 1.95 × 10− -0.1187 139.46 18.93 2.26 × 10− 3.09 × 106

Fig. 8. Effect of corrosion inhibitor on Tafel curve with 1.0 % chloride.

Table 2
Fitting results of Tafel curve extrapolation under chloride condition.
Groups Corrosion current/(A/cm2) Corrosion potential/V βa/mA βc/mV Corrosion rate/(mm/y) Electrical impedance/(Ω cm2)
8 5
Chloride-7 d 1.66 × 10− 0.1184 128.53 63.26 1.35 × 10− 2.43 × 106
8 5
Chloride-28 d 2.57 × 10− -0.1440 127.32 35.24 2.99 × 10− 2.13 × 106
7 5
Chloride-270 d 3.22 × 10− 0.1095 114.34 32.44 3.54 × 10− 4.38 × 106
8 5
Nitrite-7 d 2.57 × 10− -0.0944 89.10 41.55 2.98 × 10− 2.17 × 106
8 5
Nitrite-28 d 2.44 × 10− -0.0539 114.50 24.22 2.65 × 10− 3.41 × 106
8 5
Nitrite-270 d 2.13 × 10− -0.0139 77.93 38.97 4.37 × 10− 5.38 × 106

indicates that the steel bars have a higher corroding risk in the early curing stage. Listed in Table 2, the corrosion rate of steel bars
increases first and then decreases. It because the rusting and dissolving of steel bars surface under the effect of chloride ions needs a
process. At the same time, the internal moisture of concrete specimens is higher, the balancing between the internal and external
humidity also needs some time. Therefore, in the early stage of curing age, the corrosion rate increases. With the increase of curing age,
the corrosion degree of steel bars increases, and the formation and development of corrosion layers makes the following corrosion rate
decrease. The change state is similar to that under carbonation.
The polarization curves of carbonation conditions, chloride salt conditions and combined action are shown in Fig. 9, and Table 3
lists the result of the Tafel curve fitting calculation. For the chloride environment, only 0.5 %, 1.0 % and 1.5 % of chloride concen­
tration were considered. For the compound environment, the specimen with 1.5 % chloride salt content and carbonation treatment
were considered. The shape and development trend of the Tafel curve in the compound environment are similar to those of chloride or
carbonation acting individually, but the corrosion potential value is low. It indicates that the corrosion resistance of steel bars in the
compound environment is poor. At the same time, compared with carbonation or chloride salt acting individually, the corrosion rate is
lower under the compound condition. It indicates that the more serious corrosion of steel bars slows down the corrosion in a certain
degree. It can be concluded that the corrosion is the most serious under the compound condition, and the conclusion is consistent with
that shown in Fig. 3 and Fig. 4. In addition, we noticed that the corrosion current in the table is lower compared to the corrosion of steel
bars in concrete, which means that the corrosion rate of steel bars is slower and the calculated electrical impedance is higher.
Compared with the concrete specimen, the cement slurry specimen in this experiment can avoid the interference of coarse aggregate on
the corrosion degree of steel bars. In the early stage of curing, the porosity of the cement slurry specimen is low, and the cement slurry
layer can better protect the steel bars. In the later stage of curing, the formation of the corrosion layer limits the corrosion rate of the
steel bar, which makes the measured corrosion current lower and the calculated electrical impedance higher.

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Fig. 9. Tafel curve under the action of carbonation and chloride alone and in combination.

Table 3
Fitting results of Tafel curve extrapolation under compound conditions.
Groups Corrosion current/(A/cm2) Corrosion potential/V βa/mA βc/mV Corrosion rate/(mm/y) Electrical impedance/(Ω cm2)
− 8 − 5
Carbonation 1.95 × 10 -0.1187 139.46 18.93 2.26 × 10 3.09 × 106
8 5
Chloride-0.5 % 1.90 × 10− -0.0041 91.83 36.18 5.99 × 10− 7.16 × 106
8 5
Chloride-1.0 % 2.13 × 10− -0.0139 77.93 38.97 4.37 × 10− 5.38 × 106
8 5
Chloride-1.5 % 2.95 × 10− -0.0661 49.46 22.45 7.26 × 10− 6.09 × 106
8 5
Compound-1.5 % 6.24 × 10− -0.0739 44.50 24.22 4.65 × 10− 4.41 × 106

3.4. XPS analysis of steel corrosion under combined action of carbonation and chloride

Fig. 10 (a) shows the XPS full-scan spectrum diagram of steel bars corrosion at 5 nm under the combined condition both of
carbonation and chloride salt erosion. It can be seen that the main elements on the surface of steel bar corrosion under the combined
action are oxygen, iron, calcium, silicon, carbon and chlorine. The contents of iron, oxygen, carbon and calcium are relatively high,
which is similar to the main elements of steel bar corrosion caused by chloride salt erosion and carbonation. The difference in Fe2p
binding energy indicates that the specific composition of iron oxides is various under different environments.
Fig. 10 (b) shows the XPS peak fitting map of iron at 5 nm of the corrosion under the compound condition of carbonation and
chloride salt. Table 4 lists the relative contents of corresponding compounds. It can be seen that the double peaks of Fe2p can be fitted
into five peak curves. The corresponding iron compounds at 5 nm are Fe3+-Ca2SiO4, Fe2O3 and FeO, and the corresponding contents
are 18.90 %, 68.11 % and 12.99 % respectively. Under the compound environments, the content of iron oxide is the highest in the
composition of steel corrosion, and the content of double salt generated by the reaction of cement gelatin material is obviously
reduced. Because the corrosion induces the electron loss of FeO and Fe2O3 on the passivation membrane to generate the iron ion. The
passive film becomes unstable after damage and on the surface is porous. Furthermore, the electrochemical reaction happens under the

Fig. 10. XPS scanning of chloride corrosion and carbonation.

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Table 4
XPS fitting data of Fe element on the surface of steel corrosion under chloride and carbonation conditions.
Component Fe 2penergy level Binding energy/mV Half peak width/mV Peak area/(eV)2 Relative content/%

Fe3+-Ca2SiO4 Fe 2p3/2 712.7 3.44 8749.3 18.90

Fe 2p1/2 726.3 3.24 3384.4
Fe2O3 Fe 2p3/2 710.0 3.17 23,058.5 68.11
Fe 2p1/2 723.6 2.99 9448.2
Fe 2p3/2 715.5 4.15 6382.8
Fe 2p1/2 729.1 4.55 4838.2
FeO Fe 2p3/2 707.1 1.75 5028.3 12.99
Fe 2p1/2 720.7 3.24 3311.1

effect of chloride salt. Pure Fe generates Fe2 + in the effect of chloride ion, which makes the relative content of Fe3+/Fe2+ increase.

4. Conclusions

The effects of carbonation, chloride salt and compound environmental action both of them on the corrosion resistance of steel bars
in cement paste were investigated. The main findings could be summarized as following,

(1) In the chloride environment, the increase in the concentration of the internal chloride salt significantly raises the corrosion area
ratio and the mass loss degree. The spontaneous potential curve has a larger decline slope, indicating that the chloride salt
concentration is directly proportional to the corrosion degree of the steel bars. In the early age stage, sufficient moisture inside
the concrete leads to a faster corrosion rate and a higher risk of corrosion. With the destruction of the passive film on the surface
of the steel bars and the balance of internal and external humidity, the corrosion rate tends to be stable. In the following curing
stage, with the increase on the corrosion degree of the steel bars and the formation of the corrosion layer, the corrosion rate
decreases.
(2) Under the carbonation condition, the corrosion potential of steel bars gradually decreases with the carbonation age. In the early
stage of carbonation, the corrosion rate of steel bars is very low. As the carbonation depth increases, the alkalinity around the
passive film decreases and damage occurs, and the steel bars begin to corrode. The developing of the corrosion layer on steel
bars in the later stage limits the corrosion rate. The transition state is similar to that under chloride salt conditions.
(3) Under the combined action of carbonation and chloride salt, the corrosion area ratio, mass loss degree, spontaneous potential
and corrosion potential of the steel bars are clearly different from that under the individual environment. Corrosion of steel bars
is the most serious under compound conditions. The corrosion products are mainly iron oxides, and the content from high to low
is Fe2O3, Fe3+-Ca2SiO4 and FeO. The corrosion of steel bars induces electron loss of FeO and Fe2O3 on the surface of the passive
film to generate iron ions. The passive film becomes unstable, loose and porous after being damaged. The electrochemical
reaction under the action of the chloride salt promotes the Fe element to become Fe2+, which increases the relative content of
Fe3+/Fe2+. Under the compound action, the steel bars have the risk of corroding in the early curing stage, and the corrosion rate
is greater than that under individual environmental action. In the latter stage, the corrosion rate decreases due to the severe
corrosion of the steel bars and the presence of a large amount of rust.
(4) Under all three environmental influence conditions, the steel bars corrode to a certain extent in the specimens with sodium
nitrite rust inhibitor, but the corrosion area ratio and mass loss degree are much lower than the specimens without rust inhibitor
under the same environment. The spontaneous potential value and the corrosion potential value are higher than those of the
same type of specimens without rust inhibitor. The corrosion rate decreases and the corrosion of steel bars is obviously sup­
pressed, which indicates that nitrite improves the corrosion resistance of steel bars and has a good anti-rust effect.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data Availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Acknowledgments

This work was sponsored by National Natural Science Foundation of China [No. 52178223, 51878360, 51778302], Ningbo Science
and Technology Project [202002N3117] and Ningbo Natural Science Foundation [202003N4136, 202003N4137].

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