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Solar Energy 105 (2014) 381–389
www.elsevier.com/locate/solener

Balancing heat transfer fluid flow in solar fields

Mohammad Abutayeh ⇑, Anas Alazzam, Bashar El-Khasawneh
Khalifa University, PO Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Received 23 September 2013; received in revised form 5 March 2014; accepted 21 March 2014
Available online 6 May 2014

Communicated by: Associate Editor Yogi Goswami

Abstract

Proper distribution of heat transfer fluid in solar fields remains an issue for the concentrated solar power industry. Balancing fluid
flow in solar fields is very challenging due to their complex piping networks. It is further exacerbated by the instantaneously and spatially
varying solar radiation necessitating continuous flow adjustments to control heat transfer fluid temperature. Poorly balanced solar fields
entail over and under heating of a fairly costly heat transfer fluid; thus, shortening its life span and the life span of equipment handling it
due to frequent thermal shocks. Proper distribution of heat transfer fluid will eventually minimize equipment malfunction, maximize
solar power generation, and improve operational safety. A flow control strategy aimed at properly distributing heat transfer fluid in solar
fields has been developed along with a model for the proposed strategy. The strategy consists of manipulating solar field valve positions
to control flow distribution and modulating pump speed to control flow rate in response to a continually varying solar radiation in order
to attain a set temperature for heat transfer fluid exiting the solar field.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Concentrated solar power; Parabolic trough collector; Heat transfer fluid; Solar field

1. Introduction to process it in a Rankine cycle power block (PB). The

Parabolic trough collector (PTC) is the most economical
and commercially available concentrating solar power
(CSP) technology. PTC systems include numerous para-
bolic trough mirrors tracking the sun on a single axis. A
heat transfer fluid (HTF) flows in the focal line of the
troughs collecting solar heat that is transferred to high
pressure water generating high pressure steam. The solar-
generated steam is then used to propel a steam turbine con-
nected to a generator producing electricity (Schindwoff
et al., 1980).
A streamlined schematic of a generic PTC type CSP
plant is shown in Fig. 1. The Plant includes two segregated
loops: an HTF loop collecting solar heat in a solar field
(SF) and a water loop receiving that collected solar heat
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +971 2 501 8470; fax: +971 2 447 2442.
E-mail address: mohammad.abutayeh@kustar.ac.ae (M. Abutayeh).
loops of a SF are structurally identical; therefore, HTF
needs to be distributed equally among the loops to opti-
mize solar energy collection during normal operating con-
ditions. So, a manual control valve is typically placed at the
entrance of each loop to manage the distribution of HTF
among the loops of the SF.
HTF absorbs solar heat by flowing inside blackened
pipes placed inside vacuumed envelops running in the focal
line of the sun-tracking collectors. HTF exit temperature is
controlled by manipulating its residence time in SF loops
by adjusting its flow rate. Consequently, total HTF flow
is determined by the speed of its circulation pump, whereas
HTF loop flow is determined by pressure drop across the
loop that can be adjusted by varying loop inlet valve posi-
tion. A simplified SF layout of a PTC type CSP plant is
shown in Fig. 2.
A robust heat exchanger train (HXT) made up of an
economizer, an evaporator, and a super heater is connected

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2014.03.025
0038-092X/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
382 M. Abutayeh et al. / Solar Energy 105 (2014) 381–389

Nomenclature

a azimuth angle, radians P pressure, bar

A area, m2 PB Power block
AT altitude transverse, radians PTC parabolic trough collector
AW PTC aperture width, m q heat flow, W
C PTC mirror cleanliness, percent RD PTC row distance, m
Cv valve flow coefficient Re Reynolds number
CSP concentrating solar power S speed, m/s
D diameter, m SA shadow argument
Day day of year, day SD solar day, day
DCS distributed control system SF solar field
DII direct incident insolation, W/m2 SG specific gravity
DNI direct normal insolation, W/m2 SH solar hour, h
f friction factor SP set point
FC flow controller T temperature, °C
FL PTC focal length, m TC temperature controller
FT flow transmitter TC time correction term, minute
G generator Tilt PTC tilt angle, radians
h enthalpy, kJ/kg TT temperature transmitter
HA hour angle, radians TZ time zone, h
Hour hour of day, h U overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2-°C
HTF heat transfer fluid v volumetric flow, m3/s
HXT heat exchanger train VFD variable frequency drive
IA incident angle, radians VP valve position
IAM incident angle modifier, percent a altitude angle, radians
‘ longitude angle, degrees d declination angle, radians
L length, m e pipe roughness, m
m mass flow rate, kg/s g efficiency, percent
n counter k latitude angle, radians
N count l viscosity, cP
NPSH net positive suction head, m q density, kg/m3
Orientation PTC orientation angle, radians

in series where water and HTF flow in a counter-current
pattern. High pressure water enters the economizer to be
heated to near saturation then evaporated to steam in the
evaporator then turned into superheated steam in the super
heater before it is forwarded to a steam turbine to generate
power. Hot HTF coming from the SF flows through the
HXT giving up its heat to the water loop to produce the
desired high pressure steam before it is pumped back to
the SF. An expansion vessel is placed before the HTF
pump to accommodate extra HTF volume produced by
its thermal expansion in the SF and to provide the neces-
sary elevation head for the HTF pump to overcome its
net positive suction head (NPSH).
Typically, SF header pipes resemble an H shape with
loops branching out in opposite directions forming a geo-
metrically symmetrical layout. The PB is usually placed
in the middle of the SF to simplify HTF distribution, min-
imize pump load, and minimize the amount of HTF needed
to fill the piping network. The PB zone includes the HTF
expansion vessel, HTF circulation pump, HXT, and other
auxiliary equipment as well as the Rankine cycle
components such as the turbine, condenser, feedwater
pump, deaerator, and others. A typical H-shaped SF
layout of a PTC type CSP plant is shown in Fig. 3.
2. Background
A few researchers investigated the issue of HTF flow
balance in solar fields for the purpose of controlling its out-
let temperature. A computer simulation of HTF tempera-
ture control has been carried out by Schindwoff
(Schindwoff et al., 1980) where strict control requirements
were included in the control logic. A feedback control
scheme was developed where a flow control valve was
manipulated based on HTF temperature in each row of
collectors. Another computer simulation of HTF tempera-
ture control via flow manipulation was set up by Zunft
(Zunft, 1995) where the dynamics of a collector loop were
modeled by a set of nonlinear first order hyperbolic partial
differential equations. A feedforward controller was
 M. Abutayeh et al. / Solar Energy 105 (2014) 381–389 383

Fig. 1. Schematic of a PTC type CSP plant.

Fig. 2. SF layout of a PTC type CSP plant.

PB

Fig. 3. H-shaped SF layout of a PTC type CSP plant.

included in the simulation to mitigate the effect of irregular 3. Objective

solar radiation.
A linear model of a predictive controller has been devel-
oped to regulate HTF outlet temperature in SEGS VI,
which is a 30 MWe PTC type CSP plant (Stuetzle et al.,
2004). The performance of the controller and its influence
on power output have also been examined. In addition, a
detailed list of different automatic control schemes applied
to regulate HTF outlet temperature from solar fields was
compiled in a two part comprehensive review (Camacho
et al., 2007a,b).
The amount of power generated in a concentrated solar
power plant is directly proportional to the amount and
energy of steam expanding through the turbine. The
amount and energy of solar steam generated depends on
the magnitude of heat transfer from the HTF loop into
the water loop. The temperature gradient between the
HTF and water is the driving force for that heat transfer;
therefore, maximizing the outlet HTF temperature from
the solar field entails maximizing solar power generation.
384 M. Abutayeh et al. / Solar Energy 105 (2014) 381–389
8
Poor distribution of HTF among loops causes tube rup- >
> Day; 0  Hour þ TC=60  24
>
>
tures due to over-heating, underperformance due to under- >
< Day  1; Hour þ TC=60 < 0 AND Day > 1
>
heating, and equipment malfunction due to thermal shocks
SD ¼ Day þ 364; Hour þ TC=60 < 0 AND Day  1
brought by oscillating fluid temperatures. Better control of >
>
>
> Day þ 1; Hour þ TC=60 > 24 AND Day < 365
HTF flow and distribution would result in safer operation, >
>
:
increased electric generation, and decreased equipment 1; Hour þ TC=60 > 24 AND Day  365
breakdown. ð2Þ
The purpose of this endeavor is to develop a flow bal-
ance strategy to regulate HTF flow so as to maximize its SH is the solar hour used to calculate the annual solar
SF outlet temperature by using solar radiation as a feedfor- hour and is given by
8
ward signal and outlet temperature as a feedback signal to
< Hour þ TC=60; 0  Hour þ TC=60  24
>
a closed loop controller. HTF has a large residence time in SH ¼ 24 þ Hour þ TC=60; Hour þ TC=60 < 0 ð3Þ
SF loops due to their outsized structure making sole feed- >
:
back control inadequate; therefore, feedforward control Hour þ TC=60  24; Hour þ TC=60 > 24
has to be incorporated into the sought after HTF flow bal- Declination, hour, altitude, azimuth, and altitude trans-
ance strategy. verse solar angles are given by
d ¼ sin1 ½0:39795  cos ð0:98563ðp=180ÞðSD  173ÞÞ ð4Þ
4. Calculation
HA ¼ ðp=180Þ  15  ðSH  12Þ ð5Þ
1
Initially, solar heat input into each loop is calculated a ¼ sin ½sinðdÞ  sinðkÞ þ cosðdÞ  cosðHAÞ  cosðkÞ ð6Þ
based on weather data and loop characteristics. HTF 8 1
>
> p  sin ð cosðdÞ  sinðHAÞ= cosðaÞÞ; cosðHAÞ
flow rate in each loop is then calculated based on solar >
<  tanðdÞ= tanðTCÞ
heat input and desired exit temperature. Total HTF a¼ ð7Þ
flow rate in the SF is subsequently calculated by sum- >
> 2p þ sin1 ð cosðdÞ  sinðHAÞ= cosðaÞÞ; cosðHAÞ
>
:
ming up all of the loop flow rates. Pressure at each < tanðdÞ= tanðTCÞ
node of the SF is calculated next based on HTF prop- (
a; ja  pj < 1
erties and pipe characteristics. Finally, the valve position  
AT ¼ ðaÞ ð8Þ
of each loop inlet valve can be determined based on tan1 jcostan
ðp=2þaÞj
; ja  pj  1
loop inlet and outlet pressures to produce the pressure
drop necessary to attain the calculated HTF flow rate SA is the shadow argument needed to evaluate shadow
in each loop. effects on incident solar radiation. SA is a function of PTC
The following solar calculations were presented in ear- row distance and aperture width plus the altitude trans-
lier work concerning solar thermal power plant simulation verse solar angle
(Abutayeh et al., 2012) and are taken from research find- RD
ings done at Sandia National Laboratories (Lippke, 1995; SA ¼  cosðp=2  ATÞ ð9Þ
AW
Cohen et al., 1999).
Shadow efficiency is a multiplier used to adjust incident
TC is a time correction term needed to adjust regular
solar radiation to account for PTC shadow eclipsing the SF
time to solar time. TC is a function of time zone, longitude
around sunrise and sunset
angle, and day of year and is estimated by
8
  > 1; SA  1
4p <
TC ¼ 4ð15TZ  ‘Þ þ 9:87 sin  ðDay  81Þ  7:53 gShadow ¼ 0; SA < 0 ð10Þ
365 >
  :
2p SA; 0  SA < 1
 cos  ðDay  81Þ  1:5
365 IA is the incident angle defined as the angle between
 
2p solar beams and the line normal to the PTC aperture. It
sin  ðDay  81Þ ð1Þ
365 is constantly changing and can be calculated by

qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
IA ¼ cos ð 1  ðcosð  TiltÞ  cosðTiltÞ  cosðÞ  ð1  cosða  OrientationÞÞÞ2 Þ
1
ð11Þ

SD is the solar day which is also needed to adjust regular IAM is the incident angle modifier multiplier used to
time to solar time and is given by adjust incident solar radiation to account for direct and
 M. Abutayeh et al. / Solar Energy 105 (2014) 381–389
indirect losses due to incident angle. IAM can be estimated
by the following correlation
IAM ¼ cosðIAÞ  0:0300802842443682  IA
 0:0938882616103359  IA 2
End loss efficiency is a multiplier used to adjust incident
solar radiation to account for radiation incident on and
reflected off PTC periphery that does not land on the
absorber
FLPTC
gEnd Loss ¼ 1   tanðIAÞ
LPTC
Absolute efficiency is the overall multiplier used to
adjust incident solar radiation given by
gAbsolute ¼ gOptical  gShadow  gEnd Loss  C Mirror  IAM
Solar radiation sensors measure direct normal irradi-
ance (DNI) and forward its value to the distributed control
system (DCS) to be used for control purposes. Direct
incident irradiance (DII) represents the solar radiation
available for exploitation. It is a ration of DNI and can
be determined by
DII ¼ gAbsolute  DNI
If spatial variation of solar radiation is not an issue,
DNI and DII given above pertain to all of the SF loops.
CSP plants usually have a few weather stations measuring
DNI and their output is averaged to yield a DNI value
intended for the entire SF. This will result in an even
distribution of HTF among all of the loops since they are
structurally identical and are exposed to equal amounts
of solar radiation.
If spatial variation of solar radiation is significant due to
frequent cloud covers, DNI and DII given above pertain to
individual loops. If that is the case, CSP plants need to
install DNI sensors on all the loops to give individualized
DNI readings. This will result in an uneven distribution
of HTF among the loops since they are structurally
identical but are exposed to different amounts of solar
radiation.
The above DII equation reflects the first scenario where
DNI applies to all of the SF loops. If the second scenario is
desired, then the above DII equation needs to be written
for each loop. Explicitly: DIILoop 1 = gAbsoluteDNILoop 1,
DIILoop 2 = gAbsoluteDNILoop 2, . . ., DIILoop n = gAbsolute-
DNILoop n. This will depict the spatial variation of solar
radiation within the SF and will result in different HTF
flow rates in SF loops, as will be evident later, to attain a
set temperature for HTF exiting the solar field.
Solar heat absorbed in one loop can be calculated by
qDII
Loop ¼ N PTC per Loop  LPTC  AW PTC  DII
HTF flow required to attain that set HTF exit tempera-
ture in each loop is calculated by
385
Pipe Loss
qDII
Loop  qLoop  qPTC
Loop
Loss
mLoop ¼ ð17Þ
1000  ðhOut In
HTF  hHTF Þ
HTF enthalpy is a function of its temperature, hHTF =
ð12Þ f(THTF), and that function is usually provided by the
HTF manufacture. Outlet HTF enthalpy is evaluated at
its desired set exit temperature, while inlet HTF enthalpy
is evaluated at its SF inlet temperature which is a known
design parameter. Pipe heat loss applies to the insulated
pipe portion of the loop and can be easily calculated using:
qPipe Loss = UPipeAPipeDT. PTC heat loss applies to the
ð13Þ exposed portion of the loop, aka the absorber, and can
be estimated using functions usually provided by the
absorber manufacture. PTC heat loss is a function of
absorber surface area, wind speed, and temperature gradi-
ent, qPTC Loss = f (APTC, SWind, DT). The aforementioned
ð14Þ
temperature gradient, DT, refers to the difference between
the average HTF temperature and ambient temperature.
Total HTF mass flow rate provided by the HTF pump is
calculated by summing up all loop flows
X
mPump ¼ mLoop ð18Þ
Loop HTF volumetric flow is needed to calculate inlet
ð15Þ valve flow coefficient and is calculated by
vLoop ¼ mLoop =qIn
HTF ð19Þ
Total HTF volumetric flow is needed to calculate HTF
inlet pressure and is calculated by
vPump ¼ mPump =qIn
HTF ð20Þ
HTF density is a function of its temperature, qHTF =
f(THTF), and that function is usually provided by the
HTF manufacture. Inlet HTF density is evaluated at its
SF inlet temperature which is a known design parameter.
Next, the piping network of the SF will be divided into
nodes where calculations will be performed at each node to
determine loop inlet and outlet conditions. A node is a
point in the piping network where HTF flow either splits
or merges. A node can also represent a point where pipe
diameter changes; however, that usually happens at points
where HTF flow either splits or merges anyway. HTF flow
splits from a supply header to feed SF loops and merges
with a return header to bring solar heat to the PB as illus-
trated in Fig. 2. To flow the right amount of HTF through
each loop, pressure should be calculated at all the nodes of
the piping network. The resultant pressure drop across
each loop is subsequently used to find all loop inlet valve
positions.
The diameter and total length of all the different parts of
the SF need to be obtained beforehand. Diameter refers to
pipe internal diameter, while total length refers to actual
ð16Þ plus equivalent lengths. Equivalent lengths for elbows, U-
turns, T-intersections, and others are widely available in lit-
erature. Pipe fittings and geometry should also be obtained
beforehand from detailed SF drawings and their equivalent
386 M. Abutayeh et al. / Solar Energy 105 (2014) 381–389
lengths added to actual lengths to get total lengths. Loops
consist of varying pipe segments; however, it is reasonable
to assume an average loop diameter since all loops are
identical.
Total length of each pipe segment between nodes along
the supply and return headers is given by
X velocity and can be estimated using the Darcy–Weisbach
LTotal ¼ LActual þ LEquivalent ð21Þ
HTF mass flow rate of each pipe segment between nodes
along the supply header is calculated by
X
n1
mnSupply Header ¼ mPump  mLoop ð22Þ
1 lished charts. The Moody approximation of the
For example, HTF mass flow rate at the node feeding
Loop 48 is equal to the total HTF mass flow rate provided
by the HTF pump minus the sum of HTF mass flow rates
in Loop 1 though Loop 47.
HTF mass flow rate of each pipe segment between nodes
along the return header is calculated by
X
Last
mnReturn Header ¼ mLoop ð23Þ
n DSupply Header RenSupply Header
For example, HTF mass flow rate at the node reclaiming
Loop 48 is equal to the sum of HTF mass flow rates in
Loop 48 though the last loop.
It is worth mentioning that HTF mass flow rate at cor-
responding nodes on the supply and return header pipes
are equal. For example, HTF mass flow rate at the node
feeding Loop 48 equals HTF mass flow rate at the node
reclaiming Loop 48. Therefore, it is sufficient to compute
HTF mass flow rate along just one of the header pipes then
equate the results to the corresponding nodes of the other
header pipe. Explicitly
mnSupply Header ¼ mnReturn Header ð24Þ
HTF flow in the SF has to always remain turbulent in
order to have a uniform HTF temperature in the axial
direction. Uniform axial mixing will bring about the
accurate temperature measurement needed for optimum
control. Absorber manufactures specify a minimum HTF
flow rate to protect against tube ruptures due to overheat-
ing, which is caused by the low flow arising from erroneous
underestimated temperature measurement.
Reynolds number of each pipe segment between nodes
along the supply header pipe is calculated by
4  1000  mnSupply Header
RenSupply Header ¼ ð25Þ
p  DSupply Header  lIn
HTF
Reynolds number of each pipe segment between nodes
along the return header pipe is calculated by
4  1000  mnReturn Header
RenReturn Header ¼ ð26Þ
p  DReturn Header  lOut
HTF
HTF viscosity is a function of its temperature, lHTF =
f(THTF), and that function is usually provided by the
HTF manufacture. Outlet HTF viscosity is evaluated at
its desired set exit temperature, while inlet HTF viscosity
is evaluated at its SF inlet temperature which is a known
design parameter.
HTF pressure decreases along its header pipes and in SF
loops due to wall friction. The magnitude of this pressure
drop, also known as head loss, depends on average HTF
phenomenological equation. Furthermore, the Darcy–
Weisbach equation includes a dimensionless friction factor
that denotes pipe resistance to flow. That friction factor
can be estimated by various empirical and theoretical rela-
tions available in literature or it may be obtained from pub-
Colebrook–White equation is chosen to find the friction
factor along HTF header pipes for its simplicity.
Friction factor of each pipe segment between nodes
along the supply header pipe is calculated at turbulent con-
ditions by
n
fSupply Header ¼ 0:0055 þ 0:0055
" #13
Pipe 1; 000; 000
 20; 000  n þ
ð27Þ
Friction factor of each pipe segment between nodes
along the return header pipe is calculated at turbulent con-
ditions by
n
fReturn Header ¼ 0:0055 þ 0:0055
" #13
Pipe 1; 000; 000
 20; 000  n þ
DSupply Header RenReturn Header
ð28Þ
e is pipe absolute roughness, while e/D is pipe relative
roughness. Pipe roughness can be thought of as a flow
resistance and its value is widely available in literature
for different pipe materials. The piping network of the SF
is made up of the same material; therefore, the same pipe
roughness would be used for all of the different pipe
segments.
Pressure drop of each pipe segment between nodes along
the supply header pipe is calculated by the Darcy–Weis-
bach equation
n n n 2
fSupply Header  LSupply Header  mSupply Header
DP nSupply Header ¼ 5 5
qIn n
HTF  DSupply Header  10
ð29Þ
where LSupply Header refers to the total length, actual plus
equivalent, of pipe segments between nodes along the sup-
ply header pipe.
Pressure drop of each pipe segment between nodes along
the return header pipe is calculated by the Darcy–Weisbach
equation
 M. Abutayeh et al. / Solar Energy 105 (2014) 381–389
n n n 2
fReturn Header  LReturn Header  mReturn Header
DP nReturn Header ¼
qIn n 5
HTF  DReturn Header  10
where LReturn Header refers to the total length, actual plus
equivalent, of pipe segments between nodes along the
return header pipe.
HTF pressure at each node of the supply header pipe
equals HTF pressure at the previous node minus the pres-
sure drop of the pipe segment upstream of the current node
P nSupply Header ¼ P Supply
n1 n value is used to simplify calculations. HTF temperature,
Header  DP Supply Header
HTF pressure at each node of the return header pipe
equals HTF pressure at the previous node minus the pres-
sure drop of the pipe segment upstream of the current node
P nReturn Header ¼ P n1 n
Return Header  DP Return Header
The previous two equations show that a starting point is
needed to initiate the calculation of HTF pressure at all SF
nodes. HTF pressure at the first node of the supply header
pipe equals HTF pump outlet pressure which is a function
of its volumetric flow as given by its system curve,
PPump = f(vPump).
The system curve function is usually provided by the
pump manufacture. On the other hand, HTF pressure at
the first node of the return header pipe equals HTF pres-
sure at the last node of the supply header pipe minus the
pressure drop across the last SF loop. The inlet valve of
the last loop is fully open because no HTF is needed
beyond that point; therefore, its pressure drop contribution
can be ignored. Thus, the initial HTF pressure at the first
node of both header pipes can be found by
P 1Supply Header ¼ P Pump ¼ f ðvPump Þ
P 1Return Header ¼ P Last Last
Supply Header  DP Loop
HTF pressure at each SF node has been expressed; thus,
loop inlet and outlet HTF pressures are now known. Sub-
sequently, the pressure drop across SF loops should be
computed then used to find the desired pressure drop
across their inlet valves, PSupply Header  PReturn Header =
DPLoop + DPValve. The proper valve position of each loop
inlet valve can then be determined via its Cv curve.
Average Reynolds number of each SF loop is calculated
by
4  1000  mnLoop
RenLoop ¼
pD b Loop  l
^HTF
Friction factor of each SF loop is calculated at turbulent
conditions by the Moody approximation of the Cole-
brook–White equation
n get the most out of available solar radiation.
fLoop ¼ 0:0055 þ 0:0055
" #13
Pipe 1; 000; 000
 20; 000  þ ð36Þ
b Loop
D RenLoop
387
Pressure drop across each SF loop is calculated by the
5 Darcy–Weisbach equation
n
ð30Þ fLoop  LLoop  mLoop2
DP nLoop ¼ ð37Þ
^HTF  D
q b 5Loop  105
Average values for diameter, density, and viscosity are
used in the above loop calculations; however, that is con-
sidered sufficient since all SF loops are structurally identi-
cal. Diameter may slightly change within a loop due to
pipe connections between absorbers; therefore, an average
ð31Þ
and subsequently its density and viscosity, will be varying
within a SF loop as the HTF picks up solar heat while flow-
ing in the focal line of the collectors. Consequently, HTF
density and viscosity averaged between loop inlet and out-
let temperatures are used in the above loop calculations.
ð32Þ
Desired pressure drop across each loop inlet valve is cal-
culated by
DP nValve ¼ P nSupply Header  P nReturn Header  DP nLoop ð38Þ
The flow coefficient of each loop inlet valve can be cal-
culated by definition
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
SGIn
CvnValve ¼ 4162  vnLoop  HTF
ð39Þ
DP nValve
Finally, the valve position of each loop inlet valve can be
obtained from the value of its flow coefficient via a so-
called Cv curve function supplied by the valve manufacture
VPnValve ¼ f ðCvnValve Þ ð40Þ
Note that the valve position of the last loop is set as fully
open because no HTF is needed beyond the last loop;
ð33Þ therefore, CvValve and VPValve of last loop valve need not
to be calculated. Based on the equation expressing the ini-
ð34Þ tial HTF pressure at the first node of the return header pipe
given above, DPValve of the last loop valve will be zero
resulting in infinity CvValve and fully open VPValve.
5. Procedure
One of the most important measures in optimizing the
performance of PTC type CSP plants is proper distribution
of HTF within their SF. Poor HTF distribution results in
frequent thermal shocks of HTF equipment due to oscillat-
ing HTF temperatures caused by poor control of its flow in
response to changing DNI. In addition, poor HTF distri-
ð35Þ bution among SF loops will force the DCS to defocus some
PTC collectors to mitigate solar heat input so as to avoid
HTF overheating. Unnecessary defocusing amounts to fuel
dumping; therefore, proper HTF distribution among SF
loops is top priority for CSP plant operators in order to
The DCS seeks to maximize outlet HTF temperature
from the SF to maximize power generation as was men-
tioned earlier. This is very difficult to accomplish via a sim-
ple feedback control loop due to the large HTF residence
388 M. Abutayeh et al. / Solar Energy 105 (2014) 381–389
DNI Model
Fig. 4. HTF distribution control adapted for SF with no spatial variation.
time in the SF caused by its enormous size; therefore, feed-
forward control needs to be integrated into the outlet HTF
temperature control logic. Solar radiation level is the vari-
able that determines how much heat is going to be
absorbed by the HTF; hence, it will be input into the feed-
forward controller. Moreover, maximizing outlet HTF
temperature from the SF will be sought after by maximiz-
ing outlet HTF temperature from each SF loop. The outlet
HTF temperature control logic depends on the spatial var-
iation of solar radiation within the SF.
If spatial variation of solar radiation within the SF is
not an issue, a single DNI value is obtained for the entire
SF. HTF flow rate per loop is then obtained using the
above calculations. HTF flow rate in the entire SF is
obtained by multiplying its flow rate per loop with the
number of SF loops since HTF flow rate is identical in
every loop. HTF flow rate, Reynolds number, friction fac-
tor, and pressure drop along both header pipes are calcu-
lated using relations given above. Pressure at each node
along both header pipes is calculated progressively starting
with the initial HTF pressure at the first node of both
header pipes as detailed above. Finally, the valve position
of each loop inlet valve is obtained using its Cv value that
was obtained via the desired pressure differential across
each loop inlet valve. These valve positions remain the
same irrespective of solar radiation levels; therefore, man-
ual balancing valves can be used to regulate HTF flow
among loops since their valve position need to be set only
once. A variable frequency drive (VFD) connected to the
DNI Model
FT FC + TC
Fig. 5. HTF distribution control adapted for SF with spatial variation.
mPump TT
FT FC + TC SP
VFD
HTF pump can be used to modulate HTF total flow in
order to attain a set temperature for HTF exiting the SF.
Fig. 4 illustrates the HTF distribution control adapted
for a SF with no special DNI variation. Measured DNI
is used to generate the set point for the HTF flow feedfor-
ward controller using the above calculations, while a
desired HTF exit temperature is used as a set point for a
temperature feedback controller. The output of both con-
trollers are added and used to adjust the speed of the
HTF pump.
If spatial variation of solar radiation within the SF is an
issue, a unique DNI value is obtained for each loop within
the SF. HTF flow rate per loop is then obtained using the
above calculations. HTF flow rate in the entire SF is
obtained by summing up all of the loop flow rates. HTF
flow rate, Reynolds number, friction factor, and pressure
drop along both header pipes are calculated using relations
given above. Pressure at each node along both header pipes
is calculated progressively starting with the initial HTF
pressure at the first node of both header pipes as detailed
above. Finally, the valve position of each loop inlet valve
is obtained using its Cv value that was obtained via the
desired pressure differential across each loop inlet valve.
These valve positions are constantly varying due to the spa-
tially varying solar radiation; therefore, automatic balanc-
ing valves need to be used to regulate HTF flow among
loops since their valve position need constant adjustment.
A VFD connected to the HTF pump can be used to mod-
ulate HTF total flow in order to provide the necessary total
mPump
SP
TT FT FC
VFD
 M. Abutayeh et al. / Solar Energy 105 (2014) 381–389
flow. Fig. 5 illustrates the HTF distribution control
adapted for a SF with spatial DNI variation. Locally mea-
sured DNI is used to generate the set point for the HTF
loop flow feedforward controller using the above calcula-
tions, while a desired HTF loop exit temperature is used
as a set point for a temperature feedback controller. The
output of both controllers are added and used to adjust
the loop inlet valve position. The generated set points for
all HTF loops are totalized to generate a set point for
the HTF flow feedforward controller to adjust the speed
of the HTF pump.
6. Conclusion
A flow control strategy has been developed to properly
distribute HTF among the SF loops of a PTC type CSP
plant. The strategy entails manipulating inlet valve posi-
tions of SF loops to control flow distribution and modulat-
ing HTF pump speed to control flow rate in response to a
continually varying solar radiation in order to attain a set
temperature for HTF exiting the SF. The above equations
detail how measured solar radiation along with other fixed
variables can be used to calculate an optimum inlet valve
position for all SF loops.
If spatial variation of solar radiation within the SF is
not an issue, manual balancing valve positions are set once
and kept constant at all times because those valve positions
will guarantee even HTF distribution among all of the SF
loops irrespective of the magnitude of solar radiation. Out-
let HTF temperature from the SF is then regulated via a
HTF pump control logic comprising a DNI-driven flow
feedforward controller trimmed by a temperature feedback
controller. Hence, a process control loop is applied around
the entire SF as one global system with fixed inlet loop
valve positions.
If spatial variation of solar radiation within the SF is an
issue, automatic balancing valves are used because their
valve positions can be varied independently to control
HTF distribution among SF loops. Outlet HTF tempera-
ture from each SF loop is regulated via an inlet loop valve
control logic comprising a DNI-driven flow feedforward
controller trimmed by a temperature feedback controller.
389
Hence, a process control loop is independently applied
around each SF loop to manipulate its inlet loop valve
position. Furthermore, the HTF flow signals generated
by all the loops are totalized to generate a set point for
the flow feedforward controller of the HTF pump control
logic. This proposed HTF pump control logic does not
require a feedback controller since temperature is locally
controlled in SF loops.
HTF pump control logic will obviously include upper
and lower flow limits corresponding to pump and PTC
absorber limitations. Reaching the upper flow limit will
involve PTC defocusing to limit solar heat input, while
reaching the lower flow limit will result in reduced HTF
exit temperature. Spreadsheet simulations showed that
HTF flow varies linearly with solar radiation, m = a 
DII + b, while pressure drop across the entire SF varies
parabolically with solar radiation, DP = a  DII2 + b 
DII + c.
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