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Drama
As mentioned in the previous module, literature is quite complex and consists of a wide array of genres, including
poetry and fiction which were mentioned in the previous discussions. Drama, on the other hand, is another literary
genre with various characteristics which are distinct from the other types of literary works. In literature, drama is
definedas:
❖amodeoffictional representationthroughdialogueandperformance
❖atypeofplaywhich iswrittenfortheater,television,radioandfilm
❖acompositionintheformsofeitherverseorproseforthepurpose ofportrayinglifeorcharacterortellingastory
whichofteninvolvesconflictsandemotionsthrough actionanddialogue
❖itswriterisknownasdramatist orplaywright

TypesofDrama
Dramaisclassifiedintodifferent categoriesaccordingtomood,tone, andactionsshownintheplot.Belowaresome
ofthemostfamoustypesofdramawrittennowadays.

1.Comedy
Thisisknownto be a broad genre of film, television, and literature. Nonetheless, itsultimate goal is but simple – to
make the audience laugh. In order to achieve such goal, a playwright often uses quaint circumstances, unusual
characters, and witty remarks. What makes this category different from the other typesisthat its writer uses lighter
tone. Moreover, it is sometimes known to be sarcastic in nature as it has the tendency to make fun out of serious
topics. Thefollowingare the sub-genresofcomedy:
❖ romanticcomedy
– It focusesonlighthearted, humorousplot lineswhichare oftencentered onromantic ideaslikehowtruelove isable
toovercomemanyobstacles.
❖ sentimentalcomedy
- It beganin the18th centuryasa reactionto theimmoral toneofEnglish Restorationplay. Thissub-genreof comedy
focusesonthemiddle-classprotagonistswhoareabletosuccessfullyovercomea coupleof moral trials.
❖comedyofmanners
-It isalsoreferredtoastheanti-sentimental comedywhichwritesabout themannersandfeelingsofmodernsociety.
It alsoquestionssocietal standards.
❖ tragiccomedy
- It portrays characterswho take on tragedywith humor inorder to bring out happy endingsout of serious situations.
The following are the common examples of comedy: The Simpsons, America’ s Funniest Home Videos, and A
MidsummerNight’ sDreambyShakespeare

2.Tragedy
Asatypeofdrama, tragedyisbasicallyrootedonitsliteral meaningwhichconnotessomethingthatisunpleasantand
unwelcome. Generally, it has darker themes and portrays subjects which include death, disaster, and all sorts of
human suffering in a manner that is dignified and thought-provoking. This type of drama involves two important
elements: (1)itsintense seriousnessindealing with mattersinwhich survival isat stake and (2)itsinvolvement ofthe
whole community in mattersof ultimate andcommon concern. A tragic flaw, a characteristic which oftenleads to a
downfall,isusuallypresent amongthestory’ sprotagonists.

3.Farce
Thistypeof drama featuresexaggeratedorabsurd forms of comedy. It isa nonsensical genre of drama inwhich the
charactersintentionallyoveract andget themselvesintoa slapstick orphysical humor.Webster’ sDictionaryrefers
to it as “ a light dramatic composition marked by broadly satirical comedy and improbable plot” . Recently, it is
knownassomethingseriousthathasturnedcomical.

4.Melodrama
This is an exaggerated type of drama which shows classic one-dimensional characters like heroes, heroines, and
villains who deal with sensational, romantic, and threatening situations. Examples of melodrama are the play The
GlassMenageriebyTennesseeWilliamsandMargaret Mitchell’ snovel,GoneWith theWind.
5.Opera
Thistypecombinestheater, dialogue, musicanddance totell grandstoriesoftragedyorcomedy;hence, it isknownas
a versatile genre of drama. This genre requires their performers to be both actors and singers since they will be
expressing theiremotionsandintentionsthroughsonginsteadofa dialogue.

6.Docudrama
Thisnew genreinvolvesdramatic portrayalsof historic eventsornon-fictional happenings. It ismoreoftenpresented
inmoviessuch asApollo13and12Yearsa Slave.

TheStructureofDrama
1.Plot
Werefertoplot asthedramaticstructure ofaplay.Nonetheless,it shouldnotbeforgottenthat thenarrativestructure
is not the only consideration to think of since majority of these plays are created to be played either in a theater, a
movie ora television. Thereare three majordivisionsoractsina physical format of a play.A threeactplayis composed
of three acts which show a fuller and longer exposition of the theme and conflict of the story. On the other hand, a
one-actplayinvolvesoneunit oftime,placeandactiononly.
2.Setting
Aneffective playwright doesnot onlyconsiderthe plot whenwritingdrama. Equally important tothat matteris toalso
think of thesetting ina play. Basically, settingisthe termusedtodescribe theplace orthe localewherethe storyofthe
play is located. Moreover, it also includesthe date, time and the actioninvolved in the play. In general, setting hastwo
maincategories:
❖Realisticplays
-Refertothosewhoseconventionsareundertherealisticplaneandaretakenfromreal people,objectsandsituations.
Inthiscategory, thesettingiscreatedwith theaimtoreproducetheexternal presenceoflife.
❖Non-realisticplays
- It is theexact oppositeofrealisticplaysinwhich it isdrawnout fromstylized and unconventional events. It involves
characterswho are not real people, but areallegorical or symbolical. The setting inthiscategory canbe a dream-like
forest, abarrenanddesertedmountain, theunderworldoranyfictional spot.

3.Character
As discussed in the lessonon fiction, character refers to a person or any entity with human characteristicswhoacts,
speaks, narrates or isreferred to in a literary work. A character canbe major (orprincipal) or minor (supporting). The
general classificationsofcharactersindrama areasfollows:
❖Heroorheroine– alsoknownastheprotagonist whoseconflictisalso
themainconflictoftheplay
❖Villainorvillainess– thecharacterwith evil qualitiesandoften
contradictswiththehero(ine)
❖Superheroorsuperheroine– thecharacterwithsupernatural powers
❖Antiheroorantiheroine– acharacterwhoismoreordinarycomparedto
traditional hero(ine)

4.Dialogue
Among the components in a play, this is the most important. This is basically the reason why the action of the play
moves. Since the nature of drama is performative, it isthe dialogue, which takes place between the characters, that
oftenreveal thetoneandthecharactersintheplay.

Whenwritingthedialogues,considerthefollowingpointers:
• Charactersshouldnotgiveflawlesstalks.
• Charactershouldrefrainfromusingclichés.
• Charactersshouldnotoftenusecharacternames.
• Charactersshouldnotdeliverlengthyspeeches.
• Charactersdonot directlymentionthetheme oftheplay.

Intertextuality is the manner in which one text influences another. This borrowing can be done by an author in either
directorindirect manner.Historically, it wasin1960sthat aFrench JuliaKristeva madethedefinitionofintertextuality.
Accordingly, it originatedfromthe Latinwordintertextowhichmeans“ tointerminglewhileweaving” .Accordingto
Kristeva, all literaryoutputswhich are created contemporarilyare intertextual with the works that were created before
them.

Therearetwocommonwaysinwhicha writerappliesintertextualityinhisorherworks.Thesearethrough:
❖ Implicitreference
-It happenswhenthewriterreferstoa different textthroughtheuseofideas,symbols, genreorstyle
❖ Explicitreference
-It happenswhenthewritermentions,quotesorcitesanothertext inhisorherwork ina direct manner.

TypesofIntertextuality
Whileintertextualityasa techniqueindrama isonlyaimedat onething– toproduceandshapemeaning,it comesin
varioustypeswithdifferentcharacteristics.

1.Allusion
Among the types of intertextuality, this is perhapsthe most common and effective technique. It refersto an indirect
reference in one text to another text, place, historical period, or author for the purpose of enriching or developing
meaning.

2.Parody
Thistype ofintertextualityreferstothe writer’ simitationofanothertext forthepurposeof exposinganddiscrediting
one’ svice or follies. Often, a writerusesthis type tomock itstargetswho are usuallycelebrities, politicians, authors,
a styleortrendoranysubject which arousesanyone’ sinterest at themoment orata specificperiodoftime.

Historically, the word “ parody” comesfromtheGreek phrase parodia which isa type of poemthat copied thestyle
ofepic poemsbut withthecharacteristicsofmockeryandlightcomedy.

3.Quotation
Thisis anothercommontypeofintertextuality which involvesa direct reference toanothertext, givingcitation tothe
ownerofthetext.Quotationisknowntobea deviceusedfortalkingabout language.Itworksinasomehowtrickyway-
that is, to make its referent perform or participate in the referring. Placing quotation marks around a certain word
producesa devicewhichinfersthat veryword.
4.Appropriation
Thistype of intertextualityallowsthe writertomake a reworkingorreimaginationofa populartext forthe purposeof
changing or extending its meaning. Typically, it creates a whole new product and domain away from its originating
source.

5.Adaptation
This type of intertextuality entails creating a film, TV drama or stage play based on a specific written work. Perhaps
oneofthemost commonexamplesforthisisthefilmadaptationofJKRowling’ sHarryPotterwhichwasoriginally,a
writtennovel.

One-actPlay
During the 18th and 19th centuries, one-act plays are done for amusement of the audience before the actual drama
starts which is known as“ The Curtain Raisers” , or just after the actual drama ends which is known as“ The After
Pieces” . However, one-act playsdo not requireelaborated setting andcostumes amongthe actorsforit only covers
fewminutesoftherunningtime.

As published by (Shaurya 2015) in riashaurya.wordpress.com, the following are the chief characteristics of one-act
plays:
(i)One-act playisa playthathasonlyoneactbutmayconsistofoneormorescenes.
(ii)One-actplaysareusuallywrittenina concisemanner.
(iii)It dealswith asingledominant situationandaimsatproducingasingleeffect.
(iv)It deals with only one theme developed through one situation to one climax inorder to produce the maximum of
effect.
(v)Ittreatstheproblemsofeverydaylifeasmarriage, punishment forcrimes,laborconditions, divorce, etc.
(vi)The one-act play, like the longerdrama, should have a beginning, a middle and an end. It maybe divided into four
stages: TheExposition,TheConflict,TheClimaxandTheDenouement.
 Theexpositionisusuallybrief, servesasanintroductiontotheplay.
Itisthroughtheconflictthat the actionof the dramadevelops.It isthe verybackboneoftheone-actplay.
Climaxistheturning point of thedrama. It isanimportant part ofthe one-act play& constitutesitsmoment
ofsupremeinterest.
TheDenouementisverybriefandoftenoverlapswith climax.
(vii)Actionbeginsright at thestartoftheplay.
(viii)Therearenobreaksintheaction, that is,itiscontinuoussince it’ sa short play;nointervals.
(ix)Everythingsuperfluousis to be strictly avoided asthe playisshort and the actiontakesplace withina short period
oftime.It introduceselaboratestagedirectionstominimizethetimetakenbytheactionitself.
(x)Thecreationofmood, oratmosphere isindispensabletoitssuccess.
(xi)There are three dramatic unitieswhich are observed in the one-act play. The unities are the unity of time, unity of
placeandtheunityofaction.
(xii)It aimsat simplicityof plot; concentrationof actionand unityof impression. It doesnot relyonspectaculareffects
andcommondramatictricksofold.
(xiii) The characters in a one-act play are limited in number. Generally, there are not more than two or three principal
characters.
(xiv)There isnofull development ofcharacter. All thedifferent aspectsofa characterare not presented. The attention
is focused on only one or two salient aspects of character and they are brought out by placing the characters in
different situations and circumstances. The author implies the past and intimates the future of a character by
presentinga crucial moment inthelifeofthat character.
(xv) There is an influence of realism. The characters in the modern one-act play are ordinary men and women. It
depictscharactersthat seemtobe real andrelatedtoeverydaylife.
(xvi)Itmust presenta question, forwhich theaudienceeagerlyawaitstheanswer.
(xvii)Itslanguage is simpleand canbefollowedwithout any strain. All superfluity isto be avoided inthe dialogue. The
dialogue must be purposeful; the best dialogue is that which does several things at one time. Every word is to be
carefully chosen and sentences must be compact and condensed. Effort should be made to say, whatever is to be
said, intheleast possiblewords.Thus,thelanguageofthe
dialogue shouldbesimple, brief andeasyto understand. Longspeechesandargumentsandlongsentenceswouldbe
out ofplaceandwouldlessenthecharmandinterest oftheplay.

STRUCTUREOFONE-ACTPLAY
DIALOGUE
Unlikenovel orshort stories,playsarenotwritteninparagraphformbutratherinscript orlinesofdialogue.Thescript
is narrowed downto acts(majordivisions of the play) and each act is then subdivided into a scene (smaller divisions
withintheact).Observethissamplescript below:
ActI
Scene2
TheLIGHTScomeuponROSEhangingupclothes.
SHEhumsandsingssoftlytoherself.
Itisthefollowingmorning.
ROSE. (Sings.)
Jesus, bea fenceall aroundmeeveryday
Jesus, Iwant you toprotect measItravel onmyway.
Jesus, bea fenceall aroundmeeveryday.
(TROYentersfromthehouse)
ROSE
Jesus, Iwant you toprotect me
AsItravel onmyway.
(ToTROY.)Morning.Youreadyforbreakfast?Icanfixit assoonasI finishhanginguptheseclothes?
TROY.I got thecoffeeon.That'll beall right. I'll justdrink someofthat thismorning.

However, the elements characters, plot and setting are also found in a play the same with novels and short stories.
ObservetheseelementsthatwereemphasizedinAugust Wilson’ sFences.

SETTING
In addition to the dialogue, a script will also include stage directions. These notes, which are often in italics or
parentheses, help theactorsinterpret thescene fortheaudience. Inthisexample, whenRose transitionsfromsinging
tospeaking directlytoTroy, thestage directionstell hertowhomsheistalking. Theaudiencewill onlyseeher turnand
directhercomment toTroy.
ACTI
Scene1
The setting is theyard which fronts the onlyentrance to theMAXSON household, anancient two story brick house set
back offa small alleyina big-cityneighborhood. Theentrance tothe houseis gained bytwoorthree stepsleadingto a
woodenporch badlyinneedofpaint.Arelativelyrecent additiontothehouseandrunningitsfull width,theporch lacks
congruence. It is a sturdyporch with a flat room. One or two chairs of dubious value sit at one end where the kitchen
windowopensontotheporch. Anold-fashionediceboxstandssilentguardat theoppositeend.

CHARACTERS
Before the dialogue in a script, the playwright will often include a cast of characters. Typically, each character, both
majorandminor,islistedalongsideabriefdescriptionofthecharacter'sroleinthestory.Inthisexample, you cansee
thatTroyisthemaincharacter, andeach characterisdescribedinrelationtohim.

TROYMAXSON
JIMBONO, Troy'sfriend
ROSE, Troy'swife
LYONS,Troy'soldest sonbypreviousmarriage
GABRIEL, Troy'sbrother
CORY, TroyandRose'sson
RAYNELL, Troy'sdaughter
Thislist is usuallygiventoaudiencemembers ona printed playbill, orprogram, astheyenterthe theatre, sothat they
mayidentifythemajorcharactersandtheactorswhowill playthem.

PLOT
The plot structure of the play doesn't really differ from that in prose. There is an exposition, a rising action, a climax,
fallingaction, and the resolution. IntheplayFences, the expositionexplainsthat TroyMaxsonisa garbage manwho
loves his family, inspite of the fact he is cheating on his wife, Rose. The main conflict comes when Troy's son, Cory,
wants to go to college on a football scholarship, but Troy doesn't want him to go because he's afraid he'll be
discriminated against like he had been when he played baseball. In the rising action, Troy goes to Cory's coach and
tellshimthat Corycan'tplayfootball anymore.CoryaccusesTroyofbeingjealous.Troy'saffairwith Alberta(Elements
ofDrama: Characters,Plot,Setting&Symbolism, 2013)

HowtoWriteaOne-actPlay?
Thefollowingstepsinwritingaone-act playispublishedat penandthepad.comby(Contributor2018):
• Choosea subjecttocoverinabriefonescene act play.Ashort storyworksbest. Remembertogivetheoneact play
the necessaryplot, actionand charactersto make it a completestory. Research otherone act playsto get ideasand
inspirationforyours.
• Develop the action first, thencompose the dialog before you decide anything else. Keep the plot simple for a one
act playandit shouldmoveconsistentlythroughout theplay.
• Develop the characters. Write out a character sketch beforehand to help you flesh out your characters and bring
them to life. Give your charactersa motive in life (or lack thereof) and up the stakes bymaking themface a problem.
Thisiscentral toanystory.
• Generatethe setting. The settingfora one act playwill beone scene, but you have tostill developthe scene sothe
audienceseeseverythingaboutthestoryline. Includeasmanyofthefivesensesasyoucan. Lightinghelpsthesetting.
Make sure youwriteinnotesabouthowthe lightingshouldlook.
• Add in the stage directions after you write the action. Write notes about how each character should respond and
what props you'll need. For example, if the characters should be facing another direction and talking to another
character, noteit inthescript.
• Find performersthat fit each part. Hold auditionstofind theright actorsandactresses. Be upfront with themabout
whetherthisgigisapayinggigora volunteergig.
• Make copiesoftheplayforeachcastmember. Savethedocument incaseyouneedextracopies. Give copiesofthe
oneactplaytoeach memberofthestageandprophandlingtoo.
• Practice the play. Ask for feedback from all the people involved in the play. Hire or ask an expert to help with the
productiontoo. Holdonefinal practicebefore openingthe show.This should be a dressrehearsal. Treat this final as
thereal thingandtieupanylooseends.
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