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Tucker, Ryan Thomas (2014) Stratigraphy, sedimentation

and age of the upper cretaceous Winton formation,
central-western Queensland, Australia: implications for
regional palaeogeography, palaeoenvironments and
Gondwanan palaeontology. PhD thesis, James Cook
University.

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Stratigraphy, Sedimentation and Age of the
Upper Cretaceous Winton Formation,
central-western Queensland, Australia:
Implications for regional palaeogeography,
palaeoenvironments and Gondwanan
palaeontology

Thesis Submitted by

Ryan Thomas Tucker

March 2014

For the degree of:

Doctorate of Philosophy

In the:
SCHOOL OF EARTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
FALCULTY OF SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
JAMES COOK UNIVERSITY
 Statement of Access

I, the undersigned author of this thesis, understand that James Cook University will make
this thesis available for use within the university library and allow access in other approved
libraries after its submission. All users consulting this thesis will have to sign the following
statement:
In consulting this thesis I agree not to copy or closely paraphrase it in whole or in
part without the written consent of the author; and to make proper public written
acknowledgement for any assistance which I have obtained from it.

Beyond this, I do not wish to place any restrictions on access to this thesis.

Ryan Thomas Tucker

January 2014

I
Declaration

I declare that this thesis is my own work and has not been submitted in any form for
another degree or diploma at any university or other institution or tertiary education.
Information derived from the published or unpublished work of others has been
acknowledged in the text and a list of those references is given.

Ryan Thomas Tucker

January 2014

II
Statement of Contribution by Others

Nature of assistance Contribution Coauthors and

Affiliations
Academic Support Grant Writing Dr. Eric Roberts
Dr. Paul Dirks
Dr. Steven Salisbury
Data Analysis Dr. Eric Roberts
Dr. Yi Hu
Dr. Richard Wormwald
Dr. Tony Kemp
Processing Dr. Eric Roberts
Dr. Yi Hu
Dr. Richard Wormwald
Editing Dr. Eric Roberts
Dr. Tony Kemp
Dr. Steven Salisbury
Vikie Darlington
Mark Munro
Owen Li
Field-Analytical Field Research Dr. Eric Roberts
Support Dr. Steven Salisbury
Dr. Marc Hendrix
Dr. Leif Tapanila
*BNP field crew

Data Analysis Dr. Eric Roberts

Dr. Yi Hu
Dr. Tony Kemp
Dr. Richard Wormwald

Financial Support Field & Analytical SEES & GRS

($13,300.00)
Maggie Smith
($2000.00)

Conference & Travel EGRU ($1,000.00)

SVP-JSGSMTG
($600.00)

III
 Chapter Details of publication(s)
or
Appendix
2 Tucker, R.T., Roberts, E.M., Hu,
Y., Kemp, A.I., Salisbury, S.W.,
2013. Detrital zircon age
constraints for the Winton
Formation, Queensland:
Contextualizing Australia's Late
Cretaceous dinosaur faunas.
Gondwana Research, 24(2), 767-
779.
3 Tucker R.T., Roberts, E.M.,
Henderson, R.A., Kemp, A.I.S.
4 Tucker, R.T., Roberts, E.M.,
Darlington V.
Nature and extent of
input by thesis author
I wrote most of the
paper to and
development most of
concepts. Kemp and
Hu set up the LA-
ICPMS system at JCU
and developed the
tuning method for the
instrument. I
conducted all of the
analyses, but benefited
greatly from the
advice and editing
provided by all
supervisors and
contributors.
I wrote most of the
paper and developed
the majority of the
concepts. Kemp in
particular, assisted me
with Hf-isotope
analysis and
interpretation.
Henderson provided
key insights about the
geology of N. QLD.
I contributed to the
writing and
development of
concepts. Darlington
played an important
role on the GIS model
and contributed to the
writing of the methods
for the basin model
construction.
IV
Appendix Romilio, A., Tucker, R.T., & I contributed to the
1 Salisbury, S.W., 2013. writing and
Reevaluation of the Lark Quarry development of the
dinosaur Tracksite (late Albian– paper as a whole, but
Cenomanian Winton Formation, my specific focus
central-western Queensland, pertained to the
Australia): no longer a stampede?. revised
Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, sedimentological
33(1), 102-120. interpretations of Lark
Quarry Track Site and
the interpretations of
the depositional
environments
Appendix I contributed to the
2 writing and
development of
concepts
I confirm the candidate’s contribution to this paper and consent to the
inclusion of the paper in this thesis.

Primary Advisor: Eric Roberts

Signature:

Date:

V
Acknowledgements
This work, in its entirety, would not have occurred if it were not for all those
involved in the last three and a half years. Although not everyone can be thanked in text, to
everyone I pass on a heartfelt thank you.
To my Ph.D. committee, I owe the greatest debt of gratitude. I thank Dr. Steven
Salisbury for that SVP dinner which has brought about a wonderful and enriching academic
adventure. I thank Dr. Paul Dirks, without whom I know this project and my arrival at
James Cook University would have never happened. However, I owe my greatest debt of
gratitude to my principle advisor, Dr. Eric Roberts. From the first day in Bladensburg to
my first steps as a Lecturer, it is your guidance, patience, and fortitude which made this
possible. I hope that in the years to come, I can work with the same passion, integrity, and
drive which you devote to everything you set out to accomplish. I also greatly look
forward to the buttes needing stratigraphic sections, to the big walls needing climbing, and
to the bottles of wine waiting to be opened.
I graciously thank all of the lecturer staff at James Cook University; including but
not limited to Carl Spandler, Tom Blenkinsop, Bob Henderson, Tony Kemp, Jan Marten
Huizenga, and Nigel Chung. I would also like to thank all of the support staff within the
School of Earth and Environmental.
I would like to also thank all of the staff at the Advanced Analytical Centre at James
Cook University. This is especially true for Dr. Yi Hu, for all efforts taken in acquiring the
LA-ICPMS geochronological data, a true Doctor ‘WHO’.
For continued financial support, I thank the Graduate Research Scheme and the
School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, along with the Jackson School Travel Grant,
The Economic Geological Research Unit, and the generous funds provided by Maggie
Smith.
I would also like to thank my fellow PhD and Honours students over the past
several years. In particular I would like to thank Owen, Johannes, Vikie, Rob, Mark, Babo,
George, Cassey, Taka, Matt, and Hannah. I wish to thank you all for the questions,
comments, and many laughs which made this journey a memorable one.
Most of all, I thank my family and friends for their unwavering support throughout
my life concerning these crazy rock based endeavors. I thank my parents for their
continued encouragement and the energy they put forth to further my passions in life. I
thank Richard Thompson and Garrett Schmitz, both of whom have kept me somewhat sane
these many years. Lastly but certainly not in the least, I would like to thank my partner in
life, Astrid Vachette. Your laughter and love in our time together made this period of my
life the best it could have ever been.

VI
 Abstract
The mid-Cretaceous Winton Formation is one of Australia’s most important sources

of Mesozoic terrestrial fossils. In recent years it has produced some of the continent’s most

significant body and trace fossil records of mid-Cretaceous dinosaurian and crocodilian

assemblages. Additionally, the Winton Formation preserves a diverse assemblage of

lungfish and primitive ray-finned fish, aquatic lizards, turtles, numerous invertebrates along

with a high diversity of plant macrofossils, including some of the world’s earliest flowering

plants. The Winton Formation is exposed over large portions of remote central-western

Queensland, in addition to northern New South Wales, north-western South Australia and

the south-western corner of the Northern Territory. Despite its importance for our

understanding of Australian terrestrial environments during the latter part of the Mesozoic,

very little in the way of detailed geological work has been carried out on the Winton

Formation. As a consequence, palaeoenvironmental and palaeoecological conditions

associated with many of Australia’s key dinosaur faunas are poorly understood. A greater

understanding of the stratigraphy, sedimentology, age, and taphonomy of these sites will

provide critical context for evaluating Australia’s late-Mesozoic vertebrate taxa to other

well-known Gondwanan faunas.

This study utilizes detrital zircon geochronology and Lu-Hf isotope analysis to

constrain the depositional age, tectonic setting, basin evolution, and stratigraphic context of

the Winton Formation, northeastern Australia. A number of geological studies in the past

several decades have focused on U-Pb detrital zircon geochronology for maximum

depositional age; however, this approach is still underutilized in palaeontology. Thus, these

ten samples, which were composed of ~100 grain detrital zircon samples from different

VII
stratigraphic levels and key fossil locations throughout the Winton and underlying units

(basin wide) were analyzed. Detrital zircon ages were obtained via U-Pb LA-ICPMS

geochronology and the resulting U-Pb grain ages were subjected to various metrics to

interpret maximum depositional age and sedimentary provenance. The results of this work

considerably improve upon existing palynological age constraints, suggesting that there are

two distinctly different aged faunas: one that is likely ~ 100-98 Ma (Isisford Fauna); and

one that is no older than earliest Turonian or latest Cenomanian (92-94 Ma), which includes

most other Winton vertebrates (Lark/Bladensburg Fauna).

The most abundant detrital zircon age population clusters between 92-115 Ma,

suggesting that much of the volcanic-rich sediment that characterizes the Winton Formation

was eroded syndepositionally or shortly after emplacement of an active continental

volcanic arc system located along the eastern margin of Australia (presumably the

Whitsunday Volcanic Province). This volcanic arc activity was not a singular event; rather I

have identified near-continuous detrital zircon grain ages between 92-330 Ma, indicating

intermittent arc volcanism along that eastern margin due to continuous slab subduction of

the Phoenix/Pacific Plate under the eastward migrating Gondwana margin. A particularly

interesting result is the identification of Jurassic-age grain populations that represent a

period not previously associated with significant arc magmatism in northeastern

Queensland. The identification of fairly continuous detrital zircon ages is compared with

established terranes including the New England Province via Lu-Hf isotopes and found to

be of similar isotopic signatures. By combining U-Pb detrital zircon ages and ƐHf values, I

interpret that these sediments were derived from a mixed juvenile magma source associated

with a fairly long-lived tectonic system (300-92 Ma) on the east coast of northern Australia.

VIII
In addition to this, multiple populations have been identified from other, older easterly

sources (330 -900 Ma) including but not limited to the Macrossan, Anakie, Cape River,

Greenvale and Georgetown Provinces. Small populations of apparently recycled

Proterozoic and Archean grains are also variably present in each of the samples. By

coupling the above results with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test and paleocurrent data, this

study provides compelling evidence for sediment input into the Winton Formation from a

long-lived continuous subduction margin along the eastern margin of Australia. Eroded

materials from this region were transported via transverse fluvial systems westward into the

Eromanga Basin and form the principal provenance source for all Winton sandstones

investigated in this study.

In addition to understanding provenance patterns and refining the age of the Winton

Formation, the other primary objective of this thesis was to place the important Winton

flora and fauna into a refined palaeoenvironmental context. In order to achieve this,

detailed facies and architectural element analysis of both the Winton and the top of the

underling Mackunda Formation was conducted and a basin model was developed. Based

on a combination of field and core investigation, 23 distinct lithofacies were identified, and

these were used to construct nine distinct facies assemblages. The Winton Formation can

be informally separated into an upper and lower unit respective of gross changes in

depositional patterns, alluvial architecture, and fauna, and confirmed by distinct maximum

depositional age constraining zircon populations and a newly constructed basin model.

Environmentally, the lower Winton formation preserves the last vestiges of the shallow

marine conditions in the Eromanga Basin, and an up section transition from coastal and

tidally influenced deltaic strata to alluvial strata. The upper Winton Formation preserves

IX
mature floodplain strata, dominantd by a series of stacked channel sandstones with west- to

southwest- oriented paleocurrent indicators.

X
 Table of Contents

Statement of Access ................................................................................................................ I

Declaration ............................................................................................................................. II
Statement of Contribution by Others .................................................................................... III
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................. VI
Abstract ............................................................................................................................... VII
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. XI
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... XV
List of Tables .....................................................................................................................XVI
List of Digital Data ............................................................................................................XVI
Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1
Structure of this Thesis ........................................................................................................... 1
Project Summary..................................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 2 Applying LA-ICP-MS U-Pb geochronology of detrital zircons to constrain the
depositional age of the Winton Formation, Queensland: contextualizing Australia’s Late
Cretaceous dinosaur faunas .................................................................................................... 7
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................ 8
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 9
2. Geological background ..................................................................................................... 12
2.1 Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Winton Formation ........................................ 15
3. Detrital Zircon Geochronology ......................................................................................... 18
3.1 Location ...................................................................................................................... 18
3.2 Zircon Separation ........................................................................................................ 19
3.3 LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dating of zircon ............................................................................. 20
3.3.1 Experimental Approach ....................................................................................... 20
3.3.2 U-Pb dating of the Winton Formation ................................................................. 21
3.4 Discussion of detrital zircon geochronology .............................................................. 22
3.4.1 Youngest detrital zircon age determination ......................................................... 22
3.4.2 Potential sources of bias in detrital zircon studies ............................................... 24
4. Results ............................................................................................................................... 24
XI
 4.1 Lark Quarry sample .................................................................................................... 24
4.2 Bladensburg National Park sample ............................................................................. 25
4.3 Isisford sample ............................................................................................................ 26
4.4 GSQ Eromanga 1 core sample .................................................................................... 26
4.5 GSQ Longreach 1 core sample ................................................................................... 27
4.6 Youngest Grains ......................................................................................................... 33
5. Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 36
5.1 Maximum depositional ages ....................................................................................... 36
5.2 Age of Winton Formation vertebrate fossil localities ................................................. 38
5.3 Recalibrating Palynomorph zones ............................................................................. 41
5.4 Implications for palaeobiogeography ......................................................................... 45
6. Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 46
Chapter 3 U-Pb and Lu-Hf detrital zircon provenance analysis of the Upper Cretaceous
Winton Formation, Eromanga Basin, Queensland: implications for the tectonic evolution 48
ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................... 49
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 50
2. Geological background ..................................................................................................... 54
2.1 Eromanga Basin ......................................................................................................... 54
2.2 The Winton Formation............................................................................................... 56
2.3 Study area and sample locations ................................................................................ 57
3. Methods ............................................................................................................................ 59
3.1 Field and core sampling .............................................................................................. 59
3.2 Detrital zircon separation ............................................................................................ 60
3.3 U-Pb Analysis ............................................................................................................. 61
3.4 Lu-Hf Analysis ........................................................................................................... 68
3.5 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test ......................................................................................... 69
3.6 Potential sources of bias in detrital zircon studies ...................................................... 69
4. Results ............................................................................................................................... 70
4.1 Winton & Mackunda Formation Temporal Placement............................................... 70
4.2 Detrital Zircon Populations ......................................................................................... 71
4.2.1 Mackunda Formation Grain Ages........................................................................ 76

XII
 4.2.2 Winton Formation Grain Ages ............................................................................ 78
4.3 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test) ........................................................................................ 79
4.4 Palaeocurrent Analysis ............................................................................................... 83
4.5 Lu-Hf Results .............................................................................................................. 85
5. Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 87
5.1 Interpreted source areas and fluvial drainage patterns for the Winton Formation ..... 87
5.2 Source & Tectonic History of Mesozoic Detrital Zircons ........................................ 90
5.2.1 Model-1: Long-lived Phoenix-Pacific Plate Subduction ................................... 90
5.2.2 Model-2: Northeastern Gondwana S- LIP ......................................................... 91
5.2.3 Regional Tectonic Relationships and Implications ........................................... 93
5.3 Lu-HF Isotope Analysis .............................................................................................. 94
6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 97
Chapter 4 Depositional environments, stratigraphy and correlation of the Winton
Formation: implications for Australia’s most important Mid-Cretaceous terrestrial
ecosystem .............................................................................................................................. 99
ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................ 100
1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 101
2. Geological Background .................................................................................................. 103
2.1 Basin History ............................................................................................................ 103
2.2 Basin Stratigraphy..................................................................................................... 105
2.3 The Winton Formation.............................................................................................. 109
2.4 Structural Geology of the Northern Eromanga Basin ............................................... 111
3. Study Area ...................................................................................................................... 113
3.1 Field Locations ......................................................................................................... 113
3.1.1 Bladensburg National Park ................................................................................ 114
3.1.2 Lark Quarry Conservation Park ......................................................................... 114
3.2 Core Logging ............................................................................................................ 115
4. Methods .......................................................................................................................... 116
4.1 Stratigraphy and Sedimentation ................................................................................ 116
4.2 Arc GIS Reconstruction Models and Fence Diagram .............................................. 117
5. Results ............................................................................................................................. 119

XIII
 5.1 Sedimentology .......................................................................................................... 119
5.1.1 Major Sandstones (FA1) .................................................................................... 125
5.1.2 Minor sandstones (FA2) .................................................................................... 129
5.1.3 Major Siltstones (FA3) ...................................................................................... 131
5.1.4. Minor Siltstones (FA4) ..................................................................................... 134
5.1.5. Major Mudstones (FA5) ................................................................................... 136
5.1.6. Minor Mudstones (FA6) ................................................................................... 138
5.1.7. Interlaminated sandy siltstones to silty mudstones (FA7) ................................ 139
5.1.8. Plant-rich or Carbonaceous silty-Mudstone to Coal (FA8) .............................. 141
5.1.9. Intraformational Conglomerate (FA9) .............................................................. 142
5.2 Fossil preservation and distribution in the Winton Formation ................................. 144
5.2.1 Trace Fossils ...................................................................................................... 144
5.2.2 Vertebrate Fossils .............................................................................................. 145
5.3 Stratigraphy ............................................................................................................... 146
5.3.1 Outcrop Stratigraphy.......................................................................................... 148
5.3.2 Core Stratigraphy ............................................................................................... 152
6. Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 156
6.1 Depositional environments ....................................................................................... 156
6.1.1 Middle to Upper Mackunda; Distal Delta Front to Prodelta (subtidal platform)
depositional environments .......................................................................................... 157
6.1.2 Lower Winton Formation; Tidally influenced depositional environments ....... 158
6.1.3 Upper Winton Formation; Alluvial Depositional Environments ....................... 159
6.2 Revised stratigraphy and correlation of the Winton Formation and its floras and
faunas .............................................................................................................................. 161
7. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 164
Chapter 5 Thesis Summary .............................................................................................. 168
Reference ............................................................................................................................ 174
Appendix 1 .......................................................................................................................... 204

XIV
 List of Figures
Figure 2- 1 Map of Queensland ............................................................................................ 13
Figure 2- 2 Cross section of the Central Eromanga Basin, ................................................... 15
Figure 2- 3 Youngest graphical (histogram based) detrital zircon age peak ........................ 34
Figure 2- 4 Temporal relationship of the seven metrics ....................................................... 36
Figure 2- 5 (right) Original and revised chronostratigraphy................................................ 44
Figure 2- 6 Interpreted temporal relationships .................................................................... 44
Figure 3- 1 Map of Queensland, northeastern Australia displaying surface exposures of the
Winton Formation ................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 3-2 Plausable source terranes .................................................................................... 72
Figure 3- 3 Youngest graphical (histogram based) detrital zircon age peak (YPP) results for
all individual samples ........................................................................................................... 73
Figure 3- 4 Youngest graphical (histogram based) detrital zircon age peak (YPP) results
based on stratigraphic placement .......................................................................................... 77
Figure 3- 5 K-S test results displayed in terms of CDF’s ..................................................... 82
Figure 3- 6 Simplified map of eastern Australia displaying the plausible source terranes .. 84
Figure 3- 7 Lu-Hf isotope results presented in ƐHf(T) ......................................................... 86
Figure 3- 8 Simplified paleogeographic reconstruction maps .............................................. 88
Figure 3- 9 Tectonic reconstructions of the Eastern Australian Margin ............................... 92
Figure 4- 1 Map of eastern Australia displaying surface exposures of the Winton and
Mackunda formations ......................................................................................................... 102
Figure 4- 2 Time scale displaying Middle Jurassic to Quaternary ..................................... 107
Figure 4- 3 Map of exposed faults and structures within the exposed Winton and Mackunda
formations ........................................................................................................................... 112
Figure 4- 4 Arc GIS (10.1) Geo-referenced based map of exposed Winton and Mackunda
Formation ............................................................................................................................ 113
Figure 4- 5a Typical outcrop patterns of Facies Associations ............................................ 122
Figure 4- 5b Typical patterns of Facies Associations ......................................................... 123
Figure 4- 6a Observed hierarchy of bounding surfaces in outcrop ..................................... 124
Figure 4- 6b Observed hierarchy of bounding surfaces in core .......................................... 124
Figure 4- 7 Outcrop Facies associations ............................................................................. 128
Figure 4- 8 Observed facies associations in the Lower Winton Formation ........................ 131
Figure 4- 9 A) Displays Units A B and C ........................................................................... 147
Figure 4- 10 ArcGIS based cross section from Lark Quarry Conservation Park to
Bladensburg Nation Park .................................................................................................... 148
Figure 4- 11 Facies associations observed in outcrop of the upper Winton Formation ..... 151
Figure 4- 12 Facies associations observed in cored sections of the Winton and Mackunda
Formation ............................................................................................................................ 153
Figure4- 13 Simplified paleogeographic maps ................................................................... 157
Figure 4- 11 Artistic reconstruction of the uppermost Winton Formation ......................... 160

XV
 List of Tables
Table 2- 1 Detrital zircon via LA-ICPMS ............................................................................ 32
Table 2- 1 A compilation of all metric's utilized within the study ....................................... 35
Table 3- 1 (A-E) Detrital zircon via LA-ICPMS results for all samples including isotope
and concentration data .......................................................................................................... 67
Table 3- 2 K-S tests results ................................................................................................... 81
Table 4- 1 Lithofacies codes ............................................................................................... 120
Table 4- 2 Facies associations ............................................................................................ 121
Table 4-3 Architectural elements ........................................................................................ 127

List of Digital Data

Digital Appendix 1: Publication during Ph.D

Digital Appendix 2: Detrital Zircon CL Images

Digital Appendix 3: Hylogger Data

Digital Appendix 4: All Detrital Zircon records

XVI
Chapter 1

Introduction

1
Structure of this Thesis
This thesis is structured so that each individual chapter is a stand-alone manuscript,
and ready to be published in leading international journals. The thesis is broken into three
principal chapters, although I have also included a discrete additional research product in
Appendix 1. Appendix 1 represents a published manuscript in which I contributed a
significant component of the original research conducted during the course of my own
research in the Winton Formation, but of which I am not the senior author. Each section is
cross-referenced as a separate paper accordingly. Prior to the submission of this thesis,
Chapter 1 and Appendix 1 both went through peer-review and were published. Chapter
one; which focuses on using U-Pb detrital zircon geochronology to refine maximum
depositional age constraints for key vertebrate fossils localities in the Winton Formation, is
published in Gondwana Research. Appendix 1, which presents and reinterprets the famous
Lark Quarry “dinosaur stampede” trackway in the Winton Formation and its depositional
environments, was published in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Chapters three
and four are nearly ready for journal submission, which will take place immediately
following thesis examination and final thesis submission. Chapter three will be submitted
to GSA Bulletin and Chapter four is going to be submitted to Sedimentary Geology for peer-
review and publication. Additionally during the thesis period, one manuscript was fully
published within Geobios and one is in review with Plos One. This format was agreed
upon by the committee and the candidate in question during the initial stages of this project.
It should be understood that while each chapter builds on the previous, each chapter is an
individual body of work and is presented in similar format to the journal to which it will be
submitted to. Subsequently, minor repetition of overriding goals or methodologies is
inevitable, however, each chapter has been written as clearly and succinctly as possible. It
should also be noted that all references used within this dissertation are grouped into a
single section at the end, which follows Chapter 4.

1
Project Summary
Recently within vertebrate palaeontology, a major focal point has been to better

understand the abiotic and biotic responses to Mesozoic floras and faunas during the

separation of and the subsequent isolation of many once cosmopolitan Mesozoic taxa. The

current understanding of this topic is uneven and varies significantly from one Gondwanan

landmass to the next. The situation is particularly grim for Australia, which is sharply

constrained by deep weathering and a general lack of good late Mesozoic exposures and

fossils from this time period. Australian terrestrial vertebrate assemblages for the later part

of the Mesozoic are restricted to four basins, with the best exposures and fossils associated

with the northeastern Eromanga Basin. Although fossil material was discovered by

Longman in central-western Queensland as early as 1933, detailed investigation of

Cretaceous vertebrate fossil from Australia has been critically hampered by a general lack

of stratigraphic and palaeoenvironmental context for many specimens that were collected

sporadically over the intervening 80 years. Due to this lack of local/regional

sedimentologic and taphonomic context, much debate exists concerning Cretaceous

vertebrates from Australia and their relationships to each other and other Gondwanan

faunas. However, a suite of newly discovered Winton vertebrate and plant fossils over the

last decade demonstrates potential for the Australian Cretaceous continental fossil record

and promises to provide crucial information about early terrestrial floras and faunas,

particularly in the Eromanga Basin. Recently discovered fossils include dinosaurs,

crocodyliforms, aquatic squamates, turtles, lungfish and teleost fishes. Preliminary,

taxonomic identifications are underway and already leading to a broad range of questions

concerning Cretaceous terrestrial ecosystems of Australia following the fragmentation of

Gondwana (Sereno, 1997; Cracraft, 2001; Sereno, 2003; Sereno et al., 2004; Coria, et al.,

2
2007; Brusatte and Sereno; 2008; Ksepka and Reisz, 2008; Currie et al., 2009; D’Emic et

al., 2009; Forster et al., 2009; Agnolin, 2010; Voice et al., 2011).

Thulborn et al. (1994), Hocknull et al. (2009), and Molnar (2010) represent some of

the few published taphonomic and sedimentologic context reports for Cretaceous terrestrial

fossil sites in the basin. Despite the importance of the fauna, poor age control has, in

particular, been a major impediment to regional and global correlations, limiting the

certainty of evolutionary and palaeobiogeographic assessments. As a result, it is presently

impossible to place the middle to Late Cretaceous terrestrial vertebrates and plants of the

Winton Formation into a reliable context for addressing these and other pertinent questions.

Consequently, the goal of this Ph.D. dissertation was to develop and refine the geological

context of the Winton Formation, particularly as it pertains to both newly discovered and

historic floral and faunal fossil localities.

The first facet of this study applies U–Pb laser ablation ICPMS-MS geochronology to

refine the depositional age of selected horizons within the Winton Formation (across the

basin). Because my PhD project coincided, fortuitously, with the recent, but protracted set

up of the LA-ICPMS facility at the Advanced Analytical Centre at JCU, my project

represented one of the first detailed U-Pb geochronology projects at JCU. Considerable

work to get the lab established by Dr. Yi Hu and Dr. Tony Kemp resulted in new

instrumental tuning protocols, and my samples happened to be among the first samples

tested using these novel procedures, hence the lab method for instrument tuning and zircon

dating is included in my first chapter and stands as an important reference for all future

users of the lab. The first chapter systematically investigates detrital zircon grain ages for

five Winton samples, from different stratigraphic levels, many directly associated with

3
vertebrate-bearing fossil locations in the Winton Formation. Seven different metrics were

compared to interpret the maximum depositional age of each detrital zircon samples.

Results indicate that sedimentation of the Winton Formation commenced no earlier than

latest Albian (~103.0–100.5 Ma) and that deposition of most of the upper vertebrate fossil-

rich portion of the section began no earlier than Cenomanian–Turonian boundary (~93.9

Ma). These results imply that the formation and its entombed flora and fauna were

deposited primarily during the Late Cretaceous. These conclusions provide a significant

advancement in understanding the age of the Winton Formation's flora and fauna, and will

help to contextualize Australia's Late Cretaceous terrestrial biota within a broader

Gondwanan framework.

The second facet of my project was focused on developing better tectonic and

palaeogeographic context for Winton Formation and the late Mesozoic of eastern Australia

in general. Thirteen detrital zircon samples were analysed for sedimentary provenance by

U-Pb LA ICPMS geochronology and a subset of grains from these analyses were

investigated further through the use of Lu-Hf isotopes. Small populations of apparently

recycled Proterozoic and Archean grains were also variably present in each of the samples.

Multiple populations have been identified, which are interpreted to be sourced from other

easterly sources (330-900 Ma), including, but not limited, to the Macrossan, Anakie, Cape

River, Greenvale and Georgetown Provinces. A particularly interesting result was the

identification of Jurassic grain populations; a period of time not previously associated with

significant arc magmatism along the eastern Australian Margin. The most abundant detrital

zircon populations cluster between 92-115 Ma. This strongly indicates that much of the

volcanic-rich sediment that characterizes the Winton Formation was syndepositionally or

4
near-syndepositionally eroded from an active continental arc system located along the

eastern margin of Australia. The source of this volcanic material is interpreted to be from

the Whitsunday Volcanic Province. This volcanic arc activity was not a singular event, but

more likely a long-lived volcanic system based on the near-continuous age-spectrum of

detrital zircons identified between 92-330 Ma. This most parsimoniously suggests that

volcanic activity continued between the termination of the New England Orogeny (~230-

200 Ma) directly up to rifting associated with the rifting (‘unzipping’) of the Tasman Line

(~89-84 Ma). Transport of volcaniclastic sediment derived sediment rich in zircon is

interpreted to have been dominantly west to south westward away from easterly to north-

easterly sources. This is consistent with transverse fluvial systems that flowed across the

Eromanga Basin as the Eromanga Sea retreated to the west and then eventually to the south

as the sea retreated completely. Data supports recent assertions that the thick sediment

package that formed the Ceduna Delta in South Australia has a genetic link to the Winton

Formation. This is supported by not only in-field paleocurrent information but also by

detailed sedimentologic data (Chapter 3) and Kolmogorov-Smirnov test statistical analyses.

The third facet of this project focussed on the interpretation of both local and

regional patterns of deposition within the Winton Formation. Detailed facies and

architectural analysis of the Winton and underlying Mackunda Formation were conducted

through detailed field studies, extensive core logging, and the development of a basin

model. Twenty-two lithofacies were identified and utilized to construct and interpret nine

facies associations and their depositional environments. Ultimately, these results were

coupled with palaeontological information and other data sets on the Winton Formation to

reconstruct the palaeoenvironments associated with what is Australia’s most important

5
Cretaceous continental vertebrate record. These data also provide a more clear

understanding of the palaeogeographic evolution of the Eromanga Basin during and

following the retreat of the Eromanga Sea. Deposition of the Mackunda Formation is

dominantd by shallow marine (middle to Lower Mackunda) to prodelta and shoreline

depositional environments (Upper Mackunda). The Lower Winton Formation records a

transition from marine to delta plain and fluvial systems. This work demonstrates that the

initial stages of Eromanga Seaway regression began no earlier than the earliest Cenomanian

(102 Ma), based on new maximum depositional age constrain for the Mackunda Formation

presented in Chapter 1. The Upper Winton Formation is dominantd by an association of

alluvial floodplain deposits that hosted sinuous channel systems within a low-lying, heavily

vegetated floodplain with abundant ponds and wetlands capable of supporting a significant

flora and fauna. These assemblages are significantly younger than previously estimated

(Cenomanian, with most key fossil localities Turonian or younger).

6
 Chapter 2

Applying LA-ICP-MS U-Pb geochronology of detrital zircons to constrain

the depositional age of the Winton Formation, Queensland:
contextualizing Australia’s Late Cretaceous dinosaur faunas

7
ABSTRACT
The Winton Formation provides an important snapshot of Australia's late Mesozoic
terrestrial biota, boasting a vertebrate fauna that includes dinosaurs, crocodyliforms, aquatic
squamates, turtles, lungfish and teleost fishes, and a flora that has previously been
considered to include some of the world's earliest known flowering plants. Despite its
significance, poor age control has thus far prevented precise regional and global
correlations, limiting the depth of palaeobiogeographic assessments. The goal of this study
was to use U–Pb isotope dating of detrital zircons by laser ablation to refine the
depositional age range of selected horizons within the Winton Formation. We applied this
technique, with refined instrumental tuning protocols, to systematically investigate detrital
zircon grain ages for five samples from different stratigraphic levels and vertebrate-bearing
fossil locations throughout the Winton Formation. Seven different metrics for interpreting
the maximum depositional age of each of the detrital zircon samples were compared and
our results suggest that sedimentation of the Winton Formation commenced no earlier than
latest Albian (~103.0–100.5 Ma) and that deposition of the upper vertebrate fossil-rich
portion of the section began roughly near or after the Cenomanian–Turonian boundary
(93.9 Ma), demonstrating that the formation and its important flora and fauna were
deposited primarily during the Late Cretaceous. These results provide a significant
advancement in understanding the age of the Winton Formation's flora and fauna, and will
help to contextualize Australia's Late Cretaceous terrestrial biota within a broader
Gondwanan framework.

8
1. Introduction
Detrital zircon geochronology has traditionally been used as a provenance tool for

reconstructing landscape evolution and tectonics by tracing known age populations of

zircons back to their metamorphic or igneous (and in some cases recycled sedimentary)

points of origin (e.g., Roback and Walker, 1995; Ireland et al., 1998; Hoskin and Ireland,

2000; Fedo et al., 2003; Adams et al., 2007). Over the past decade sedimentary provenance

analysis has evolved significantly due to numerous advances in U–Pb geochronology that

have made it possible to rapidly and economically date large populations of detrital

minerals, in particular zircon (e.g., Ireland et al., 1998; Kowallis et al., 1998; Hoskin and

Ireland, 2000; Fedo et al., 2003; Jackson et al., 2004; Andersen, 2005; Link et al., 2005;

Gerdes and Zeh, 2006; Surpless et al., 2006; Gehrels, 2008, 2011; Barbeau et al., 2009;

Dickinson and Gehrels, 2009; Frei and Gerdes, 2009; Carrapa, 2010). This has been

particularly beneficial in provenance studies focused on tectonic and paleogeographical

reconstruction and landscape evolution (Hallsworth et al., 2000; Dickinson and Gehrels,

2003; Kusuhashi et al., 2006; Gonzalez-Leon et al., 2009; Roberts et al., 2012; Babinski et

al., 2012; Herve et al., 2013).

Although a number of studies have recently focused on the application of detrital

zircons and other minerals for maximum depositional age constraint (Dickinson and

Gehrels, 2009; Lawton et al., 2010), it is noteworthy that in paleontology, a field for which

this approach has great potential, there has been little application of this technique to date

(e.g. Jinnah et al., 2009; Chure et al., 2010; Irmis et al., 2011; Varela et al., 2012). Within

the field of paleontology, particularly when dealing with continental ecosystems, detrital

zircon geochronology has major potential for refining the age of terrestrial floras and

faunas, which are often notorious for their poor temporal and stratigraphic controls due to
9
ambiguous biostratigraphy. Detrital zircons are nearly ubiquitous in continental clastic

sediments, commonly sourced from syndepositional or closely contemporaneous volcanic

rocks (located within or even outside of the basin), which can often provide more precise

temporal constraints than through biostratigraphy alone. Australia's Winton Formation is a

perfect example of a situation where an important floral and faunal assemblage is only

grossly constrained biostratigraphically, and ashbeds have yet to be identified.

Furthermore, the fact that this important succession likely straddles the middle of the

‘Cretaceous quiet zone’ makes magnetostratigraphy an unlikely option for improving age

constraint. The Winton Formation is an ideal target for this application because of its

relative proximity to coeval volcanic and plutonic source rocks along Australia's east to

northeastern coast (New Caledonia and the volcanic rocks of the Whitsunday Volcanic

Province) that have the potential to be maximum depositional age constraining provenance

sources (dated between 95 and 115 Ma; Bryan et al., 1997, 2012; Cluzel et al., 2011). Both

are sparsely preserved, though currently these two sources have been strongly suggested as

a potential provenance source for this middle Cretaceous zircon population (Bryan et al.,

1997, 2012; Cluzel et al., 2011).

The vertebrate fauna of the Winton Formation includes titanosauriform sauropods

(Coombs and Molnar, 1981; Molnar, 2001, 2010, 2011; Molnar and Salisbury, 2005;

Salisbury et al., 2006b; Hocknull et al., 2009), megaraptoran theropods (Salisbury, 2003,

2005; Hocknull et al., 2009; Benson et al., 2010; Agnolin et al., 2010; Salisbury et al.,

2011; White et al., 2012), thyreophoran and ornithopodan ornithischians (Salisbury, 2005;

Hocknull and Cook, 2008), basal eusuchian crocodyliforms (Molnar and Willis, 1996;

Salisbury, 2005; Salisbury et al., 2006a), dolicosaurian squamates (Scanlon and Hocknull,

10
2008), turtles (Molnar, 1991; Salisbury, 2005), dipnoan and teleostean fishes (Dettmann et

al., 1992; Kemp, 1997; Faggotter et al., 2007; Berrell et al., 2008, 2011), possible

cynodonts and basal mammaliaforms (Salisbury, 2005; Musser et al., 2009), along with

likely plesiosaurs (Salisbury, 2005; Salisbury et al., 2006b). Occasional invertebrate fossils

have also been recorded (Hocknull, 1997, 2000; Jell, 2004; Cook, 2005). Trace fossils from

the Winton Formation include dinosaur tracks at Lark Quarry Conservation Park, indicative

of two types of ornithopods and ‘possibly’ a theropod (Thulborn and Wade, 1984; Romilio

and Salisbury, 2011; Romilio et al., 2013).

Upwards of 50 plant macrofossil taxa representing 10 different orders are known in

the Winton Formation, dominantd by conifers and angiosperms, with rarer bennettitaleans,

cycadophytes, ferns, ginkgoales (ginkgophytes) and pentoxyloleans (Bose, 1955;

Whitehouse, 1955; Peters and Christophel, 1978; Burger and Senior, 1979; Peters, 1985;

Burger, 1990; Dettmann et al., 1992; McLoughlin et al., 1995; Pole, 1998; Pole and

Douglas, 1999; Dettmann and Clifford, 2000; Pole, 2000a,b; Clifford and Dettmann, 2005;

Dettmann et al., 2009; McLoughlin et al., 2010). Cretaceous angiosperm pollen has been

well studied in the Eromanga Basin by Bose (1955), Dettmann and Playford (1969), Burger

and Senior (1979), Burger (1980, 1986, 1989, and 1990) Dettmann et al. (1992),

McLoughlin et al. (1995), Pole and Douglas (1999), Dettmann and Clifford (2000), and

Dettmann et al. (2009; and see references therein). The Winton Formation has been placed

into Burger's (1990) Suit III biozone, characterized by Coptospora paradoxa and

Phimopollenites pannosus, and on this basis interpreted as being late Albian to early

Cenomanian in age. This pollen zone has also been assigned to samples from

11
stratigraphically lower units, including the Toolebuc, Allaru, and Mackunda formations,

thereby providing solid, but broad stratigraphic control for this important interval.

In addition, there has not been any attempt to determine the stratigraphic

relationship between the numerous fossil-bearing localities. As a consequence, the temporal

and palaeoenvironmental context of one of Australia's most important Cretaceous terrestrial

biotas and its relationship to those from other Gondwanan landmasses is poorly understood.

In lieu of unambiguous ash beds and the volcanoclastic nature of the Winton

Formation strata, the goal of our study was to utilize U–Pb detrital zircon geochronology to

obtain maximum depositional age estimates for a range of fossil-bearing localities. We

present the results from five samples collected from throughout the stratigraphic and

geographic ranges of the formation, which significantly refine existing palynologically-

based age constraints. This work has significant implications for intrabasinal correlations

and understanding the relationship of the Winton vertebrate fauna and flora within a

Gondwanan, and indeed, global palaeobiogeographic and evolutionary framework.

2. Geological background

12
Figure 2- 1 Map of Queensland, northeastern Australia; displaying the Winton Formation within the Eromanga Basin.
Symbols indicate detrital zircon sample locations derived from at or near recently discovered (Bladensburgh National Park
and Isisford, Queensland) and historical fossil localities (Lark Quarry Conservation Park) along with samples derived from
Geological Survey of Queensland stratigraphic core logs (GSQ Eromanga 1 and GSQ Longreach 1). Also displayed are a
number of historical archosaurian fossil assemblage localities throughout the Winton Formation (A–D) based on described
findings from but not limited to: Thulborn and Wade (1979), Coombs and Molnar (1981), Thulborn and Wade (1984, 1979,
1989), Dettmann et al. (1992), Molnar (2001), Molnar and Salisbury (2005), Salisbury et al. (2006a,b), Agnolin et al. (2010),
Hocknull et al. (2009), and Molnar (2010).

The Eromanga Basin forms a major portion of the Great Artesian Basin (GAB; Fig. 2-1),

the tectonic history of which is still a matter of debate. Studies such as those by Gallagher

(1990) have proposed that the GAB occupied a foreland basin setting during the

Cretaceous, whereas others, such as Gray et al. (2002), suggest a more complex,

13
intracratonic basin setting. Either way, there is consensus that either a major arc- or rift-

related volcanic system was located on the eastern margin of the basin, providing a

synorogenic source for the abundant feldspathic and volcanolithic petrofacies that

characterize the Winton Formation (Bryan et al., 1997). Draper (2002) and others also

demonstrated that a large portion of the basin was inundated by an empiric seaway during

the Cretaceous as a result of globally elevated sea levels. There is evidence for two major

transgressive–regressive cycles in the basin, though direct correlation to global events is

problematic (Gallagher and Lambeck, 1989). Gallagher and Lambeck (1989) suggest that

the voluminous input of volcanic detritus into the basin is directly related to the

transgression and regression events rather than global effects, although this is debated

(Draper, 2002). The richly fossiliferous, alluvial to coastal plain strata of the Winton

Formation were deposited following the final regression of the interior sea from central

Australia (Draper, 2002).

The Winton Formation is exposed over large portions of Queensland and portions

of northern New South Wales, north-western South Australia and the south-western corner

of the Northern Territory (Fig. 2-1). Originally designated the “Winton Series”, the unit

was initially described by Dunstan (1916), as a succession of terrestrial (alluvial)

sandstones, shales and minor coal seams. The Winton Formation overlying the dominantly

marine Rolling Downs Group, originally defined by Jack (1886) and Dunstan (1916) and

unconformably overlain by modern fluvial deposits in the form of ‘black soil’. However,

the first mention of the Winton Formation and regional synthesis of the Cretaceous

nomenclature was not until Whitehouse (1954, 1955), Exon (1966), Casey (1970) and also

Senior and Mabbutt (1979), all of whom defined the formation as the upper portion of the

14
Rolling Downs Group and designated it as an Upper Cretaceous continental unit

conformably overlying the marine Mackunda Formation and provided the first detailed

sedimentologic characterization of the horizons comprising it. More recently, Gray et al.

(2002) grouped the Winton together with the Mackunda Formation to form the Manuka

Subgroup (Fig. 2-2).

Figure 2- 2 Cross section of the Central Eromanga Basin, Queensland, with stratigraphic positions of analyzed zircon
samples, modified from Draper (2002). Stratigraphic cross-sections A–A′ was based on GSQ McKinlay 1 south to Isisford
Water Bore Log, and includes stratigraphic position of detrital zircon samples derived from Lark Quarry Conservation
Park, Bladensburg National Park and Isisford, Queensland. Stratigraphic cross-sections B–B′ is a cross-section form GSQ
Longreach 1, Isisford Water Bore Log and GSQ Eromanga 1, and includes stratigraphic position of detrital zircon samples
derived from GSQ Longreach 1 and GSQ Eromanga 1. (1*) denotes that above the in places (Lark Quarry and
Bladensburgh National Park) that the Winton Formation is exposed in ‘jump up's’ which is capped by laterite and
Quaternary alluvium, whereas in other locations (Isisford, Queensland) the upper Winton Formation is very poorly
exposed and blanketed by 'black soil'.

2.1 Stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Winton Formation

This study focuses on vertebrate fossil-bearing localities within the Winton

Formation near Winton (Bladensburg National Park and Lark Quarry Conservation Park)

and Isisford (Fig. 2-2). Additional investigations of GSQ cores (GSQ Eromanga 1 and GSQ

15
Longreach 1) were conducted to place these sites into a regional framework. Exposures of

the Winton Formation between Lark Quarry and Bladensburg National Park are continuous

and dominantd by fine-grained sandstones, siltstones and mudstones. Much of the exposure

at both localities is heavily weathered, characterized by kaolinized feldspars and volcanic

detritus. Sandstones are typically feldspathic to feldspatholithic, fine to medium grained,

well sorted, and exhibit sub-angular to subrounded grains. Sedimentary structures

commonly noted in outcrop. Sedimentary structures commonly noted in outcrop at both

localities include, but are not limited to: asymmetrical and symmetrical current ripple cross-

lamination, trough and tabular cross-stratification, scour and fill structures, and lenticular

channel macroform elements. Mudstones are commonly gray, purple or olive green, and in

some areas exposures reveal ‘shrink and swell’ smectitic characteristics, including haystack

mounds and popcorn texturing. Fossil material is commonly exposed at or near the base of

(locally known as 'jump-ups'). Well-preserved associated to poorly articulated body fossils,

along with mollusk shells, are often only found 1.0–3.0 m below the surface. Commonly

surface material is typically limited to weathered fossil bone shards.

In contrast, the sedimentology at Isisford presents a dramatic departure from the

suite of facies seen at the Bladensburg National Park and Lark Quarry Conservation Park

sites, with much of the fossil material preserved in medium-to-coarse grained Fe-oxide and

calcite cemented sandstone nodules, some of which are still in situ. The Winton Formation

in this area is poorly exposed and mostly covered by ‘black soil’, a recent alluvial deposit

that blankets much of the Eromanga Basin (Twidale, 1966). The large fossil-bearing

nodules (many exceeding 3–4 m in diameter) are located at or near the weathering surface,

but their precise stratigraphic position within the Winton Formation is difficult to constrain

16
precisely. Only some of the nodules are in situ, including the dinosaur bearing nodule used

in this study. Those which are not may represent surface lag, concentrated as erosion of

softer, poorly cemented led to stratigraphic condensation of the nodules. Based on

correlation with nearby well and core logs (ESSO Australia Isis Downs-1, GSQ Longreach

1, and GSQ Maneroo 1) the stratigraphic position of the Winton Formation surface

exposures (and nodule) in the Isisford area is towards the top of the unit in this part of the

Eromanga Basin.

The overall character of strata at Bladensburg National Park and Lark Quarry

Conservation Park suggests a fluvial origin, with evidence of channels, floodplain

mudrocks, crevasse splays, abandoned channels, and oxbow lakes, representative of a broad

and expansive fluvial floodplain system. Although some previous studies suggest a

dominantly lacustrine setting for parts of the Winton Formation, such as at the famous

dinosaur ‘stampede’ tracksite at Lark Quarry (Thulborn and Wade, 1979, 1984, 1989), we

regard this as a relatively less abundant facies within the broader Winton depositional

system. Much of the Winton Formation lacks significant surface exposure due to overlying

alluvium and deep weathering; however, trenches excavated near fossil localities indicate

that the subsurface facies are similar to those at Lark Quarry and Bladensburg National

Park.

17
3. Detrital Zircon Geochronology
3.1 Location
Three samples for detrital zircon geochronology were acquired at, or near, key

vertebrate fossil localities within the Winton Formation, while two other samples come

from Geological Survey Queensland (GSQ) cores (Fig. 2-2). Sampling was conducted to

provide spatial coverage across the Winton Formation field areas and range

stratigraphically from just below the base of the Winton Formation (i.e., at the top of the

Mackunda Formation; GSQ Longreach 1) to the upper-most exposed Winton Formation

outcrop in western Queensland (Lark Quarry Conservation Park) (Fig. 2-2). In total five

samples for detrital zircon analysis were collected. Bulk samples (~5–10 kg each) were

extracted from freshly exposed, unweathered fine- to medium-grained sandstones,

interpreted as low-energy fluvial channel deposits except for Bladensburg National Park,

which we interpret as a proximal floodplain deposit.

The first sample was collected from Lark Quarry Conservation Park (Lat:

23°00′58.62″S; Long: 142°24′42.73″E) and was taken from ~1.0 m above the horizon that

preserves the famous Lark Quarry dinosaur tracksite (Thulborn and Wade, 1979, 1984,

1989). This was stratigraphically, the highest sample collected from the Winton Formation,

near the top of the section. The second highest Winton Formation sample comes from

Bladensburg National Park (Lat: 22°30′53.35″S; Long: 143°02′19.89″E), ~2–3 m above the

main fossil-bearing horizon in the park, slightly lower than the Lark Quarry trackway

horizon. The third sample was collected from a locality at Isisford (Lat: 24°15′33.51″S;

Long: 144°26′29.35″E). It was taken directly from a sandstone nodule that preserves the

remains of a presently undescribed dinosaur that is in close proximity to other key fossil-

bearing localities in the area (see Salisbury et al., 2006a). The nodule was discovered in-
18
situ in the uppermost portion of the bedrock, but most of it was initially buried by the

‘black soil’, which directly overlies most of the upper-most unexposed Winton Formation

within the Isisford region. The final two samples came from cores drilled in central-western

Queensland by Geosciences Queensland (GSQ), including one sample from the GSQ

Eromanga 1 core (ERO1-11-001). GSQ Eromanga 1 core was drilled east of Eromanga,

Queensland (Lat: 26°36′52.93″S; Long: 143°52′48.41″E) and this sample (ERO1-11-001)

was collected from the core interval between 16.5 and 26.7 m (boxes 2–5) below surface

(roughly 146.0 m above base of the Winton Formation). This sample is taken from the

upper-most subsurface section of the recovered core. A second sample was taken from the

GSQ Longreach 1 (LO1-11-001) core, which was drilled northeast of Longreach,

Queensland (Lat: 23°06′42.93″S; Long: 144°35′58.41″E) and (LO1-11-001) was collected

from the core interval between 20.8 and 35.8 m (boxes 1–6) below surface of retrieved

core. This sample is collected from the upper most portions of the Mackunda Formation

(Fig. 2-2).

3.2 Zircon Separation

All samples were crushed and milled in a tungsten carbide disc mill and then sieved

using both 250 and 500 μm meshes to enhance the possibility of sampling potential distal

volcanic ash derived zircons. The material was washed and decanted numerous times to

remove the clay-sized fraction. Heavy minerals were separated using lithium polytungstate

adjusted to a specific gravity of 2.85–2.87. Mineral separates were then washed, dried, and

a hand magnet was used to remove strongly magnetic minerals, followed by a Frantz

magnetic separator at progressively higher magnetic currents of 0.5, 0.8, 1.3, and 1.5, set at

a constant 10° side slope. The non-magnetic heavy mineral separates were then selected via

hybrid selection protocols that involved handpicking zircons as randomly as possible from

19
the greater population within a defined field of view. Following this, the remainder of each

sample was handpicked a second time with the intention of selecting the clearest, most

euhedral grains remaining in each sample; with the goal of increasing the likelihood of

analyzing maximum age constraining young zircons. For each sample, ~100–150 grains

were mounted in a 25 mm epoxy resin puck, polished to expose their mid-sections and

imaged using a Jeol JSM5410LV scanning electron microscope with attached

cathodoluminescence detector in order to document microstructures, cracks, inclusions and

other complexities.

3.3 LA-ICP-MS U-Pb dating of zircon

3.3.1 Experimental Approach

All work was done at the Advanced Analytical Centre of James Cook University,

using a Coherent GeolasPro 193 nm ArF Excimer laser ablation system connected to a

Bruker 820-MS(formerly Varian 820-MS). The ablation cell was connected to the Bruker

820-MS via Tygon tubing and a 3-way mixing bulb (volume ~5 cm3). The standard

cylindrical sample cell was used throughout the study, but with a custom-designed

polycarbonate insert to reduce the effective volume to 4 cm3 (see Supplemental materials).

This insert combined with the mixing bulb provides both a very stable time-resolved signal

and rapid signal washout.

The Bruker 820-MS employs an ion mirror design, which reflects the ion beam

exiting the skimmer cone by 90° and focusses this into the mass analyzer. Non-ionized

large particles and neutrals, as well as partially ionized particles, are not reflected and

extracted by a pump located behind the mirror. In this way, the electrostatic mirror acts as a

particle size filter to admit only fully atomized and ionized particles into the quardupole

mass filter and detector. The advantage of this unique configuration is that it facilitates

20
tuning of the ICP-MS to minimise instrumental mass fractionation focusing on the key ratio

of Pb/U, as described below. The instrumental parameters and operating conditions are

provided in the Supplemental materials.

All instrument tuning was performed using a 5 Hz repetition rate, 44 μm beam

aperture and 6 J/cm2 energy density, as determined by energy meter at the ablation site.

Under these conditions, the ablation rate for NIST 610 and zircon was about 0.1 μm per

laser pulse and 0.06 μm per laser pulse respectively. Tuning was achieved by iteratively

adjusting the He carrier gas, Ar sampling gas, sheath gas flow rate, RF Power, 1st, 2nd, 3rd

Extraction lens and corner lens voltage to achieve 238U/232Th ratio ~1, ThO/Thb1%

typically 0.5% and 206Pb/238U ~0.22 in NIST610. Tuning the instrument towards the

‘true’ 206Pb/238U ratio thus minimises the magnitude of the total Pb/U fractionation

correction applied zircon analyses, reducing the inherent uncertainties in this correction

procedure where there are large age differences between standard and sample zircons.

Using this technique improved the accuracy and reproducibility of zircon U–Pb isotope

analysis in our laboratory (See Supplementary Table 2-1A–E). For sample analysis, the

total measurement time was set at 65 s. The first 30 s was for gas blank measurement (laser

firing but with the shutter closed), with the shutter opened to allow sample ablation for the

final 35 s, standard bracketing was used throughout the study to correct for remaining

elemental fractionation and mass bias.

3.3.2 U-Pb dating of the Winton Formation

Approximately 100 detrital zircons for each of the five samples were analyzed using

the optimized LA-ICP-MS tuning method outlined above. A 32 μm beam diameter was

used for the following samples: Lark Quarry Conservation Park, GSQ Eromanga 1, and

GSQ Longreach 1. However, due to the small grain size of samples from Bladensburg

21
National Park and Isisford, a 24 μm beam diameter (spot size) was used for these samples.

As different aspect ratios (e.g. laser pit diameter/depth ratio) will have different elemental

fractionation characteristics, when one beam size is used (either 24 μm or 32 μm beam),

this beam size is uniformly applied to all zircon to be dated including calibration zircon

standard. Over the duration of ablation, groups of 10–12 zircon grains were analyzed,

followed by at least two analyses each of a primary (GJ-1, 609 Ma, Jackson et al., 2004)

and secondary in-house zircon standard (Temora-2 [TEM-2] 416.8 Ma, Black et al., 2003).

If grains exhibited a greater discordance of 30%, those grains were omitted from the

populations and the study as a whole. All standard analyses were within 2% of the expected

ages, and most were within 1% of the expected age. NIST 610 or 612 was analyzed at the

beginning and end of each session, and at least once in between, for the purpose of

calibrating Th and U concentrations.

3.4 Discussion of detrital zircon geochronology

3.4.1 Youngest detrital zircon age determination

When trying to constrain the maximum depositional age of strata or fossil localities,

it is a common practice to identify the youngest detrital zircon grains in a sample in order to

determine the youngest possible age of deposition (Rainbird et al., 2001). Recent studies,

including a robust investigation by Dickinson and Gehrels (2009), have reappraised the

various methodologies for ascertaining the maximum depositional age and highlighted the

importance of utilizing several different approaches to obtain the most accurate

representation of the maximum depositional age of a sample. This study compares seven of

the most common metrics used to determine the maximum depositional age of a detrital

zircon datasets (e.g., see Dickinson and Gehrels, 2009; Johnston et al., 2009; Lawton and

Bradford, 2011; Robinson et al., 2012), including:1) youngest single grain age (YSG); 2)

22
youngest graphical detrital zircon age (YPP); 3) youngest detrital zircon age (YDZ); 4) the

weighted mean average age (YC1σ) (+3); 5) Weighted Average; 6) weighted mean average

age (YC2σ) (+3); and 7) TuffZirc (Zircon Age Extractor) (+6).

YSG involves singling out the youngest detrital zircon grain within the population.

However, this approach is highly questionable and the least rigorous method because it

represents only a single data point (Dickinson and Gehrels, 2009). As such, this study

employs six other methods to provide a more reliable youngest maximum depositional age

approximation. YPP is the youngest graphical detrital zircon age peak recorded on the

histogram; and is obtained by identifying the first maximum age peak (several grains or

grain cluster (DZ≥3)) along an age-probability plot or age distribution curve, calculated

within ISOPLOT (Ludwig, 2009; Dickinson and Gehrels, 2009; Lawton and Bradford,

2011). YDZ is calculated using an algorithm within ISOPLOT, which extracts the youngest

subset of DZ ages within the whole DZ population using a Monte Carlo analysis

(Dickinson and Gehrels, 2009; Ludwig, 2009). YC1σ (+3) and YC2σ (+3) or the weighted

mean averages at 1 and 2 σ, respectively, incorporate both internal analytical error and

external error of the youngest population within the tested group of grains (Dickinson and

Gehrels, 2009; Jones et al., 2009). Dickinson and Gehrels (2009) and others apply a

minimum of two grains (n≥2) to achieve a maximum depositional age result. However in

this study, we used a minimum three grain cluster limit. YC1σ (+3) and YC2σ (+3) are

derived from the AGE PICK program, generated by the University of Arizona LaserChron

Center. Weighted Average is also an algorithm within Isoplot that utilizes age values and

errors to generate an inverse variance-weighted average that helps to deal with excessive

scatter within a batch of grains (Ludwig, 2009). The last metric applied in this study is the

23
TuffZirc age extractor (+6), an Isoplot algorithm (originally based on the TuffZirc

algorithm by Ludwig and Mundil (2002)) that implements a mathematically based

approach on the loss and inheritance of Pb and its error (Ludwig, 2009). It is suggested by

Ludwig (2009) to include 10 or more grains within the process. However, as this study

seeks the youngest maximum depositional age, the youngest six grains were utilized from

each population as it is the minimum number of grains required for the program to run.

Together, seven methodologies are utilized and evaluated for each sample in order to the

most reliable maximum depositional age for the Winton Formation.

3.4.2 Potential sources of bias in detrital zircon studies

A number of recent studies have highlighted the potential for error and bias in detrital

zircon studies. Most of these studies focus on but are not limited to hydrological sorting,

transport variability and affects to deposition by climate (Hietpas et al., 2011; Lawrence et

al., 2011). These biases mostly affect studies dealing with provenance-based detrital

zircons studies, and have little bearing on studies focused on maximum depositional age

reconstruction. The obvious exception is that techniques, such as multiple sampling of

grains and high resolution CL imaging to identify grain irregularities or cores, are in fact

pertinent to maximum depositional age-based studies like this one, and were applied to this

study.

4. Results
4.1 Lark Quarry sample
Zircon grain morphology ranges from euhedral to abraded and well rounded.

Overall zircon grains derived from these rocks are smaller (75 μm≥n≤100 μm) than those in

other samples. Ninety grains were analyzed (76 reported), yielding multiple age

24
populations, mostly composed of various Mesozoic populations (70%), with the remaining

grains dominantly from Paleozoic sources (24%), and a few Pre-Cambrian grains (6%). Of

the Mesozoic grains, the dominant population is within the Cretaceous (68%), of which

33% are Late Cretaceous and 67% are Early Cretaceous. The remaining populations are

divided between the Jurassic (13%) and Triassic (19%). Analytically, this sample yields the

youngest maximum detrital zircon grain ages of all five samples. Results of the seven

methodologies are as follows: YSG is 92.5 (±1.2) Ma (Table 2-1a), YPP is 93.0 Ma (Fig. 2-

3,Table 2-2), YDZ is 94.5 (+2.1/−2.3) Ma (Table 2-2), YC1σ (+3) is 94.5 (±1.8) Ma (Table

2-2), Weighted Average is 94.5 (±5.3) Ma (Table 2-2), YC2σ (+3) is 94.5 (±3.1) Ma (Table

2-2), and TuffZirc is 97.5 (+0.3/−3.0) Ma (Table 2-2).

4.2 Bladensburg National Park sample

Zircon grain morphology ranged from euhedral to abraded and well rounded,

though they were distinctly larger than those collected at Lark Quarry (100 μm≥n≤200 μm).

Ninety grains were analysed (82 reported), yielding multiple age populations, mostly

composed of various Mesozoic populations (65%), with the remaining grains of Paleozoic

(26%) and a few Pre-Cambrian grains (9%). Of the Mesozoic grains, the dominant

population is Cretaceous (68%) of which 25% are Late Cretaceous and 75% are Early

Cretaceous. The remaining populations are divided between Jurassic (13%) and Triassic

(19%). Analytically, this sample produced the second youngest detrital signature and the

seven methods’ results were as follows: YSG is 93.3 (±1.2) (Table 2-1b), YPP is 96.0 Ma

(Fig. 2-3, Table 2-2), YDZ is 93.8 (+1.9/−1.8) Ma (Table 2-2), and YC1σ (+3) is 94.0

(±1.7) Ma (Table 2-2), Weighted Average is 94.0 (±1.4) Ma (Table 2-2), YC2σ (+3) is 94.5

(±2.9) Ma (Table 2-2), and TuffZirc is 95.6 (+2.2/−2.3) Ma (Table 2-2).

25
4.3 Isisford sample
Zircon grains are typically large with well-preserved euhedral crystals, although

older grains are commonly abraded and well rounded, and average grain size ranged

between 100 μm≥n≤150 μm. Seventy two grains were analyzed (62 reported), yielding

multiple age populations, mostly composed of various Mesozoic populations (65%), and

lesser Paleozoic (22%) and a few Pre-Cambrian grains (13%). Of the Mesozoic grains, the

dominant population is Cretaceous (63%) of that Cretaceous population 100% are Early

Cretaceous. The remaining populations are divided between Jurassic (7%) and Triassic

(27%). Analytically, this sample produced the second oldest maximum depositional ages of

all five samples. The seven age metrics are as follows: YSG is100.5 (±1.1) Ma (Table 2-

1c), YPP is 103 Ma (Fig. 2-3, Table 2-2), YDZ is 101.3 (+1.8/−1.8) Ma (Table 2-2), YC1σ

(+3) Isisford is 101.6 (±1.8) (Table 2-2), Weighted Average is 101.6 (±1.3) Ma (Table 2-2),

YC2σ (+3) is 101.6 (±2.9) Ma (Table 2-2), and TuffZirc is 102.2 (+1.9/−1.9) Ma (Table 2-

2).

4.4 GSQ Eromanga 1 core sample

Zircon grain morphology ranges from euhedral to abraded, well rounded grains with

average grain size between 90 μm≥n≤200 μm. Also, these zircons were the most varied in

colour of all the samples taken. Ninety-nine grains were analyzed (99 reported), yielding

multiple age populations, mostly composed of various Mesozoic populations (80%) and

much fewer Paleozoic grains (15%) and Pre-Cambrian grains (5%). Cretaceous grains

(84%) dominantd the Mesozoic population, of which 6% are Late Cretaceous and 94% are

Early Cretaceous. The Jurassic (6%) and Triassic (10%) grains represent the other

Mesozoic populations. Maximum depositional ages are as follows: YSG is 93.0 (±1.1) Ma

(Table 2-1d), YPP is 96.0 Ma (Fig. 2-3, Table 2-1), YDZ is 95.6 (+1.8/−1.9) Ma (Table 2-

26
1), YC1σ (+3) is 95.2 (±1.6) Ma (Table 2-1), Weighted Average is 101.6 (±1.3) Ma (Table

2-1), YC2σ (+3) is 95.2 (±2.7) Ma (Table 2-1), and TuffZirc is 101.1 (+1.3/−1.4) Ma

(Table 2-1).

4.5 GSQ Longreach 1 core sample

Zircon grain morphology is characterized by notably fewer euhedral crystals. Many

of the grains within the sample are abraded and well-rounded with average grain size

between 90 μm≥n≤150 μm. Seventy-three grains were analyzed (69 reported), yielding

multiple age populations, represented by Mesozoic (57%), Paleozoic (29%) and a few Pre-

Cambrian (14%) grains. Early Cretaceous grains (57%) dominant the Mesozoic populations

with fewer Jurassic (25%) and Triassic (18%) grains. Analytically this sample contains the

oldest maximum depositional ages; YSG is 102.5 (±1.3) Ma (Table 2-1e), YPP is 104 Ma

(Fig. 2-3, Table 2-2), YDZ is 102.8 (+1.7/−2.1) Ma (Table 2-2), YC1σ (+3) is 103.1 (±2.0)

Ma (Table 2-2),Weighted Average is 103.2 (±1.5)Ma (Table 2-2), YC2σ (+3) is 103.1

(±3.5)Ma (Table 2-2), and TuffZirc is 104.3 (+1.6/−1.8) Ma (Table 2-2).

27
28
29
30
31
Table 2- 1 Detrital zircon via LA-ICPMS results for all samples including isotope and concentration data: Th (in PPm)
is Thorium concentrations measured in parts per million; U (in PPM) is Uranium concentrations in parts per million; Th/U
is the divided ratio of Uranium concentrations; Both Pb206/U235 and error calculated at ±1σ and Pb206/U238 and error
calculated at ±1σ were used to calculate and Error Correction Value (Error Corr.). The ratio values for Pb206/U238,
Pb207/Pb206, and Pb207/ Pb206 with all error calculated at ±1σ with the preferred age (Pb206/U238) with error ±1σ
interpreted as YSG. Age is calculated by error propagation and included errors and U and U/Th Concentration are
calculated against NIST 612 and are within ~30% error.

32
4.6 Youngest Grains
Of the five detrital zircon analyses, three samples (Lark Quarry, Bladensburg

National Park, and GSQ Eromanga 1) had three or more grains at or younger than the

Albian-Cenomanian boundary (n≤100.5 Ma). To test the robustness of the youngest

maximum depositional ages, the twenty-four youngest grains in this study (effectively all

Late Cretaceous grains) were grouped and analyzed as a separate sample. Using this

approach, the maximum depositional age metrics for the entire study (n=388 grains)

produces the following ages: YSG is 92.5 (±1.2) Ma (Table 2-2, Supplementary Table 2-

1a,b,d), YPP is 98 Ma (Table 2-1), YDZ is 91.8 (+1.6/−2.3) Ma (Table 2-2), YC1σ (+3) is

92.9 (±1.7) Ma (Table 2-2),Weighted Average is 92.9 (±1.3) Ma (Table 2-2), YC2σ (+3) is

92.9 (±2.9) Ma (Table 2-2), and TuffZirc is 93.5 (+2.1/−1.0) Ma (Table 2-2) (see

Supplementary Fig. 1 for Concordia Plots). Using this approach, one can make a much

stronger argument for a younger (post-Cenomanian/Turonian boundary) depositional age

for at least the upper fossiliferous portion of the Winton Formation.

33
Figure 2- 3 Youngest graphical (histogram based) detrital zircon age peak (YPP) results for all samples (Lark Quarry
Conservation Park at 93 Ma; Bladensburg National Park at 94 Ma; 103 Ma; fossil entombing nodules from Isisfor
Queensland at 103 Ma; GSQ Eromanga 1core at 96 Ma; and GSQ Longreach 1 core at 104 Ma), based on the first
maximum age peak (several grains or grain cluster (DZ≥3)) along an age-probability plot or age distribution curve
presented and calculated within ISOPLOT (Dickinson and Gehrels, 2009; Ludwig, 2009).

34
Table 2- 1 A compilation of all metric's utilized within the study. YSG of all six populations presented with a
±1σ error. YPP or the graphical age based on a histogram derived from Isoplot (see Fig. 3). YDZ of all six
populations is presented with the Age, range (+ or −) and the confidence of that metric. YC1σ (+3) of all six
populations is presented with the Final Age, Weighted Mean Average, Systematical error and MSWD at a ±1σ
error. Weighted Average of all six populations is presented with the Age, Confidence, the amount of grains
rejected, MSWD and the overall probability. YC2σ (+3) of all six populations is presented with the Final Age,
Weighted Mean Average, Systematic Error, and MSDW at a ±2σ error. TuffZirc of all six populations is
presented with the Final Age, Confidence, and the Group Size (the number excluded against the grains used by
the metric).

35
5. Discussion
5.1 Maximum depositional ages
The aim of this study was to determine the youngest maximum deposition age of

the Winton Formation and to temporally constrain its globally significant fauna and flora

(Fig. 1-4). The youngest single grain ages (YSG) for all five samples range from 92.5 Ma at

Lark Quarry, at the top of the section, to 102.5 Ma in the GSQ Longreach 1 core, from the

uppermost sections the Mackunda Formation. If the single grain age is taken as a proxy for

the youngest maximum age of the lower to middle portions of the Winton Formation, it

strongly supports continued deposition of the formation into the Turonian or earlier

(Grandstein and Ogg, 2004; Walker and Geissman, 2009; Ogg and Hinnov, 2012) (Fig. 1-

4).

Figure 2- 4 Temporal relationship of the seven metrics (YSG, YPP, YDZ, YC1σ (+3), Weighted Average, YC2σ (+3),
and TuffZirc (+6)) utilized with in this study, of the six populations (Lark Quarry Conservation Park, Bladensburg
National Park, Isisford, GSQ Eromanga 1, GSQ Longreach 1 and the youngest combined population). Temporal
constraint is suggested for the faunal assemblages at each of the three fossil localities (Lark Quarry Conservation Park,
Bladensburg National Park, and Isisford, Queensland).

36
However, these ages are based on single grains and may be erroneous; hence they should be

used with caution. The value of identifying YSG ages is that they may actually indicate a

small, but true population of younger grain ages that can be verified through additional

zircon analyses. On the other hand, the application of the TuffZirc and YPP metrics

demonstrably produce the oldest ages, and is considered much less sensitive for the

interpretation of the maximum youngest depositional age. Given this insensitivity, we

recommend against using these two metrics for this application. Thus, excluding the

insensitive TuffZirc and YPP ages, along with the potentially inaccurate YSG ages, we find

that each of the other metrics yields relatively similar and robust maximum depositional

age constraints for the upper fossiliferous portion of the Winton Formation (i.e., Lark

Quarry, Bladensburg National Park, GSQ Eromanga-1), between 92.5 Ma and 95.6 Ma.

However, when all samples are compiled (n=388 grains), there is a solid population, and

the application of the four preferred maximum depositional age metrics strongly implies a

post-Cenomanian age (≤93.6 Ma) for the depositional age of the upper fossil-bearing

portion of the Winton Formation. Based on this study, the base of the Winton Formation

appears to be at or near the Albian/Cenomanian boundary, whereas the upper Winton

Formation very likely continued into or past the early Turonian. It should also be

highlighted that in the review by Dickinson and Gehrels (2009) the following variances

within the methodologies are as follows; YSG and YC1σ (+3) on average are within 5 Ma

of deposition, YDZ is within 2 Ma, YPP only 5% of the time younger than that of

depositional age and YC1σ (+3) is older by 10 Ma and is not a more reserved measure.

Also it should be noted that these derived zircon ages only represent an age for the

youngest sediment sources and are not a true depositional age of the formation.

Additionally, given that the uppermost 10–20 m of the Winton Formation was not sampled,
37
it may well be that these horizons preserve detrital zircons that are younger still. Minimally,

the results of this study suggest that the uppermost portions of the Winton strata in the

northern part of the basin were deposited near to or after the Cenomanian/Turonian

boundary. Our findings significantly improve upon continental biostratigraphic age control

for the Winton Formation and support assertions by Helby et al. (1987) that the deposition

of the Winton Formation may extend into the early Turonian.

5.2 Age of Winton Formation vertebrate fossil localities

The stratigraphic position of the various samples that we have considered and their

respective ages indicate that the age of the basal-most Winton Formation and its overlying

thickness vary throughout the basin. Fielding (1992) has shown that in marginal regions of

the Eromanga Basin, the Winton Formation is less than 100 m thick, but that the unit

thickens to more than 1200 m in central areas about the Queensland-South Australian

border. The Isisford sample, which sits approximately 200 m above the inferred contact

with the Mackunda Formation, is here dated as late Albian. This age is closer to that of the

geographically proximate GSQ Longreach 1 sample than any of the other samples that we

considered.

Our results indicate that vertebrate fossil-bearing localities in the Winton area (Lark

Quarry and Bladensburg National Park) are of a similar age (statistically close to

overlapping), deposited near to or after the early Turonian–late Cenomanian, respectively.

This result is consistent with the very shallow dip (~8°) in the broader Winton area, and the

apparent continuity of strata between the two localities. Other fossil sites in the Winton

area, such as those on Alni Station, 50 km NW of Winton (Lat: 22°11′00″S; Long:

142°28′00″ E; Coombs and Molnar, 1981; Molnar, 2001, 2010, 2011; Molnar and

38
Salisbury, 2005), Belmont Station, 60 km NE Winton (22°5′S, 143°30′E; Clifford and

Dettmann, 2005; Salisbury, 2003, 2005; Salisbury et al., 2006a,b, 2007; Scanlon and

Hocknull, 2008; Hocknull and Cook, 2008) and Lovelle Downs Station/Elderslie Station,

48 km WNW of Winton (Lat: 22°11′59″S; Long: 142°31′43″E; Dettmann et al., 2009;

Hocknull et al., 2009; White et al., 2012) are therefore likely to be of similar depositional

history, and would be no older than the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary. The latter sites

traverse a low ridge between Lovelle Downs Station and Elderslie Station, and are all

within a few kilometers of each other (Dettmann et al., 2009; Hocknull et al., 2009; White

et al., 2012). This area is 30 km northwest of Bladensburg National Park and 100 km

northwest of Lark Quarry Conservation Park. Previously, Dettmann et al. (2009; whose age

assessment was followed by Hocknull et al., 2009) proposed that the floral assemblage

from the Lovelle Downs/Elderslie locality was from the late Albian. This assessment was

based primarily on the presence of Cicatricosisporites and Crybelosporites pollen in

association with Clavatipollenites and Phimopollenites, indicating that the sediments were

within the C. paradoxa or P. pannosus spore–pollen zones (of Helby et al., 1987) and

therefore could not be older than middle Albian. A late Albian age was proposed by

Dettmann et al. (2009) because the sediments that the fossils were found in were within

~265 m of the contact with the underlying Mackunda Formation (Watson, 1973). However,

based on the relatively close proximity of the Lovelle Downs/Elderslie locality to

Bladensburg National Park (~30 km), and the likely stratigraphic continuity between these

two areas and Lark Quarry, we suspect that an early Turonian–middle Cenomanian age is

more likely.

39
 There are notable differences between the vertebrate assemblages of Isisford and

those from the Winton area (Bladensburg, Lark Quarry, Elderslie, Lovelle Downs, Alni,

Belmont). The remains of titanosauriform sauropods are the most abundant vertebrate

fossils encountered at sites around Winton (Coombs and Molnar, 1981; Molnar, 2001,

2010, 2011; Molnar and Salisbury, 2005; Salisbury et al., 2006b; Hocknull et al., 2009).

Those that have been described to date are usually preserved as either isolated elements or

as partial, disarticulated and associated skeletons, often in multi-individual bone beds and

associated with isolated and frequently reworked micro-vertebrate remains (Salisbury,

2005; Salisbury et al., 2006b; Hocknull et al., 2009; Molnar, 2010). Disarticulated or semi-

articulated and associated skeletons, such as the holotype of Diamantinasaurus matildae

(Hocknull et al., 2009), have proven to be much less common. The latter specimen was

found in association with a partial, disarticulated theropod skeleton, Australovenator

wintonensis (Hocknull et al., 2009; White et al., 2012). Thus far, other smaller-bodied taxa

from Winton sites have only been described on the basis of isolated elements (Dettmann et

al., 1992; Kemp, 1997; Salisbury, 2003, 2005; Hocknull and Cook, 2008; Scanlon and

Hocknull, 2008; Musser et al., 2009; Salisbury et al., 2011). The Isisford assemblage, on

the other hand, is thus far devoid of sauropods. The most commonly encountered

vertebrates are teleost fishes (Berrell et al., 2008, 2011) and small-bodied crocodyliforms

(Salisbury et al., 2006a). Dinosaurs are rare, but those that have been discovered and

prepared to date are all small (cow-sized or smaller; Fletcher et al., 2009). In nearly all

instances, the vertebrate fossils from the Isisford localities are either near-complete or

partial skeletons, with elements preserved in full articulation, semi-articulation or close

association. With the exception of the crocodyliform remains, none of the other micro-

40
vertebrates recovered from the Winton sites has turned up at Isisford (including lungfishes

and turtles).

While many of the differences between the faunal and floral assemblages of the

Winton sites and Isisford may relate to taphonomy and depositional setting, it is also likely

that the overall biotic composition of each area was distinct in its own right. This study

indicates that vertebrate fossil-bearing sites in the two areas have distinctly different

maximum depositional age profiles, with the Winton sites being middle at least mid

Cenomanian, but likely post-Cenomanian, and the Isisford sites yielding a very early

Cenomanian (100.5–102.2 Ma) maximum depositional age. Interestingly, the stratigraphic

position of the fossil-bearing horizon at Isisford (as represented by the nodule sampled

herein) appears to be well above the Winton-Mackunda boundary in this part of the

Eromanga Basin. Combined with an older age, this strongly suggests local variation in

deposition across the basin, such that the age and depth of boundary between the Winton

and Mackunda Formation may vary geographically. With more precise temporal and

stratigraphic constraints, it should also be possible to more closely examine the variations

in depositional history of the Winton Formation.

5.3 Recalibrating Palynomorph zones

As far back as the 1950s, problems were recognized with the utilization of pollen as

a temporal constraint, due to spores being highly susceptible to reworking in the same

potential manner as the entombing host-rock. In ideal conditions, all constituents of a rock

may be structurally preserved through reworking, but in reality pollen grains are commonly

altered, damaged, or annihilated from the record (Muir, 1966). It is also now acknowledged

that a greater stratigraphic disturbance of pollen is due to marine transgressive and

41
regressive cycles. With three of the four formations within the Rolling Downs Group

represented by P. pannosus (Toolebuc, Allaru Mudstone, Mackunda Formation and the

Winton Formation), the first three of which span marine phases, many problems could

arise. However when the detrital zircon results are coupled with palynological data, a more

reliable interpretation can be formulated.

Historically, palynology and plant macrofossils have been utilized for bracketing a

temporal constraint for mid-Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous sediments within the Eromanga

Basin strata (Hutton Sandstone to the Winton Formation) since the mid-sixties (Vine and

Day, 1965; Evans, 1966). In previous literature (Burger, 1990 and references therein, Sec.

2.2; and McLoughlin et al., 1995) the relative age of the Winton Formation relative to other

units was been based on the occurrence of P. pannosus and A. distocarinatus, (Dettmann

and Playford, 1969; Burger, 1973; Dettmann, 1973, 1994; Morgan, 1980; Burger, 1993).

However, Helby et al. (1987) placed the Winton Formation between the Albian and the

Cenomanian, noting the possibility that deposition could have extended into the early

Turonian. Recently, McLoughlin et al. (2010; pg. 4) noted that plant remains and

palynological data have yet to obtain a definitive age determination of the upper Winton

Formation. Detrital zircons obtained just below the contact between the upper-most

Mackunda Formation date around 102 Ma to 103 Ma (latest Albian; see sec 3.5.5), thus

supporting McLoughlin et al. (2010) age position of samples recovered from the base of the

Winton Formation. However Dettmann et al. (2009) described Lovellea wintonensis from

surface deposits as late-Albian in age based on reports and site descriptions from Peters and

Christophel (1978; pg. 3119–3120) for Lovelle Downs, 48 km WNW of Winton

Queensland. An earlier site description of Lovelle Downs by the Peters and Christophel

(1978) study originally described the floral assemblage being entombed within an exposed
42
lenticular body containing silicified plant remains “just above” the supposed Winton

Formation but failed to described the body in detail (Peters and Christophel (1978; pg.

3119)). It is worth noting here that a plethora of plant remains occur within in a distinct

horizon that occurs both upon exposed surfaces and also within lenticular bodies at the base

of ‘jump ups’ (buttes). These common localities occur in the upper exposed and preserved

Winton Formation throughout the Winton area, including multiple sites just to the south of

Lovelle Downs at Bladensburg National Park and Lark Quarry Conservation Park. The

stratigraphic position of surface and entombed remains is interpreted as portions of the

lower–upper to upper sections of the preserved and exposed Winton Formation, which is in

agreement with the observations noted by Peters and Christophel (1978, pg. 3120),

McLoughlin et al. (1995; pg. 274) and Pole and Douglas (1999, p. 542). These lenticular

beds occur 1–3 m vertically below Lark Quarry's DZ samples described in this study, which

are estimated at 92 (±1.2) Ma to 94.5 (±1.3) Ma in the early to mid-Turonian to very Late

Cenomanian, and just 2–4 m vertically above the dinosaur bone bed quarries at

Bladensburg National Park, which are estimated to be between 93.3 (±1.2) and 95.6 (±1.4)

Ma in the early Turonian to Late Cenomanian (if error is taken into account, then

statistically both sites temporally overlap) (Figs. 1-5 and 1-6). Thus, adjustment of the

spore–pollen zones originally described by Helby et al. (1987), Partridge (2006) and other

authors is needed (Figs. 1-5 and 1-6). This ‘new’ temporal placement of the upper sections

of the Winton Formation partly supports the original observations of Helby et al. (1987)

(Fig. 1-6).

43
Figure 2- 5 (right) Original and revised chronostratigraphy; Original chronostratigraphy based on Appendicisporites
distocarinatus and Phimopollenites pannosus spore–pollen zones originally described by Helby et al. (1987), and (left)
revised to be based on A. distocarinatus (Hoegisporis uniforma) and P. pannosus by Clifford and Dettmann (2005),
Partridge (2006), Dettmann et al. (2009), Hocknull et al. (2009) and McLoughlin et al. (2010). Revised spore–pollen
zonation was based on detrital zircon geochronological information interpreted within this study.

Figure 2- 6 Interpreted temporal relationships (based on the temporal relationship of the seven metrics (YSG, YPP,
YDZ, YC1σ (+3), Weighted Average, YC2σ (+3), and TuffZirc (+6)) utilized with in this study, seen on the right) for
detrital zircon samples derived from the three faunal assemblage localities in the upper Winton Formation (Lark Quarry
Conservation Park, Bladensburg National Park, and Isisford, Queensland), along with the temporal placement of detrital
samples derived from GSQ core logs (GSQ Eromanga 1, GSQ Longreach 1) and the interpreted position of the
conformable contact between the underlying Mackunda Formation and the Winton Formation.

44
5.4 Implications for palaeobiogeography
The rapid separation of Gondwana, principally during the Cretaceous, represented

one of the most important palaeobiogeographic dispersal and subsequent vicariance events

in Earth history. Archosaurian evolutionary lineages, post-separation of Gondwana, have

been widely described as evolutionarily unique to their Laurasia counterparts (Bonaparte,

1986; Agnolin et al., 2010). However, the relationship of fossils from the eastern-most

portion of Gondwana, in particular Australia, is still poorly understood due to a sparse and

poorly dated fossil record. The many recent discoveries of new archosaurian taxa in the

Winton Formation are beginning to shed light on the radiation and dispersal of dinosaurian

clades between South America and Australia via Antarctica. However, prior to this study

had been undertaken taxa could not be reliably placed into a rigorous temporal framework.

The second temporal constraint used by many studies including Molnar (1980), Coombs

and Molnar (1981), Dettmann et al. (1992), Molnar and Willis (1996), Molnar (2001),

Molnar and Salisbury (2005), Salisbury et al. (2006a,b), Hocknull et al. (2009), Fletcher

and Salisbury (2010), and Molnar (2010) has been an association with the P. pannosus

palynomorph zone (Suite III; Burger, 1990 and therein). However, problems arise with the

utilization of this method when it is not used in association with other temporal

constraining methods. P. pannosus spans four stratigraphic units (the Toolebuc Formation,

the Allaru Mudstone, the Mackunda Formation, and the Winton Formation), over a time

span of about 15 My.

With each new discovery, along with the re-description of previously-identified

taxa, it is becoming increasingly apparent that Australian taxa have strong evolutionary ties

to similarly aged forms from South America. Agnolin et al. (2010) revised much of the

45
non-avian dinosaur taxa from the Winton Formation, and found that the majority had

affinities to other Gondwanan taxa, particularly from South America, rather than Laurasia.

With the implementation of the chronostratigraphic framework generated by this study, for

the first time, paleontologists can better place Australia's early Late Cretaceous biota

(including recently discovered undescribed taxa) into a meaningful global context (Sereno,

1997, page 474; Sereno et al., 2004). By continuing to place each fossil horizon into a

temporal framework based on geochronology we can better compare Australian taxa with

coeval forms from other parts of the world (Upchurch et al., 2007; Upchurch, 2008).

6. Conclusions
To accurately contextualize the Winton Formation's terrestrial Cretaceous vertebrate

biota, improved temporal and stratigraphic resolution is paramount. We attempted to

address this problem by testing the potential of utilizing U–Pb LA-ICP-MS detrital zircon

geochronology to refine the age of the formation by systematically investigating the

youngest maximum depositional age of zircons at different stratigraphic levels and

locations throughout the unit. We analyzed five samples (six populations; see sec 4.6) and

compared different approaches (seven) to interpret the youngest maximum depositional age

in order to both refine the age of the formation and to improve regional stratigraphic

relationships between widely separated fossil assemblages. Of the seven approaches (YSG,

YPP, YDZ, YC1σ (+3), Weighted Average, YC2σ (+3), and TuffZirc (+6)), five metric's

are recommended for deriving the youngest maximum depositional age (YSG (when

coupled with other metrics), YDZ, YC1σ (+3), Weighted Average, YC2σ (+3)). Our results

demonstrate that the formation was largely deposited during or shortly after a long period

of intense volcanic activity along the eastern margin of Australia, with erosion of the

46
resulting topography being the main source of sediment. We identified multiple temporally

arrayed Cretaceous volcanic sources that fed the formation, and that the youngest of these

populations was likely deposited syndepositionally, providing greatly improved age

constraints on deposition. Using various metrics for interpreting maximum depositional

age, we find that the youngest samples from Lark Quarry Conservation Park Bladensburg

National Park and drill-core GSQ Eromanga 1 ranged between 92.5 (±1.2) and 93.3 (±1.2)

Ma, and indicate that deposition of the Winton Formation and associated fossil material

occurred within the early-Turonian to Turonian–Cenomanian boundary (Fig. 1-6). As a

result, the previously interpreted earliest known flowering plants occurred at or younger

than the early-Turonian to Turonian–Cenomanian boundary rather than previously

indicated. Fossil material collected from the uppermost underlying Mackunda Formation is

interpreted to be around 102.5 to 104 Ma.

47
 Chapter 3

U-Pb and Lu-Hf detrital zircon provenance

analysis of the Upper Cretaceous Winton
Formation, Eromanga Basin, Queensland:
implications for the tectonic evolution
of eastern Australia

48
ABSTRACT
In order to address a variety of questions that have recently been posed around the
Winton Formation and the tectonics of eastern Australia, 10 detrital zircon samples were
collected from various stratigraphic levels and locations across the basin from both the
Winton Formation and the underlying Mackunda Formation. U-Pb LA-ICPMS
geochronology was conducted on 719 individual detrital zircons, which revealed dominant
population clusters between 200 -92 Ma. Very minor populations of Archean,
Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic grains were also observed and interpreted to be
recycled into the Winton Formation from younger sedimentary units. These grains were
likely originally derived from western Australian cratons. A number of minor
Neoproterozoic to Paleozoic grain populations (ranging from 1000-330Ma) were also
identified and are interpreted to be from nearby sources in northeastern Queensland
including but not limited to the Macrossan, Anakie, Cape River, Greenvale and
Georgetown Provinces. Significant Late Paleozoic to Triassic detrital zircon populations
(330-200Ma) are recorded in this study and these are linked to well-documented local
sources in the New England and Kennedy Provinces. One of the most significant findings
from this study is the documentation of near-continuous volcanic activity from Triassic
through ~92 Ma. The youngest grain ages in this range are interpreted as syndepositional.
Grains of this age, particularly Cretaceous, the most voluminous observed in this study and
are interpreted to be derived from volcanic arc-derived sediments that were transported
westward into the basin from the eastern margin of the continent. This indicates significant
and previously undocumented evidence of continuous arc magmatism along the eastern
margin of Australia during the Jurassic and Cretaceous. The Whitsundays Volcanic
Province has previously been suggested as a source of sediment for the Winton Formation,
and these results support that. The Jurassic, and Cretaceous detrital zircon populations,
along with other selected grain populations were further investigated through Lu-Hf isotope
analysis. The Jurassic-Cretaceous zircons are derived from juvenile mixed crustal and
shallow mantle sources, consistent a typical recycled arc provenance, rather than a Large
Igneous Province, which has recently been suggested. On the other hand, several historical
and recent studies have suggested continuous slab subduction of the Phoenix/Pacific Plate
under the eastward migrating Gondwana margin has been proposed as the mechanism for
the long-lived volcanism that apparently characterized this margin. This model would have
provided a significant volume of volcanic-derived sediment that characterizes the Winton
Formation, with much of this material being transported westward into the basin
syndepositionally or near-sydepositionally by large river systems.

49
1. Introduction
Clastic sediments are important archives of past climate, tectonics and

palaeogeography. Zircon is an ideal detrital mineral for provenance studies because of its

durability, both structurally and chemically, and its abundance in a wide array of rock types

(Köppen and Carter, 2000; Andersen, 2005, Roberts et al., 2012). Advances in detrital

zircon geochronology over the last decade have greatly expanded research potential, and in

many ways, led to a renaissance in sedimentary petrology (Dickinson, 1974; Cawood et al.,

2007; Gehrels, 2011). This is due to numerous advances in U-Pb geochronology that have

made it possible to rapidly and economically date and analyze large populations of detrital

minerals, in particular zircon (e.g., Fedo et al., 2003; Surpless et al., 2006; Gehrels, 2008;

Dickinson & Gehrels, 2009; Frei & Gerdes, 2009; Gehrels, 2011).

The application of detrital zircons recently played a significant role in helping to

unravel the late Mesozoic tectonic evolution of New Zealand, New Caledonia, eastern

Australia and the South Pacific islands (Adams et al., 1998; Cluzel et al., 2011, 2012;

Bryan et al., 2012, Seton et al., 2012). In particular, the eastern Australia margin has been

the subject of considerable debate with multiple hypotheses arising for the timing and mode

of volcanism and plate boundary interaction (Ewart et al., 1992; Adams et al., 1998;

Veevers et al., 2000; Cluzel et al., 2011, 2012; Bryan et al., 2012, Seton et al., 2012).

Although an active volcanic system was located on the eastern margin of the Australian

Craton during the middle Cretaceous, questions still remain concerning the mode and origin

of volcanism at that time. In particular, it has been debated whether volcanism during this

period was related to either long-lived subduction related arc volcanism or to extension and

rift related Siliceous-Large Igneous Province (S-LIP) volcanism (~130-95 Ma) (Veevers et

al., 1997; Bryan et al., 1997; Veevers, 2000 a,b,c; Bryan et al., 2012).
50
 In a recent study, Bryan et al. (2000, 2012) investigated the fragmentary remnants

of the Cretaceous volcanic bodies in the Whitsunday Volcanic Province (WVP), which

extend from Maryborough, Queensland to just north of Mackay, Queensland. Their study

found evidence of both intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks in the WVP dominantd by

rhyolitic and dacitic compositions. Based on geochemistry and isotopic dating, they

interpreted the WVP as evidence of a previously unrecognized episode of S-LIP volcanism

that predated later Cretaceous rifting (~85 Ma), which led to the northern unzipping of the

Tasman Sea Basin (Coral Sea). Bryan et al. (2012) also concluded that the fragmentary

remnants of the WVP represent only a small portion of a much larger original volcanic

region. Their study also used sedimentary provenance data from adjacent westerly lying

basins to constrain the timing and cessation of volcanism, which they concluded was

between ~130-95 Ma (Bryan et al., 2012).

In contrast to the S-LIP model, the long held tectonic theory for the northeastern

Australian Margin is a long-lived subduction margin and continuously associated arc

magmatism (Kemp, et al., 2009; Li et al., 2014). Much of eastern Australia is composed of

the Tasmanides, an easterly younging series of orogenic terranes (Li et al., 2014). The

Tasmanides are estimated to originate in the Neoproterozoic and preserve a tectonic record

which extends into the Triassic (Glen, 2005). This accreted series of terranes dominantly

records continuous convergent-transform tectonism coupled with episodic subduction zone

retreat along the developing eastern Gondwana margin until at or around the Late Triassic

(Fergusson, 1999; Glen, 2005; Gray et al., 2006; Kemp et al., 2009). Extensive isotopic

evidence also reliably correlates these pre-Mesozoic terranes to distinct Australian terranes

or established tectonic events post-dating the unzipping of the Tasman Line (Luyendyk,

51
1995; Veevers, 2000a,b; Collot et al., 2009; Waschbusch et al., 2009; Champion &

Bultitude, 2013).

Figure 3- 1a Map of Queensland, northeastern Australia displaying surface exposures of the Winton Formation
within the Eromanga Basin. Symbols indicate detrital zircon sample locations derived from at or near recently discovered
and historical fossil localities (Bladensburg National Park, Lark Quarry Conservation Park, and Isisford, Queensland)
along with detrital samples derived from Geological Survey of Queensland stratigraphic core logs (GSQ Eromanga 1,
GSQ Longreach 1-1B, GSQ Blackall 2, GSQ McKinlay1, and GSQ Maneroo 1). Figure 3-1b. Stratigraphic cross-section
A-A’ includes stratigraphic position of all detrital zircon samples derived from the Eromanga Basin for both the
Mackunda and Winton Formation. Australian image modified from GeoScience Australia 2013.

52
 Although many workers have hypothesized continuous arc volcanism and

subduction along eastern Australia into the Late Cretaceous, the lack of well-preserved arc

rocks of this age severely limit the testability of this idea or the more recent S-LIP model.

Because very little of the Mesozoic volcanic Arc or rift-related volcanics remains in eastern

Queensland as a result of rifting of the Coral Sea, sedimentary provenance analysis may

provide the best opportunity to understand the late Mesozoic tectono-volcanic history of

this part of Australia. The uppermost strata preserved in the Eromanga Basin are mid- to

Late- Cretaceous in age and represent the best starting point for investigating this question.

In particular, the Winton Formation, a unit best known for its prolific terrestrial dinosaur

fauna, has been indicated to have strongly volcanolithic petrofacies (Grey, 2002, and

references there in). However, relatively little sedimentological or provenance analysis of

the Winton Formation has actually been conducted to demonstrate this or its potential for

revealing information about late Mesozoic volcanic source areas of Eastern Australia.

Bryan et al. (1997) specifically hypothesized a source in the Whitsunday Volcanic Province

to account for the putatively volcanic-rich sediments of the Winton Formation.

Additionally, only a handful of studies (with very little agreement) have tried to extrapolate

sediment input and drainage patterns within the Eromanga Basin during the middle

Cretaceous. Most recently, Veevers (2000), King and Mee (2004), and MacDonald et al.

(2013), dispute a link between Cretaceous-age detrital zircons observed in Cretaceous-

Eocene age deposits of the Ceduna Delta in South Australia and erosion of volcanic detritus

from the Whitsundays Volcanic Province or the Eastern Australian Highlands. However,

this and other assertions must first be tested through careful provenance analysis of the

Winton Formation.

53
 Hence, the goal of this project is to comprehensively investigate sedimentary

provenance of the mid-Cretaceous Winton and Mackunda formations within the Eromanga

Basin via U-Pb detrital zircon geochronology and Lu-Hf isotopes (Fig. 3-1). By analyzing

ten detrital zircon samples (~850 U-Pb ages & 83 Lu-Hf analyses) from key stratigraphic

levels within the Winton and underlying Mackunda formations, we are able to interpret the

major sources of sediment for these units, and reconstruct middle Cretaceous continental

drainage patterns. For instance, these data are crucial to testing the recent hypothesis that

Upper Cretaceous sediments of the Ceduna Delta System are genetically linked to the

Winton Formation and ultimately the Whitsunday Volcanic Province. Most importantly,

these results shed new light on the tectono-magmatic history of eastern Australia over the

latter half of the Mesozoic, and also aid in reconstruction of the palaeogeography and

palaeoenvironments associated with one of Australia’s most import dinosaur faunas.

2. Geological background
2.1 Eromanga Basin
The expansive Eromanga Basin is one of the largest sedimentary basins in Australia

(Fig. 3-1), covering much of central and southern Queensland, easternmost Northern

Territory, and the very northern portions of South Australia and New South Wales. The

Eromanga Basin also forms the central portion of the Great Artesian Basin, and according

to Draper (2002b), the Eromanga Basin developed above portions of the earlier Cooper,

Galilee and, Georgina Basins, and the Mt. Isa Province and the Maneroo Platform (Draper,

2002b; Cook et al., 2013). The Eromanga Basin was originally interpreted as intracratonic

sag (Grey, 2002), however other workers have interpreted it to be a foreland basin

(Middleton, 1989; Gallagher, 1990; Cartwright & Dewhurst, 1998; Draper, 2002c; Cook et

54
al., 2013). At present there seems to be little consensus on this debate (e.g., see Fielding

1996; Isern et al., 2002, Bryan et al. 2012).

Regardless of its tectonic origins, the Eromanga Basin is widely considered to have

initiated during the late Triassic, with the Triassic Cuddapan Formation representing the

earliest depositional unit in the basin (Draper, 2002). However, deposition during the

earliest phase of basin development was restricted to low-lying depressions at the southern

end of the Bowen Syncline (Whitehouse, 1954). Subsequent Jurassic sediments were

deposited in dominantly terrestrial –fluvial environments, which are interbedded with

argillaceous rocks (Senior et al., 1978; Exon and Burger, 1981; Draper, 2002). The Lower

Jurassic succession is limited to the interior of the basin, whereas the Upper Jurassic units

extend beyond the outer fringes of the Eromanga Basin (Gallagher & Lambeck, 1989).

During the Latest Jurassic to Earliest Cretaceous, the Eromanga Basin was slowly

inundated by a marine flooding that culminated in an expansive interior seaway across

much of the basin and existed for most of the Early Cretaceous. This event is recorded by

the transition from basal fluvial and floodplain sandstones and siltstones of the Adori

Sandstone (late Oxfordian) to the Westbourne Formation (late Oxfordian – earliest

Tithonian) in the first recorded marine transgression. The overlying Westbourne Formation

to Cadna-Owie Formation (earliest Tithonian-earliest Barremian) preserves the regression

stage of the interior seaway, typified by near-shore to terrestrial fluvial and lacustrine

environments (Senior et al., 1978; Gray et al., 2002). The overlying Wallumbilla and

Toolebuc formations, the Allaru Mudstone and the Mackunda Formation (earliest

Barremian-latest Albian-earliest Cenomanian) preserve sediments that are characteristic of

a long-lived shallow-marine seaway (Exon and Senior, 1976).

55
2.2 The Winton Formation
The Winton Formation is poorly but extensively exposed over large portions of

Queensland, as well as in a number of localities in the northern New South Wales, north-

western South Australia and the south-western corner of the Northern Territory (Fig. 3-1a)

The Winton Formation was originally described by Dunstan (1916) as the “Winton Series”,

consisting of sandstones, shales and minor coal seams that overlie the predominantly

marine sediments of the Mackunda Formation. It was not until Whitehouse’s (1954)

construction of the stratigraphic nomenclature of the Eromanga Basin that the Winton

Formation was formally defined. Vine and Day (1965) and Vine et al., (1967) redefined

the Cretaceous stratigraphy in the basin as follows: Wilgunya Group at the base

(Wallumbilla, Toolebuc and Allaru formations), overlain by the Manuka Subgroup

(Mackunda and Winton formations). Vine et al. (1967) noted that the original divisions of

the Roma and Tambo Series, as defined by Whitehouse (1955), were invalid stratigraphic

rock units (valid only as biostratigraphical units), whereas the Winton Formation, first

described as an interbedded freshwater sequence of mudstones, sandstones, and minor coal

seams was supported as a mappable unit and considered a valid formation. More recently

the Winton Formation was placed within the Rolling Downs Group (upper Manuka

Subgroup) and additional sedimentologic investigations refined the description of the unit

as consisting of complex repetitive sequences of fine to medium-grained feldspatholithic or

lithofeldspathic arenite, siltstones, mudstones and claystones with minor thinly bedded

mud-clast conglomerates and rare limestones (Casey, 1970; Exon and Senior, 1976; Senior

et al., 1978; Senior and Mabbutt, 1979; Coote, 1987; Gray et al., 2002).

56
2.3 Study area and sample locations
Ten detrital zircon samples were collected from across the Winton Formation

outcrop area and from Geoscience Queensland (GSQ) sedimentary cores drilled in central

Queensland (Fig 3-1a,b). Four of the samples were acquired at, or near, key vertebrate

fossil localities within the Winton Formation (Isisford, Hades Hill, Eureka, and

Bladensburg). The remaining six core samples were chosen (GSQ Eromanga, Longreach,

Maneroo (2), McKinlay, and Blackall), based on stratigraphy and location, from the

Geological Survey Queensland (GSQ) core shed (Fig. 3-1a,b). Stratigraphically, samples

were collected from the top of the Mackunda Formation, ~10 m below the contact with the

base of the Winton Formation to the upper-most levels of the Winton Formation exposed in

outcrop in western Queensland (Lark Quarry Conservation Park, and Bladensburg National

Park) (Fig. 3-1b). Outcrop samples collected from Lark Quarry Conservation Park include

Eureka (Lat: 23°00’58.62”S; Long: 142°24’42.73”E) and Hades Hill (Lat: 23°00’44.96”S;

Long: 142°24’44.95”E). Samples derived from Eureka were taken from ~1.0 m above the

horizon that preserves the famous Lark Quarry dinosaur tracksite (Thulborn and Wade,

1979, 1984, 1989; Romilio et al., 2013). Eureka is stratigraphically the highest sample

collected from the Winton Formation. The second sample from Lark Quarry Conservation

Park; Hades Hill was collected from several meters below the track horizon and is

stratigraphically lower in section that the Eureka sample. This sample was located at the

base of the local ‘jump-ups’ at a locality, which preserves abundant plant and vertebrate

fossil remains. The third Winton outcrop sample comes from Bladensburg National Park

(Lat: 22°30’53.35”S; Long: 143°02’19.89”E), ~2–3 m above the main fossil-bearing

horizon in the park, slightly below the level of the Lark Quarry trackway horizon. The

fourth outcrop sample was collected near Isisford, Queensland (Lat: 24°15’33.51”S; Long:

57
144°26’29.35”E). This sample was taken directly from a large carbonate-cemented

sandstone concretion containing a new, undescribed dinosaur. This sample site is also in

close proximity to other key fossil-bearing localities in the area (see Salisbury et al.,

2006a).

Six additional detrital zircon samples were derived from GSQ cores, including

Eromanga 1, McKinlay 1, Blackall 2, Longreach 1-1B, and Maneroo 1 (Fig 3-1a,b). GSQ

Eromanga 1 core was drilled east of Eromanga, Queensland (Lat: 26°36'52.93"S; Long:

143°52'48.41"E) and this sample (ERO1-11-001) was collected from the core interval

between 16.5-26.7 meters (boxes 2-5) below surface (roughly 146.0 meters above base of

the Winton Formation). Two samples were taken from GSQ McKinlay 1, drilled near

McKinlay, Qld (Lat: 21°35'33.00"S; Long: 142°15'35.00"E). The uppermost sample

(McKinlay_02) was collected from near the top of the core at a depth of 9.16-9.54m (Box

2), which corresponds to the upper Winton Formation. The lowermost sample

(McKinlay_16) was collected at a depth of 53.82-54.30m, and is identified as a middle

Winton Formation sample.

A samples was collected from GSQ Blackall 2 core (Lat: 24°09'45.33"S; Long:

144°13'25.00"E), and was collected because of its proximity to the Isisford fossil site. This

sample was collected from a depth of 20.8-35.8m (Box 1-6). Another sample was

collected from GSQ Longreach 1-1B core (sample LO1-11-001), which was drilled

northeast of Longreach, Queensland (Lat: 23°06'42.93"S; Long: 144°35'58.41"E). This

sample was collected from the interval between 20.8-35.8 meters below surface (boxes 1-

6), and represents the uppermost portion of the Mackunda Formation (Fig. 3-1). The last of

the sampled cores was collected from GSQ Maneroo 1, which was drilled northeast of

58
Maneroo, Queensland (Lat: 23°23’09.10"S; Long: 144°28'04.41"E). The Maneroo sample

was collected from box 331, between 342.3-343.3 m below surface, and is the

stratigraphically lowest sample analyzed in this study, from the middle Mackunda

Formation.

3. Methods
3.1 Field and core sampling
Detailed sedimentologic and stratigraphic analysis of the Winton and Mackunda

formations conducted as part of this study. In particular, outcrop investigations were

focused on Bladensburg National Park and Lark Quarry Conservation Park. To get a more

holistic understanding of the Winton Formation, cores were also investigated and sampled

as part of this study and detailed descriptions on each of the GSQ cores were performed.

Decimeter-scale, measured sections were constructed at the four outcrop sample locations

using a Jacob’s Staff and Brunton compass.

To ensure consistent sampling, detailed facies analysis was also performed at each

sample area to characterize the depositional environments of the Winton and reconstruct

regional palaeogeography of the Winton depositional system (Tucker et al., 2014). Bulk

samples weighing 5-10 Kg each were collected from each field locality from freshly

exposed, unweathered fine- to medium-grained sandstones. In addition, palaeocurrent

measurements on fluvial sandstones were collected at Bladensburg National Park and Lark

Quarry where possible; however intense surface weathering has greatly limited the

potential for identifying and recording accurate palaeocurrent measurements.

59
 Sampling of the six core samples was conducted at the Geoscience Queensland core

facility in Zillmere, Queensland. This was performed as part of a larger core logging study

of the Winton Formation focused on geochronology and reconstruction of

palaeoenvironments (Tucker et al., 2013, 2014). Because of the precious nature of these

cores, all core samples were chosen with care and collected from half-cores collected over

several meters from each box, with each sample totaling ~5kg of fine- to medium-grained

sandstone from dominantly fluvial or shallow marine sandstone facies. Detailed core logs

were constructed and photographed through each of the sampled intervals.

3.2 Detrital zircon separation

All samples were crushed and milled in a tungsten carbide disc mill. Samples were

washed to remove the clay-sized fraction, but all other grains below <500 µm were utilized

to enhance the possibility of sampling potential distal volcanic ash derived zircons. Heavy

minerals were separated using lithium Polytungstate adjusted to a specific gravity of 2.85-

2.87. Mineral separates were then washed, dried and a hand magnet was used to remove

strongly magnetic minerals, followed by a Frantz magnetic separator at progressively

higher magnetic currents of 0.5, 0.8, 1.3, and 1.5 set at a constant 10° side slope. Non-

magnetic heavy fractions (>1.3) were then selected via a hybrid selection protocol that

involved handpicking zircons as randomly as possible from the greater population within a

defined field of view. Zircon populations derived from fossil localities at LQCP, BNP, and

Isisford Queensland, along with GSQ Eromanga 1 and GSQ Longreach 1-1B were utilized

in a prior study that focused on refining the age of the Winton Formation through the

systematic identification of the maximum depositional age at each sample locality (Tucker

et al., 2013). Provenance data from these samples are investigated here for the first time, in

combination with new data from the additional samples Hades Hill. For each sample,

60
~100-150 grains were mounted in a 25 mm epoxy resin puck, polished to expose their mid-

sections and imaged using a Jeol JSM5410LV scanning electron microscope with attached

cathodoluminescence detector in order to document cores, microstructures, cracks,

inclusions and other complexities.

3.3 U-Pb Analysis

All work was done at the Advanced Analytical Centre of James Cook University using a

Coherent GeolasPro 193nm ArF Excimer laser ablation system connected to a Bruker 820-

MS(formerly Varian 820-MS). Instrumental tuning, sample protocal and set up followed

the methodologies outlined in Tucker et al. (2013). All analyses were performed using a 5

Hz repetition rate, 44 µm beam aperture and 6 J/cm2 energy density, as determined by

energy meter at the ablation site. Under these conditions, the ablation rate for NIST 612

and zircon was about 0.1 µm per laser pulse and 0.06 µm per laser pulse respectively. For

all sample analyses (which averaged 100 grains per sample) the total measurement time

was set to 65 seconds. Standard bracketing was used throughout the study to correct for

remaining elemental fractionation and mass bias (Tucker et al., 2013).

A 32 µm beam diameter was used for the following samples: Eureka, Hades Hill,

Eromanga 1, McKinlay 1, Blackall 2, Longreach 1-1B, and Maneroo 1 (2). However, due

to the small grain size of samples from Bladensburg and Isisford, a 24 µm beam diameter

(spot size) had to be used for these samples. The primary zircon standard used in all

analyses was GJ-1 (609 Ma, Jackson et al., 2004) and the secondary zircon standard used

was Temora- 2 (TEM-2; 416.8 Ma, Black et al., 2003). After NIST glass and standards

were used to tune the instrument at the beginning of each analytical session, groups of 10–

12 unknown zircons were analyzed, followed by at least two analyses of the primary

standard and 2 analyses of the secondary standard. During the course of this study, all

61
standard analyses fell within 2% of the expected ages and most were within 1% of the

expected age. NIST 612 were analyzed at the beginning and end of each session and at

least once between for the purpose of calibrating Th and U concentrations (Tables 1a-e).

62
63
64
65
66
Table 3- 1 (A-E) Detrital zircon via LA-ICPMS results for all samples including isotope and concentration data:
Th (in PPm) is Thorium concentrations measured in parts per million; U (in PPM) is Uranium concentrations in parts
per million; Th/U is the divided ratio of Uranium concentrations; Both Pb206/U235 and error calculated at ±1σ and
Pb206/U238 and error calculated at ±1σ were used to calculate an Error Correction Value (Error Corr.). The ratio
values for Pb206/U238, Pb207/Pb206, and Pb207/ Pb206 with all error calculated at ±1σ with the preferred age
(Pb206/U238) with error ±1σ interpreted as YSG. Age is calculated by error propagation and included errors and U and
U/Th Concentration are calculated against NIST 612 and are within ~30% error. 67
3.4 Lu-Hf Analysis
Following U-Pb analysis on each of the ten detrital zircon samples, a subset of

grains representing each of primary age peaks selected for Lu-Hf isotope analysis. This

work was conducted via Thermo Scientific Neptune MC-ICPMS and GeoLas Pro 193nm

ArF laser system in the Advanced Analytical Centre, James Cook University. Analytical

protocols and methods follow those established by for the lab by Kemp et al. (2009) and

Næraa et al. (2012). A total of 108 detrital zircons selected from ten primary detrital

populations based U-Pb age concordance (<20%) and age.

The largest beam size possible was used in these analyses, which was typically 32

μm or 42 μm spots, and on rare occasions, a 60 μm. A 4 Hz laser pulse repetition rate over

a 60 second ablation period applied at a constant energy level at 5-6 J/cm2. A He carrier gas

was used during ablation, which was combined with Ar and a small (~0.005 l/min) N2 flow

prior to transport into the ICP-MS. Ablation was conducted as close as practical to the U-

Pb spots. The isobaric interference of Lu and Yb on 176Hf was corrected by monitoring the

interference-free 171Yb and 175Lu intensities during the analysis and then deriving 176Yb and
176 176
Lu using Yb/171Yb = 0.897145 (Segal et al., 2003) and 176
Lu/175Lu = 0.02655
173
(Vervoort et al., 2004). Yb isotope ratios were normalized to Yb/171Yb = 1.130172
179
(Segal et al. 2003) and Hf isotope ratios to Hf/177Hf = 0.7325 using an exponential law.

The mass bias of Lu was assumed to follow that of Yb. Data was processed offline using a

customized Microsoft Excel spreadsheet; within-run outlier rejection was set at 3 standard

errors of the mean. Reference zircons analyzed concurrently with the unknowns yielded
176
mean Hf/177Hf values (± 2 sd) of 0.282185 ± 24 (n = 5) for FC1 and 0.281611 ± 16 for

QGNG (n = 11), identical to the solution 176Hf/177Hf values of 0.282184 ± 16 and 0.281612

± 4, respectively, reported by Woodhead and Hergt (2005). All Hf isotope data were
68
normalized to the solution 176Hf/177Hf value of Mud Tank zircon (0.282507 ± 6, Woodhead

and Hergt, 2005, reported relative to JMC 475 176Hf/177Hf = 0.282160) using laser ablation

data generated from this zircon during the same analytical session (0.282497 ± 15, n = 7, 2

SD). Quoted Hf uncertainties in sample zircons combine within-run analytical errors plus

the reproducibility of Mud Tank zircon.

3.5 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test

The K-S test is a non-parametric method for comparing cumulative probability

distributions (DeGraaff-Surpless et al., 2003; Barbeau et al., 2009; Guynn & Gehrels,

2010). This method is a very practical comparative tool due to the lack of assumptions of

data distributions (Amidon et al., 2005).The K-S test essentially determines, at the 95%

confidence level (2 sigma error), if two populations cannot be derived from the same

source. For P values less than 0.05, the two sets of grain-age data could not have been

derived from the same original source, or population of ages. However, if the P value is

greater than 5%, then the differences between the two samples are simply due to random

chance and they are considered to have the same source. Additionally, the K-S test

calculates the maximum probability distance between the Cumulative Distribution

Functions (CDF’s) of two sets of age distributions (Barbeau et al., 2009). Thus, by setting a

chosen confidence level, the compared sets of data will either pass or fail. This study

utilizes CDF’s based on ages and uncertainties, and excludes those that fail this test. Even

though a 95% confidence interval was applied, all results are reported.

3.6 Potential sources of bias in detrital zircon studies

A number of recent studies have highlighted the potential for error and bias in

detrital zircon studies. Most of these studies focus on, but are not limited to, hydrological

sorting, transport variability and climate effects on deposition (Hietpas et al., 2011;
69
Lawrence et al., 2011). Biases which directly affect the interpretation of provenance

source, age, and sampling errors have been addressed by various workers, including

Moecher and Samson (2006) and Cawood et al. (1999, 2007b). Similarly, all possible

precaution was taken during this study to eliminate potential biases associated with this

detrital zircons study. We recognize that there are inherent biases associated with a study

of this kind and attempted to minimize possible pitfalls through careful sampling strategies,

CL imaging and grain selection.

4. Results
4.1 Winton & Mackunda Formation Temporal Placement
By coupling detrital zircon data from Tucker et al. (2013) with the newly acquired

samples this study can more confidently place constraints on the deposition of the Winton

and Mackunda formations. The Middle Mackunda Formation (Maneroo_331) contains

grains that are younger than 128 ±1 Ma. Thus, the maximum depositional age for the

Middle Mackunda is older than 134 ± 1 Ma to 128 ±1 Ma. Tucker et al. (2013) interpreted

the youngest maximum depositional age for the uppermost Mackunda Formation

(Longreach 1-1B) to be no older than 102 ±1 to 104 ±1 Ma and the lowermost Winton

Formation (Isisford, Qld) no older than 100 ±1 to 102 ±1 Ma. Furthermore, Tucker et al.

(2013) interpreted the Upper Winton Formation to be no older than that of 92-94 Ma based

on samples from Bladensburg National Park, Lark Quarry Conservation Park (Eureka), and

Eromanga_1. Additional results reported here further support these interpretations, and

indeed suggest that the top of the formation may be even younger than suggested. Three

new Upper Winton Formation samples (McKinlay 1, Lark Quarry Conservation Park

(Hades Hill), and Blackall 2) all contain similar maximum depositional age-constraining

70
populations between 92 and 94 Ma. However, a stratigraphically lower sample from the

middle Winton Formation sample (McKinlay 16) was also dated and found to preserve

similar age grains between 92-94 Ma.

4.2 Detrital Zircon Populations

719 grains were dated from the ten different samples collected from the Winton and

Mackunda formations. General observations are first discussed based on the distribution of

grains (n=719 grains) by age (Tables 3-1). The most prominent population observed is the

high proportion of Mesozoic (particularly Cretaceous) grains, moderate to minor

populations of Paleozoic grains and the very low proportion of Precambrian grains. About

20% of grains are Precambrian: Neoproterozoic populations (10.6%), Mesoproterozoic

(5%), Paleoproterozoic (1.3%), and Archean (1.9 %). Paleozoic age grains also contribute

~20% of the total proportion of grains analyzed. However, Mesozoic grains clearly

dominant the sedimentary provenance, representing over 60% of all grains analyzed. A full

review of the detrital zircon provenance patterns observed in this study is presented below

by sample.

71
Figure 3-2 Plausable source terranes for detrital zircons recovered from the Winton and Mackunda formations.
(Modified from Jell, 2013).

72
Figure 3- 3 Youngest graphical (histogram based) detrital zircon age peak (YPP) results for all
individual samples along an age-probability plot or age distribution curve presented and calculated within
ISOPLOT (Ludwig, 2009).

73
 When all samples are collectively reviewed, very minor populations of Archean

grains (middle Paleoarchean-Neoarchean) are recorded. The oldest Paleoarchean (3.3-3.2

GA) grain clusters present are composed of 2-4 grains each. Similarly, the Mesoarchean

(3.2-2.8 Ga) is represented by three clusters (n<3 each), and the Neoarchean (2.8-2.5 Ga) is

represented by only two distinctive clusters (n<4 each). Currently, there are no known

Archean terranes in northeastern Australia, indicating these grains to be not locally derived.

Thus, it is more likely that these detrital grains are from western and southwestern terranes.

Plausible terranes include the Gawler Craton, along with the Musgrave, Arunta, and

Tennant Creek inliers (Fig. 3-2A). The Paleoproterozoic (2.5-1.6 Ga) is represented by

eight clusters with many minor populations composed of two to three grains; however there

is a population around 1.7 Ga represented by five grains. The Mesoproterozoic (1.6-1.0

Ga) is also represented by minor populations represented by five to eight grains each, with

a significant population of 18 zircons around 1.0 GA. Contrary to these minor clusters in

the early and middle Proterozoic, the Neoproterozoic contains roughly five distinctive age

populations containing from eight to 31 grains each. The number of grains in each of these

populations is consistently more as the populations get younger (Fig. 3-2b,c,d).

Regionally there are several potential sources for the Proterozoic grains, including

the Musgrave Province, the Georgetown and Mt. Isa inliers of Queensland, Australia

(Blake & Stewart, 1992; Murgulov et al., 2007; Foster & Austin, 2008; Withnall & Hutton,

2013). Other plausible local source terranes include Greenvale and the Cape River

Metamorphics, which lie within the Charters Towers Province of Queensland (Fig. 3-2c,d)

(Meyers et al., 1996; Draper, 1997; Fergusson et al., 2005; Fergusson et al., 2007b).

74
 Paleozoic zircons (n=145) are significantly more abundant than Archean or

Proterozoic grains (Fig 3-3). Generally, grain population density increases from the

Paleozoic to Permian. When all samples are collectively reviewed in terms of all grains

ablated, Paleozoic clusters fluctuate. Cambrian and Ordovician (541-443 Ma) grains form

six distinct populations grains, and generally populations decrease into the Ordovician.

The Siliurian to Devonian (443-358 Ma) is represented by eight distinct clusters which

fluctuate (3<n<7) with a distinct increase in the Early Silurian and a positive general

increase into the Late Devonian. During this period (Late Cambrian into the Devonian),

Eastern Australia was dominantd by the Tasman Fold Belt System (Scheibner & Veevers,

2000; Fergusson & Henderson, 2013). Plausible local source terranes in Queensland

include the Anakie province, and both the Macrossan and Pama Igneous Associations (Fig.

3-2e) (Murray & Kirkegaard 1978; Day et al., 1983; Withnall et al., 1996; Hutton et al.,

1997; Green et al., 1998; Fergusson & Henderson, 2013).

The number of distinct populations and the amount of grains within each distinct

population both increase between the Middle to Late Paleozoic (Carboniferous-Permian).

Carboniferous (358-298 Ma) grains form five distinctive peaks (4<n<8). The Permian is

represented by four distinct populations, which also contain the most preserved grains

within the Paleozoic (13<n<18) grains each. Likely local and regional source terranes

include the New England Fold Belt and the Kennedy Province of eastern Queensland (Fig.

3-2e) (Scheibner & Veevers, 2000; Champion and Bultitude, 2013; Donchak et al., 2013;

Fergusson & Henderson, 2013). This collection of volcanic terranes was the result of a

westward subduction zone between the Gondwana/Australian margin and the subducting

Phoenix-Pacific Plate which continued the Late Devonian to Permian (380-252 Ma)

75
(Murray et al., 1987; Little et al., 1992; Withnall et al., 1997; Betts et al., 2002; Champion

& Bultitude, 2013).

Mesozoic grain populations contain the majority of all grain ages obtained by this

study (436/719 grains, Fig. 3-3). Generally, Cretaceous grains (n=286) are more abundant

than those in the Jurassic (n=75) or Triassic (n=75). Within the Triassic, seven distinct

clusters are readily identified (5<n<19). Similarly, within the Jurassic, ten distinct clusters

are identified (4<n<20). Both Triassic and Jurassic grain populations are particularly

perplexing with no known source terrane identified within Queensland or Eastern Australia.

Cretaceous grains (up to 92 Ma) represent the largest of cluster of grain ages obtained in

this study (286/719 grains). Cretaceous grains are represented by eight distinct clusters

with peaks between 110-100 Ma (85 grains and 83 grains respectively). Whitsunday

Volcanic Province has previously been postulated as the source for Cretaceous grains in the

Winton Formation (Bryan et al., 2012) (Fig. 3-2f 7 3-3).

4.2.1 Mackunda Formation Grain Ages

The Middle Mackunda Formation (Maneroo_331, 89 grains) contains 15 clusters

(3<n<4) between the Archean and middle Cambrian, and more distinctive grain clusters

between the Permian to Middle Triassic (18<n<32). The middle Mackunda does not record

any of the middle Cretaceous grains (Fig. 3-4). Furthermore, grain populations preserve a

much more diverse array of grain ages. This is likely a result of long-lived shallow marine

conditions influenced by long-shore currents and the mixture of transported sediments via

multiple fluvial systems draining into the sea. Within the upper Mackunda sample

(Longreach 1-1B, 69 grains), pre-Ordovician clusters are very minor (12 clusters with 2-4

76
grains in each) comparatively to the Middle Mackunda Formation. A distinct peak does not

occur until ~490Ma (1 cluster with 6 grains).

Figure 3- 4 Youngest graphical (histogram based) detrital zircon age peak (YPP) results based on stratigraphic
placement within the Winton of underlying Mackunda Formation, along an age-probability plot or age distribution curve
presented and calculated within ISOPLOT (Dickinson and Gehrels, 2009; Ludwig, 2009).

77
 These minor populations are more likely regionally derived from eastern to

northeastern source terranes rather than multimodal sources. The upper Mackunda

Formation contains the first occurrence of middle Cretaceous grain clusters (102-110 Ma, 2

clusters containing 15 and 30 grains respectively). These clusters represent the first influx

of eroded sediment from the eastern lying Whitsunday Volcanic Province.

4.2.2 Winton Formation Grain Ages

The lower Winton Formation (Isisford, Queensland, 62 grains), contains few pre-

Permian clusters. Pre Neoproterozoic grain clusters are represented by four peaks (n<2).

Neoproterozoic populations are represented by four discrete clusters N<3 each) (Fig. 3-4).

These older clusters are likely reworked polyphase grains from northern and northeastern

lying terranes (Mt. Isa, Greenvale and the Cape River Metamorphics). Very late

Neoproterozoic to late Carboniferous nine discrete grains clusters are recognized (2<n<3),

and likely derived from eastern lying source terranes (Anakie province, Macrossan and

Pama Igneous Associations). Mesozoic populations range from the Triassic, which average

about four grains in each cluster to the middle Cretaceous with several clusters containing

27-30 grains each. Grains between the 300 and 100 Ma are interpreted to be derived from

the New England and Kennedy Provinces along with the Whitsunday Volcanic Province.

The Middle Winton (McKinlay_16, 63 grains) contains single cluster prior to the

Neoproterozoic at ~1.55Ga (2 grains) (Fig. 3-4). These grains are likely from north to

northeastern sources (Greenvale and the Cape River Metamorphics, and Mt. Isa

Provenance). Very minor Paleozoic grain clusters fluctuate between 2-4 grains within

each. Distinct clusters only start to occur at 200 Ma, containing between 6-8 grains in each.

The first several distinctive clusters occur in the middle Cretaceous (~34 grains), and also

78
contains the first occurrence of the youngest subset of grains between 92-94 Ma. These

younger clusters are interpreted to be solely sourced from the Whitsunday Volcanic

Province which was deposited in lowland swamps, deltaic and coastal deposition

environments.

The Upper Winton Formation contains a broader suite of grain clusters

(McKinlay_02 (63 grains): Bladensburg National Park (82 grains), Lark Quarry

Conservation Park (Eureka (76 Grains) & Hades Hill (42 grains), Blackall_2 (73 grains),

Eromanga_1 (99 grains), 435 grains total); however, pre Mesoproterozoic grains remain

very minor (2-3 grains each) (Fig. 3-4). Nine minor grain clusters occur within the

Paleozoic, and greatly fluctuate between each cluster (10<n<37 grains each). Permian to

Cretaceous grain clusters greatly increase in the number of grains within each cluster. At

300 Ma the main clusters includes ~75 grains, yet the 100-92 Ma cluster includes 220

grains. These major subsets of grains are interpreted to have been sourced from that later

New England and Kennedy Provinces and the Whitsunday Volcanic Province and were

deposited in fluvial and associated floodplain environments.

4.3 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test)

This study seeks to address whether or not detrital zircons collected from

throughout the Winton Formation are derived from similar source terranes. This study also

seeks to better contextualize these patterns over time, in particular the transitions from the

Mackunda Formation and the Winton Formation. If detrital zircon age populations are

similar, then this would support the hypothesis for a common source area, whereas, if they

do not compare well, then this suggests changing source areas through time or space.

Additionally, late Mesozoic detrital populations are largely unstudied from northeastern

79
Australian and these zircon populations could potentially provide important new data for

understanding the tectonic evolution of eastern Australia. To address these questions, the

null hypothesis that different distributions of detrital zircons (i.e., samples) are the same or

are derived from the same age distribution, was tested using Kolmogorov-Smirnov

goodness-of-fit tests. All samples were tested against each other and results are briefly

discussed below and presented in Figure 3-5 and Table 2.

Despite general similarities in detrital zircon ages, the middle Mackunda Formation

(Pre-Triassic) failed all K-S tests between all other samples (Maneroo-331). This strongly

indicates a fundamental change in source area or sediment delivery between the middle to

Upper Mackunda. This is the only sample that fails all K-S tests and shows no genetic

relationship with other samples (Fig. 3-5a; Table 3-2). The upper Mackunda (Longreach 1-

1B) with the lower Winton Formation (Isisford), and moderately passed the K-S with the

upper Winton Formation (McKinlay-2; Bladensburg; LQCP Eureka; Blackall-2; LQCP

Hades Hill; but failed K-S tests between Eromanga-1 and McKinlay-16) (Fig. 3-5a,b; Table

3-2). The lower Winton Formation (Isisford) strongly passed the K-S with the upper

Mackunda Formation and moderately to strongly passed the K-S with the upper Winton

Formation (Fig. 3-5a,b; Table 3-2). The middle Winton Formation (McKinlay-16) failed

the K-S with the upper Mackunda and also the lower Winton Formation. The middle

Winton Formation did however, strongly to moderately pass with the upper Winton

Formation

80
Table 3- 2 K-S tests results for middle Mackunda Formation (Maneroo-331), the upper Mackunda
Formation (Longreach 1-1B), the lower Winton Formation (Isisford, Queensland), the middle Winton
Formation (MacKinlay-16) and the upper Winton Formation (Bladensburg National Park, Lark Quarry
Conservation Park (Hades Hills and Eureka), GSQ Eromanga 1, Blackall 2, McKinlay-1). Tables display
“P” values with confirmed similarity in grain sourced highlighted in yellow (P>5%) and negative results
in white (P<5%). Table A displays similarity of all samples (Mackunda and Winton Formation samples),
whereas Table B is a restricted comparison between Winton formation samples
81
Figure 3- 5 K-S test results displayed in terms of CDF’s, with all samples displaying weak to very strong (overlapping)
similarity of source terranes except for that of Maneroo-331.

82
(Fig. 3-5a,b; Table 3-2). All upper Winton Formation samples barely pass to strongly pass

the K-S when compared to other stratigraphic sections, as stated earlier. The upper Winton

Formation samples also display strong relationship with those that are regional neighbors

and weak relationship with samples from further distances within the basin (Fig. 3-5; Table

3-2). For example, both Eromanga and Blackall display more similarity to Winton based

samples then those of the Mackunda; however any similarity is weak. This could indicate

similar headwaters and different drainage patterenes within the basin (north vrs south)

(Fig. 3-5).

4.4 Palaeocurrent Analysis

Where possible, palaeocurrent orientations were collected from trough-cross

stratified fluvial sandstones in the Winton Formation to help determine the orientation of

flow in these ancient channel systems during the Cretaceous. The goal of this part of the

study was to support the detrital zircon provenance reconstruction. However, deep surface

weathering of the formation led to extremely poor three-dimensional preservation of cross

bedding in the formation, which severely limited the impact of this approach. A thorough

analysis of palaeocurrents in the Winton Formation resulted in only 35 unambiguous

measurements (Fig. 6). However, a general trend in palaeocurrent orientations was

observed, with most palaeoflow measurements ranging between northwest and southwest.

Paleocurrents observed in Bladensburg National Park (N=24) commonly ranged between

270º and 290º with some minor deviations at 135º, 215-218º (Fig. 3-6). One major

deviation comes from a set of measurements from a single site that is oriented between 60º-

64º, which is interpreted as an isolated channel meander. Fewer orientations could be

collected in Lark Quarry Conservation Park due to a lack of preservations (N=11).

Generally these flow orientations trended west by south/northwest (Fig. 3-6). This is in

83
agreement with palaeocurrent data presented in Hawlader (1990) and Bryan et al. (1997,

2012). Overall, these data indicate that fluvial channel flow was dominantly towards the

west-southwestern channel flow was dominantly oriented to the west- southwest.

Furthermore, these findings corroborate the southwest transport of sediment via large–scale

river system suggested by Vevers (2000) and King and Mee (2004).

Figure 3- 6 Simplified map of eastern Australia displaying the plausible source

terranes and orientation of likely emplacement. Also displayed are paleocurrent data
derived from Bladensburg National Park (n=24) and Lark Quarry Conservation Park
(n=11) where outcrop Quality permitted.

84
4.5 Lu-Hf Results
To further elucidate the provenance interpretations and tectonic implications of the

detrital zircons from the Winton Formation, ~100 grains (83 of which yielded good results)

of different ages were selected for Lu-Hf isotope analysis (Fig. 3-7). In particular, grains

were selected from the pre-Mesozoic (New England & Kennedy Provinces), Triassic and

Jurassic (terranes undocumented), and the Early and Middle Cretaceous (Whitsunday

Volcanic Province) populations, and from all stratgraphic levels across the basin. The

majority of grains yielded ƐHf(T) between +5 and +10 (a few select grains had just below a

+12 value) (Fig. 3-7). There is no discernable change in the isotopic pattern transitioning

from the Mackunda Formation into the overlying Winton Formation. A handful of grains

yielded negative Hf (T) values. This is interpreted to reflect incorporation of older crustal

components into the magma.

The Hf isotope data indicates that parent magmas for many of the zircons were

derived from a mixed source or from a range of isotopically heterogeneous sources, rather

than a single homogeneous crustal or mantle source. This is because at any single age, in

both individual samples and samples grouped by formation, the data scatter over several Ɛ

Hf units, indicating the involvement of isotopically-contrasting source reservoirs. None of

these grains, however, exhibit isotopic signatures that suggest derivation from a depleted

MORB source mantle (Fig. 3-7) (Kemp et al., 2009). Additionally, in each sample analyzed

(individual or by formation), a consistent increase in radiogenic Hf is identified with a

85
decrease in age.

Figure 3- 7 Lu-Hf isotope results presented in ƐHf(T) for both detrital zircon recovered from the Winton and
Mackunda formations from the Eromanga Basin (A: N=83)) and those derived from the New England Province (N=258).
C) Compared results, which display a common trend in ƐHf(T) (+5≤n≤+10) with no discernible change between 350-92
Ma. (Modeled from Vervoort et al., 1999)

86
5. Discussion

5.1 Interpreted source areas and fluvial drainage patterns for the Winton Formation
Similar detrital zircon ages from various stratigraphic levels in the Mackunda and

Winton formations suggest common source terranes, most notably for pre-Mesozoic

Populations. However, the amount of grains in each pre-Mesozoic population greatly

decreases up-section by sample in the Winton Formation. Moreover, when compared to the

Winton Formation, the middle Mackunda (Maneroo-1) based samples lack the youngest

detrital record (n>120 Ma). Furthermore, Mackunda samples preserve a much broader

zircon-age spectra, including grains that are most likely sourced from Proterozoic terranes

to the north and northwest. In addition, many of the Mackunda Grains preserve a

significantly higher proportion of grains that clearly represent reworked grains that have

been transported into the region at earlier stages and deposited in a variety of Proterozoic

basins, prior to being recycled during the Cretaceous. These older grain ages quite likely

originated in Central and Western Australia. Thus, we interpret this diverse range of zircon

populations to represent a broad spectrum of potential source populations that were located

to the north and east of the sample site. Given the fully marine nature of the Mackunda

Formation, the most likely mechanism for this diverse array of provenance signature

reflects long shore current detrital mixing (e.g., Sircombe, 1999) (Fig. 8a,b). This is further

supported by K-S test results, which indicates that the middle Mackunda Formation shows

no genetic relations to any stratigraphically higher samples (Winton Formation in

particular).

87
 The Upper Mackunda is characterized by the retreat of the Eromanga Shallow

Seaway from offshore depocentres to nearshore coastal and deltaic environments.

Continuing up section, the lowermost Winton Formation transitions from tidal swamps and

Figure 3- 8 Simplified paleogeographic reconstruction maps with symbols showing the retreat of the Eromanga
Shallow Interior Seaway and the development of the west to south-westward basin drainage which is similar to conditions
seen today. A) coastal deposits to shallow marine conditions were emplaced no older than 104-102 Ma, B) distal deltaic
to coastal deposited no older than 100-102Ma, C) fluvial floodplain dominantd deposits no older than 92-94Ma, D)
terrestrial associations of sediments trace and body fossil assemblages (modified from Veevers, 2000; and references
therein).

88
delta plain depocentres to distal fluvial-floodplain environments with meandering channels

(Tucker et al., 2014, see Ch. 4; Fig. 8a,b). Upper Mackunda to the lower Winton

Formation samples yield a considerably less diverse spectrum of detrital zircon populations

dominantd by Mesozoic sources; however, minor input or recycling of older strata sourced

from Proterozoic terranes to the north and northwest still persists. By utilizing these

younger populations, we can reliably interpret that the upper Mackunda Formation was

deposited no more than 102-104 Ma and the lowermost Winton Formation was deposited

no more than 100-102 Ma (Tucker et al., 2013). These younger grain populations are

interpreted to be derived from eastern volcanic sources, in particular, the Whitsunday

Volcanic Province. The close match in ages found in the Whitsundays with detrital zircon

grain ages reported here provide strong support for this hypothesis, which was originally

put forward by Bryan et al. (1997). These young grains within the uppermost Winton

Formation are of similar age to the Whitsunday Volcanic Province, and hence interpreted to

be sourced from these volcanics. Furthermore, K-S tests between different upper Winton

Formation samples uniformly pass and indicate a similar provenance pattern during both

the lower and upper Winton Formation throughout the basin. K-S tests between all middle

and upper Winton Formation samples also indicate similar provenance sources, which are

confirmed by similar paleocurrent measurements (Fig. 8c,d). Hence, the source and

mechanism for sediment delivery into the basin from areas along the eastern arc remained

fairly constant through the early to Middle Cretaceous.

The most significant observation between the lower Winton provenance and that of

the middle to upper Winton provenance is a major younging in maximum depositional age.

Whereas the youngest grains observed in the Upper Mackunda and Lower Winton intervals

89
range from 104-102 Ma and 102-100 Ma, respectively; the youngest grains observed in the

middle to upper Winton Formation are uniformly in the 92-95 Ma range (Fig. 8c,d). The

K-S tests’ results confirm that source areas have remained similar between the upper

Mackunda Formation and the upper Winton Formation. Lu-Hf isotope results for younger

populations distinctly display similar values to zircons derived from older arc rocks of the

New England and Kennedy Province. Furthermore, Lu-Hf isotope signatures also remain

similar between the ~200 Ma and the younger 95-92 Ma population, indicating that the

change in grain ages does not reflect a shift in source areas for these young grains (Fig 8d).

This implies that the Whitsunday volcanics were active for considerably longer than

previously thought (Bryan et al., 1997)

5.2 Source & Tectonic History of Mesozoic Detrital Zircons

5.2.1 Model-1: Long-lived Phoenix-Pacific Plate Subduction

The classic interpretation of late Mesozoic volcanism along the eastern margin of

Australia is one of long-lived subduction of the Phoenix/Pacific Plate associated with the

breakup of Gondwana (Henderson & Stephenson, 1980; Coney et al., 1990; Holcombe et

al., 1997b; Veevers, 2000a) (Fig. 3-9). Collot et al. (2009; and others) have applied

magnetic, geochemical and zircon data to interpret moderately active volcanism from the

Permian to the Cretaceous along the eastern margin of Australia. Volcanic activity during

this time should have been present as a result of low-angle subduction of the Phoenix-

Pacific Plate beneath the continental crust (Veevers, 1991a,b, 2000; Collot et al., 2009). A

proposed modern analogue is the present day Cordilleran orogenic belt along the western

margin of South America (Veevers, 1991a,b; Collot et al., 2009) (Fig. 3-9).

90
5.2.2 Model-2: Northeastern Gondwana S- LIP
To address unresolved issues of irregular tectonic and sedimentary histories within

the Surat and Eromanga Basin Ewart et al., (1992), and more recently Bryan et al., (1997,

2000, 2003, 2008, 2011, 2012) challenged the established model of long-lived subduction

(Fig. 3-9). Utilizing the well-documented volcanic rich sediments, Bryan et al. (1997)

hypothesised a link between the apparently volcano-lithic sedimentary provenance of the

mid-Cretaceous strata in the Eromanga Basin and coeval Cretaceous volcanics in the

Whitsunday Volcanic Region. Over time, Bryan et al. (2000, 2008, 2012) interpreted these

detrital grains to have been emplaced by a very large, long-lived S-LIP. They attributed the

initiation of this S-LIP to a shift from subduction-related to rift-related extensional

tectonism in the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, and associated underplating along the

eastern margin of Australia (Bryan et al., 2012). In this model, the Whitsunday S-LIP

formed an intracratonic intercontinental volcanic belt (around ~2,500km long and 300 km

wide), which originally extended along much of the northeastern coastline of Queensland

(Fig. 3-9). This intraplate rift preceded the development of the main rifting and eastern-

most fragmentation of Gondwana and progressive rifting of the Tasman Sea Basin (~95-85

Ma) (Bryan et al., 2000). The volcanics and their intrusive equivalents are interpreted to

have been emplaced as mostly siliceous-rich magmas, dominantd by rhyolitic and dacitic

compositions (Ewart et al., 1992). Both Bryan et al. (1997, 2000, 2012) and Ewart et al.

(1992) suggest that volcanic activity initiated around ~132 Ma, with the main period of

activity between 120 to 105 Ma. They argue that intermittent volcanism continued until 95

Ma, marking the termination of the Whitsunday S-LIP (Bryan et al., 2012) (Fig. 3-9).

The initiation of the Whitsunday S-LIP is suggested to be like any other hotspot

with asthenospheric-derived mafic volcanism (Bryan et al., 2012). Bryan et al. (2000, 2012)

91
interpret that volcanic activity in the Whitsunday S-LIP was dominantd by multiple low-

relief volcanic vents with large calderas. Older volcanics are suggested to have been

Figure 3- 9 Tectonic reconstructions of the Eastern Australian Margin: Scenario One - Continued subduction of the
Phoenix/Pacific plate under the northeasterly migrating Australian continental crust Scenario Two - S-LIP+ Rifting
between 135 and 95 Ma Veevers (2000).

92
dominanted by explosive and non-explosive dacitic pyroclastics, indicating a bimodal suite

of lavas and ignimbrites (Bryan et al., 2000).

5.2.3 Regional Tectonic Relationships and Implications

Several studies have confidently reassembled many small Zealandian fragments

including Lord Howe Rise, Challenger Plateau, New Caledonia and the North Island of

New Zealand, to form a rifted ribbon of what was once attached to the eastern Australian

Margin (Sutherland, 1999; Pickard et al., 2000; 2008; Adams et al., 2009; Collot et al.,

2009; Cluzel et al., 2011). Furthermore, there is overwhelming petrological, geochemical,

mineralogical, faunal and detrital evidence for the tectonic relationships of the pre-Jurassic

Zealandia and eastern Australia (Pickard et al., 2000; Schellart et al., 2006; Adams et al.,

2007, Waschbusch et al., 2009; Tulloch et al., 2009; Cluzel et al., 2010, 2011, 2012).

Similar relationships can be correlated to surveys of the Lord Howe Rise by Higgens et al.

(2011) with striking similar populations at 97 Ma. However, there is a distinct lack of

similar detrital populations between 90 -74 Ma. This can be readily interpreted to show pre

and post-stages of rifting between the Australian Craton and Zealandia. With the

incorporation of the recovered detrital record from the Eromanga basin, it is interpreted that

Mesozoic grain populations are derived from similar sourced terranes as those identified in

Zealandia. This similar detrital record is interpreted to be derived from volcanic activity

along the Eastern to Northeastern Australian margin, including but not limited to the New

England Orogeny, Kennedy Province, and the later Whitsunday Volcanic Province.

Significantly, each of these former fragments of the Australian continental margin

also preserve a distinctly younger population of detrital zircons (~89-85 Ma) not observed

in this study or by other workers in any detrital zircon studies or geochronologic

93
investigations of the Whitsundays Volcanic Province (Cluzel et al., 2011). Coincidently,

several early to middle Mesozoic southern Zealandian terranes, especially those preserved

in New Zealand (ergo. Nambucca Black) contain Triassic and Jurassic terranes, now

missing (rifted away) from the current eastern Australian margin (Campbell & Coombs,

1966; Adams et a., 2007; Tulloch et al., 2009; Cluzel et al., 2010, 2011; Adams et al., 2012,

2013a,b). Other parsimonious detrital zircon records have recently been described from

Northland Allochthon and Mt. Camel Terranes, New Zealand (125, 120, 116, 108, 104 Ma)

(Adams et al., 2009; Cluzel et al., 2011). Furthermore, studies by Cluzel et al. (2011)

advocated for a localized New Caledonia source terrane for grains younger than 89 Ma.

This would then imply that rifting initiated just prior to 90 Ma, and the 100-92 Ma zircon

population in the Eromanga represents the terminal stage of subduction related volcanism

along the rifted eastern margin.

5.3 Lu-HF Isotope Analysis

If, during the Mesozoic (~250-92 Ma) there was a dramatic shift in the mechanism

for volcanic activity in northeastern Australia (i.e slab subduction to S-LIP), this should be

reflected in the isotopic record of magmatic rocks. However, a significant portion of the

Eastern Australian Margin (Triassic-Cretaceous rocks) rifted away or was recycled. As a

result, the detrital zircon record represents the best archive to reconstruct the last vestige of

tectonic events in northeastern Australia prior to rifting.

Currently, a LIP or large igneous province is defined as a large volume intraplate

magmatic event consisting of flood basalts, layered intrusions (ultramafic), and many

crisscrossing networks of dyke swarms (Ernst & Buchan, 2001; Ernst et al., 2013). LIPs

are characteristically short-lived (1-5 Myr) and are the result of very deep-seated mantle

94
up-wellings (Ernst & Buchan, 2001; Ernst et al., 2013). Silicic LIP’s can occur in places

where underplating has occurred simultaneously with the emplacement of a LIP (Bryan &

Ernst, 2008; Ernst et al., 2013). In the first instance, the duration of S-LIP activity in the

Whitsunday Volcanic Province (upwards of 40 Myrs) seems to contradict the defined LIP

parameters. To accommodate this, Bryan et al. (2012) suggested that this S-LIP

experienced short intervals of magmatism between 130-95 Ma; pulses ranging between

several million years to ~15 Ma (Ewart et al., 1992; Bryan et al., 1997). If this were

accurate a strongly negative Ɛ Hf(T) would be reflected in the Hf isotopic records relative to

age. Secondly, as LIP’s are classically defined as the result of injected mantle plumes, even

if there was underplating, it would stand to reason that over time this would result in

dramatic shifts in radiogenic isotope compositions and likely reflect strongly depleted and

enriched isotopic signatures (- and + Ɛ Hf(T)) (Söderlund et al., 2006). However, this is not

the case for Cretaceous detrital zircon populations analyzed in this study. Moreover, a

relatively continuous spectrum of Cretaceous (and indeed late Mesozoic) grain ages

documented in this study are also inconsistent with the pulsed volcanism model required to

develop an S-LIP. Together, these data call the S-LIP model into question.

For instance, this study has dated numerous grains between 300- 130 Ma via LA-

ICPMS (Tables 2-1a-e & 3-1a-e). ƐHf(T) values for those grains indicate Mesozoic

magmatic activity akin to that described for northeastern Australia between the Ordovician

through to the Permian. For the most part, a majority of the grains are above ƐHf(T) +5

indicating that much of the source material was derived from young crust or mantle.

Isotopically, this study recognizes a fairly continuous pattern for zircons300 and 92 Ma in

all samples (ƐHf(T) values between +5 and +10), indicating a dominance of such juvenile

95
sources. A minor caveat to this observation is a cluster of grains (~4) display slightly lower

ƐHf(T) values between 180-140 Ma. This may be an anomalous isotope signature, given the

small number of data; however, this may also represent a period in which a sizable amount

of older crust was incorporated into the magmas. If this is the case, it could represent a

period of contraction and crustal thickening, which is isotopically and tectonically well

documented throughout the tectonic history (pre and post-Mesozoic) of the Eastern

Australian Margin (Sdrolias et al., Schellart et al., 2006; Kemp et al., 2009; Li et al., 2014),

involving migration of arc magmatism inboard of the continent. To properly address this

paradigm, a greater number of Hf isotope data are needed for grains between 130-180 Ma.

If this event occurred, its effect was short-lived as Ɛ Hf(T) between 135-85 Ma immediately

returns to between +5 and +11. This indicates a return to juvenile magma sources and

away from old continental crustal influences.

Regardless, minor ƐHf(T) fluctuations between 300-92 Ma are interpreted to be a

reflection of heterogeneity in the magma source material (crustal). This mixing is due to

variable incorporation of young and old crustal material; potentially including portions of

‘missing’ northeastern Australian Triassic-Jurassic sources terranes and possible

Precambrian terranes, along with fractions derived from the subducted Phoenix-Pacific

Plate. These materials were available to be incorporated into arc magmas. These results

are also consistent with ƐHf(T) signatures and patterns from the New England Orogen (e.g.,

see Kemp et al., 2009, and Fig. 3-6), which greatly strengthens the correlation of similar

tectonic conditions from the Ordovician to the mid-Mesozoic in northern Australia.

Additionally, between 300 Ma (New England and Kennedy Province derived) and

92 Ma (Whitsunday Volcanic Province) there is a broad, continuous increase in zircon ƐHf.

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This increase in epsilon Hf values that continues until 92 Ma might have tectonic

connections to the eventual outboard slab retreat and unzipping of the northern Lord Howe

Rise (Zealandia) and the shift to an extensional tectonic environment. This pattern has

been recognized by Kemp et al (2009), who showed a similar rise in ƐHf and ƐNd in the

Lachlan and New England Orogeny, and interpreted this to represent slab retreat, such that

magmas were progressively isolated from old crustal sources. If this is a continuation of

the same slab subduction into the Late Mesozoic, then this may indicate a repeated tectonic

pattern during the life of this east-northeastern migrating subduction margin. This pilot

study has only begun to shed light on what is a very complex tectonic regime, and requires

a great deal more study.

6. Conclusion
The overriding goal of this project was to comprehensively investigate the

sedimentary provenance of the mid-Cretaceous Winton and Mackunda formations within

the Eromanga Basin via U-Pb detrital zircon geochronology and Lu-Hf isotopes. By

utilizing ten detrital zircon samples (~719 U-Pb ages & 83 Lu-Hf analyses) from key

stratigraphic levels within the Winton and underlying Mackunda formations, we are able to

confidently interpret both syndepositional and polyphase and/or reworked source terranes.

Moreover, these data yield significant new insight into the tectono-magmatic history of

eastern Australia over the Mesozoic. The identification of Triassic to Early Cretaceous

grain populations is a period of time not previously associated with significant arc

magmatism in Eastern Australia. This fairly continuous detrital zircon record is tested via

Lu-Hf against more well established terranes including the New England Province and

found to be of similar isotopic signatures. By combining U-Pb detrital Zircon ages and ƐHf

97
values, we can interpret that these detrital grains were derived from a mixed juvenile

magma source from a fairly long-lived tectonic system (300-92 Ma). By coupling these

data with k-s and paleocurrent, this study can confidently conclude that grains were derived

from a long-lived continuous subduction margin along the eastern margin of Australia, and

then transported via transverse fluvial systems into westerly lying continental basins.

Finally, these data can also provide crucial context, which support a recent hypothesis

discussed by Veevers (2000) and more recently MacDonald et al. (2013) which suggests

long-distance transport and sedimentary provenance of the Cretaceous Ceduna Delta

System is connected to the Whitsunday Volcanic Province via long-lived and current-day

southwestward drainage through the Eromanga Basin.

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 Chapter 4

Depositional environments, stratigraphy and

correlation of the Winton Formation: implications
for Australia’s most important Mid-Cretaceous
terrestrial ecosystem

99
ABSTRACT
The Winton Formation of northeastern Australia is recognized as one of the most important
source of middle Cretaceous terrestrial floras and faunas in Australia. Yet, detailed
sedimentologic investigations have never been comprehensively attempted. Therefore, this
study focused on conducting a detailed facies analysis at key fossil localities in outcrop,
along with local to regional scale stratigraphic correlation of these key fossil assemblages.
Early outcomes included the identification of 23 distinct facies, which colbinate into nine
distinct assemblages. Moreover, this study advocates for the informal speration of the
Winton Formation into an upper and lower unit. This separation is based on gross changes
in facies, alluvial architecture, maximum depositional ages of detrital zircons, and trends in
the faunal composition. This study has determined that the lower Winton Formation
predominatly preserves marginal-marine to coastal palaeoenvironments, which is
interpreted as the initial stages of seaway regression, and occurred no later than the very
latest Albian to very early Cenomanian. On the other hand, the upper Winton Formation is
fully alluvial and preserves a broad range of floodplain depositional environments
dominanted by multiple westward meandering river systems, which occurred no later than
the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary. Thus, this study finds that the upper Winton
Formation’s multitaxic vertabrate assemblages of Lark Quarry Conservation Park and
Bladensburg National Park are near-contemporaneous. Whereas, Isisford, Queensland
presveres temporally dissimilar multitaxic vertabrate assemblages. These results suggest
that upper Winton fossil ammaeblages are likely correlative to the Rio Limay Subgroup of
the Neuquén Basin of Argintina, and the Santo Anastácio and Adamantina Formations of
the Bauru Basin, of Brazil. This provided significant context for reconstructing the
important mid Cretaceous continental flora and fauna of the Winton Formation.

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1. Introduction
The Cretaceous represents one of the most dramatic periods of supercontinent

breakup and landscape fragmentation in Earth history (Stampfli & Borel, 2002; Skelton,

2003; van Hisbergen et al., 2011). Plate reorganization had profound effects on terrestrial

ecosystems and landscapes, leading to palaeobiogeographic dispersal and development of

evolutionary patterns that ultimately influenced the modern world (Skelton, 2003; Mannion

et al., 2012, 2014). After the separation of Pangea, archosaur lineages from Gondwana are

widely described as being evolutionarily distinct from their Laurasian counterparts

(Bonaparte 1986; Sereno, 1997; Agnolin et al., 2010; Benton et al., 2014). However, many

eastern Gondwana assemblages still remain poorly understood (Agnolin et al., 2010). This

is especially true for Cretaceous fossil assemblages and ecosystems from Australia. The

best record of post-separation, Cretaceous dinosaur faunas and continental ecosystems in

Australia comes from the expansive continental deposits of the Winton Formation, in

central Queensland. Recent fossil discoveries in the Winton Formation include a diverse

range of dinosaurs, along with crocodilians, lungfish and primitive ray-finned fish, aquatic

lizards, turtles, invertebrates and a high diversity of plant macrofossils, including some of

the world’s earliest flowering plants (Dettmann et al., 1992; Molnar, 2001; Salisbury

2006a,b; Hocknull et al., 2009; Agnolin et al., 2010; Fletcher and Salisbury, 2010; Molnar,

2010; Leahey & Salisbury, 2013). Despite a renaissance of paleontological research in the

Winton Formation over the last decade, the stratigraphy, age, and depositional

environments of this important stratigraphic unit remain problematic and poorly

understood; both at a local and regional-scale.

Historically, the Winton Formation has been interpreted as the uppermost

depositional phase of the Eromanga Basin, represented by a westward-thickening

101
continental wedge deposited during the final regression of the Cretaceous Eromanga

Shallow Seaway in Queensland (Fig. 4-1) (Veevers, 2000a,b; MacDonald et al., 2013).

Recent detrital zircon investigations of the Winton Formation have significantly improved

the temporal constraints on deposition of the formation and identified the Basin’s major

sources of sediment (Tucker et al., 2013; 2014), making it possible to place this important

flora and fauna into a more precise global context.

Figure 4- 1 Map of eastern Australia displaying surface exposures of the Winton and Mackunda formations in the
Eromanga Basin of Queensland Australia. Symbology identifies locations of fossil localities and GSQ Core localities,
which were utilized for both stratigraphic and temporal correlation. Map is modified from GeoScience Australia 2013.

102
 This paper presents the results of a detailed sedimentologic investigation of the

Winton Formation, to improve the understanding of the depositional environments of the

Winton Formation and to correlate Winton deposits and fossil localities across the basin.

Good exposure of the Winton Formation is relatively limited and most stratigraphic

sections are isolated. This study combines both field investigation and detailed core

logging, from sites across the basin. Detrital zircon samples were collected at most of the

key field sections, as well as from a number of cores. These samples have previously been

investigated for sedimentary provenance and maximum depositional age constraints

(Tucker et al., 2013; Tucker et al., in review), however, in this study we re-examine these

data and demonstrate their potential for stratigraphic correlation (Fig. 4-1). Here, we

combine these datasets to create a basin model to identify new structural and stratigraphic

trends that have important implications for correlating and interpreting the Winton flora

and fauna.

2. Geological Background
2.1 Basin History
The Eromanga Basin is interpreted to have initiated in the Triassic, which

continued into the late Mesozoic (Draper, 2002; Gray et al., 2002 Cook et al., 2013).

The Eromanga Basin forms the central sub-Basin of the Great Artesian Basin, with the

Carpentaria Basin to the north and Surat Basin to the southeast. The Eromanga is

bounded to the west by the Georgina, Amadeus, and Officer Basins, the Northern

Territory and the Western Plateau. Within the study area from east to west, the

Eromanga Basin overlies the Galilee, Adavale, Cooper, Warburton, Simpson, and

Pedirka Basins along with the centrally located Warrabin Trough. Presently, within the

103
Eromanga, drainage patterns generally have a SW-oriented flow into the Lake Eyre

region of South Australia.

The tectonic origin and developmental history of the Eromanga Basin have been

debated for many decades. Because of its location away from active plate boundaries,

the Eromanga Basin has traditionally been interpreted as an intracratonic basin

(Angevine et al., 1990; Draper, 2002). However, some authors have argued that the

Eromanga Basin is a foreland basin (e.g., Gallagher, 1990). Classically, intracratonic

basins are interpreted to be associated with failed rift systems and linked to regional

subsidence and slow, steady generation of accommodation space; resulting in a broad

concave up morphology (Kingston et al., 1983; Mitchell and Reading, 1986; Draper,

2002). Instead, the Eromanga Basin displays a concave down shape, more typical of a

foreland Basin (Gallagher, 1990; Draper, 2002). Moreover, foreland basins are typified

by pulsed subsidence and generation of accommodation space (e.g., rapid then slow),

which compares more favourably with the patterns observed in the Eromanga Basin

(Gallagher and Lambeck, 1989). The association of a remnant volcanic arc and

hypothesized late Mesozoic subduction margin along the east coast of Australia also

emphasizes a probable foreland or retroforeland basin origin for the Eromanga Basin

(Gallagher & Lambeck, 1989; Gallagher et al., 1994; Russell & Gurnis; 1994; Veevers,

2000a,b). Furthermore, the western portions of the basin apparently experienced higher

rates of subsidence, due to asymmetric loading as would be expected with thrust

loading on the western side of the basin (Gallagher, 1990; Draper, 2002).

Several alternative mechanisms for subsidence have been suggested,

including:1) thermal contraction (Gallagher & Lambeck, 1989); 2) passive thermal

subsidence (Fielding, 1996); and 3) dynamic topography (loading) (Russell & Gurnis,
104
1994). Among the varied explanations to explain the observed basin geometry,

extensional, collisional or plate rotation, mantle heat flux, and detached slab subduction

at the Eastern Australian Margin have all been proposed; however, little agreement

exists and the question of basin type and subsidence remains largely unresolved

(Kuang, 1985; Gallagher & Lambeck, 1989; Krieg et al., 1995; Gurnis et al., 1998;

Draper, 2002; Mavromatidis & Hillis, 2005; Heine et al., 2008;

Matthews et al., 2011; Cook, 2012).

2.2 Basin Stratigraphy

Greater consensus exists concerning the Mesozoic stratigraphy of the Eromanga

Basin. During the late Mesozoic, but particularly during the Early Cretaceous, the

Eromanga Basin was influenced by marine transgressions (Exon & Burger, 1981; Burger,

1986; Draper, 2002; Gray et al., 2002). However, correlation of sea-level cycles recorded

in the basin to eustatic sea level curves has proven difficult (Draper, 2002). Sedimentation

within the Eromanga Basin is interpreted to have initiated in the Late Triassic (Carnian to

Rhaetian), with the Cuddapan Formation (Draper, 2002). The Cuddapan is between 20-50

m thick, and commonly composed of quartzose sandstone, carbonaceous siltstone,

mudstone, and coal (Alexander et al., 1998; Gray et al., 2002). This pattern of deposition

continued into the unconformably overlying Poolowanna Formation (Moore, 1986). The

Early Jurassic (Sinemurian-Toarcian) Poolowanna has a maximum thickness of 165 m and

is commonly composed of granular to fine grained sandstone in lower sections, and

siltstone, mudstone, and coals in upper sections (Almond, 1983; Moore, 1986). The

Poolowanna Formation depositionally represents repeated shifts from fluvial to lacustrine

facies characteristics. Uppermost Poolowanna Sedimentary deposits record sea level rise

can be directly correlated to the Toarcian global sea-level rise. The Middle Jurassic

105
(Aalenian-Callovian) is dominantd by the deposition of the Hutton Sandstone and the

Birkhead Formation (Exon, 1966; Gray et al., 2002). The Hutton ranges in thickness

between 90-210 m and is commonly composed of fluvial to aeolian sandstone with very

minor siltstone and mudstone (Almond, 1983). On the other hand, the Birkhead Formation

can range in thickness between 40 to 100 m, and is composed of interbedded sandstone and

siltstone. The Birkhead Formation is interpreted to have dominantly been emplaced by

fluvio-lacustrine process with variable influx of volcaniclastic sediments (Gray et al.,

2002).

The Late Jurassic (Oxfordian-Tithonian) sedimentary record is preserved in the

Adori Sandstone and the conformably overlying Westbourne Formation (Fig. 4-2) (Gray et

al., 2002). The Adori sandstone in its maximum thickness is estimated to be 55 m, though

ranges between 15-55 m. Commonly, the Adori is composed fluvial coarse sandstone to

siltstone (Almond, 1983, 1986). Deposition continues into the overlying Westbourne

Formation which is usually between 70 to 130 m thick and commonly composed of near

shore to lacustrine sandstone, siltstone and shale Almond, 1983, 1986; Gray et al., 2002).

The Late Jurassic- Early Cretaceous (Tithonian to very early Valanginian) is preserved in

the Hooray Sandstone. The Hooray can range between 90-165 m in total thickness. The

Hooray is typified by fluvial derived sandstone with minor siltstone and mudstone.

106
Figure 4- 2 Time scale displaying Middle Jurassic to Quaternary sedimentary units within the Eromanga Basin
including stratigraphic location of archosaurian assemblages in the Winton Formation. Modified from Draper et al., 2002
& Tucker et al., 2013.

107
 The Cadna-Owie Formation is the lowest Cretaceous unit deposited in the Basin

(Valanginian-Early Barremian). It commonly ranges in thickness from 60-90m and is

composed of interbedded sandstone, siltstone and mudstone (Dettmann, 1987b; Gray et al.,

2002). The Cadna-Owie is interpreted to have been deposited within a marginal shallow

marine to deltaic setting (Senior et al., 1975; Gray et al., 2002). Conformably overlying

this unit is the Wallumbilla Formation, which marks the onset of the last major marine

transgression of the Cretaceous into the basin during the Barremian to Albian stages (Fig.

4-2) (Williams, 1983b; Dettmann, 1984a, 1988). The Wallumbilla Formation is much

thicker, ranging from 200-350 m. It is characterised by carbonaceous grey to black

mudstone and siltstone that yield plant fragments and invertebrate shells. Deposition is

interpreted to have been deposited under shallow-marine conditions with the upper units

being deposited during marine regression (Gray et al., 2002). The very thinly bedded (20-

45 m) and conformably overlying Toolebuc Formation is dominated by poorly sorted,

weakly-laminated mudstone, minor siltstone, conglomerate, and thin coquina lenses (Fig.

4-2) (Gray, 2002). The Toolebuc Formation is also interpreted to have been deposited in

shallow marine conditions, which extended into the Albian stage (Moore et al., 1986). The

conformably overlying 200-300 m-thick late Albian to early Cenomanian Allaru Mudstone

continued the deposition of shallow marine units (Exon and Senior, 1976). This unit is

dominated by blue-grey mudstone that is partially pyritic with interbedded calcareous

siltstone, cone-in-cone limestone and minor sandstone (Exon and Senior, 1976; Price et al.,

1985; Helby et al., 1987; Draper, 2002; Gray et al., 2002).

The final regression of the Eromanga Seaway regression is recorded in the

Mackunda Formation. The Mackunda Formation commonly ranges in thickness 75-100m,

108
and is characterized by interbedded shallow-marine sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone, and

is late Albian to early Cenomanian (Gray et al., 2002). The Mackunda is conformably

overlain by the dominantly continental Winton Formation.

The final regression of the Eromanga Seaway regression is recorded in the

Mackunda Formation. The Mackunda Formation commonly ranges in thickness from 75-

100m, and is characterized by interbedded shallow-marine sandstone, siltstone, and

mudstone, and is late Albian to early Cenomanian (Gray et al., 2002). The Mackunda is

conformably overlain by the dominantly continental Winton Formation.

2.3 The Winton Formation

The Winton Formation is exposed over large portions of Queensland along with

portions of northern New South Wales, north-western South Australia and the south-

western corner of the Northern Territory (Fig. 4-1). The Winton Formation was

originally described by Dunstan (1916) as the “Winton Series”, consisting of

sandstones, shales, and minor coal seams that stratigraphically overlie predominantly

marine sediments of the Mackunda Formation. Most recently, the uppermost Rolling

Downs Group consists of the Manuka Subgroup, which is subdivided into the Winton

and Mackunda formations.(Fig. 4-2).

The Winton Formation conformably overlies the Mackunda Formation and

ranges in thickness between 400-1000 m; thickness generally increases westward (Gray

et al., 2002). The Winton Formation is composed of interbedded sandstones, sandy

siltstones, siltstones, and mudstones with minor coal seams and intraformational

conglomerates (Clark, 1965; Vine et al., 1967; Casey, 1970; Senior and Mabbutt, 1979;

Coote, 1987; Draper, 2002). The Winton Formation is well-known for its entombed

109
fossils, which includes plants, palynomorphs, invertebrates and vertebrates. The plant

diversity of the Winton Formation is particularly significant, with a range of taxa

including members of the Bennettitales, Conifers, Cycadophytes, Ferns, Ginkgoales

(Ginkgophyte), Pentoxylolean, and most significantly early angiosperms (Burger and

Senior, 1979; Burger, 1990; McLoughlin et al., 1995; Pole and Douglas, 1999;

Mcloughlin et al., 2010). Angiosperm palynomorphs in the formation have been well-

documented and reviewed by Dettmann and Playford (1969) and Burger (1980, 1981,

1986, 1989, 1990). Prior to more precise age constraints provided by detrital zircon

geochronology (Tucker et al., 2013), the Winton Formation was fairly broadly dated

between Albian to Cenomanian based on palynology. Maximum depositional age

constraints from detrital zircons now indicate that the lower sections of the Winton

Formation are no older than ~100-102 Ma, while the upper Winton Formation has been

shown to be no older than the latest Cenomanian, with evidence for the uppermost

strata being Turonian (~93-92 Ma) or younger (Tucker et al., 2013; 2014).

The Winton Formation is one of the only stratigraphic units in Australia that

preserves a middle Cretaceous terrestrial vertebrate body-fossil assemblage (Agnolin et

al., 2010). New fossil vertebrate discoveries in the Winton Formation are beginning to

confirm that close similarities exist between this fauna and those of comparable age

units in South America (Sereno, 1997; Agnolin et al., 2010; Leahey & Salisbury 2013;

Mannion et al., 2013). Important basal archosaur fossils have recently been described

from the Winton Formation, including the Eusuchian crocodyliform Isisfordia duncani,

found near Isisford, Queensland. This important taxon represents a transitional form

between Neosuchian and Crocodylian representatives (Salisbury et al., 2006). Recently

discovered vertebrate fossils in the Winton Formation range from isolated bones and
110
bone fragments to nearly complete to associated skeletons (Coombs and Molnar 1981;

Salgado et al., 1997; Wilson and Sereno, 1998; Molnar, 2001; Salisbury and Molnar,

2005). Among the recent discoveries are two new, fragmentary sauropod skeletons,

Diamantinasaurus matildae and Wintonotitan wattsi, and a fragmentary theropod,

Australovenator wintonensis. This also includes the first isolated teeth from an

ankylosaur from the Winton Formation (Hocknull et al., 2009; Leahey & Salisbury,

2013).

2.4 Structural Geology of the Northern Eromanga Basin

Several major faults have been identified within the Eromanga Basin, including the

Canaway Fault, the Weatherby fault system, and Cork fault system, along with numerous

synclines and anticlines across the basin (Fig. 4-3) (Casey, 1967a,b; Mathur, 1983; Moss

and Wake-Dyster, 1983; Moore & Pitt, 1984; Wopfner, 1985; Finlayson et al., 1988;

Murray et al., 1989; Green et al., 1991; Cartwright & Lonergan, 1997). These residual

features are interpreted to be thermally and/or tectonically related: tectonic subsidence

related to plate motions and underlying mantal conditions (Gallagher & Lambeck, 1989;

Gurnis et al., 1998; Watterson et al., 2000; Veevers, 2006; Heine et al., 2008). It is

generally assumed that the flat lying nature of most stratigraphic units in the basin

underwent minimal tectonic deformation during deposition, and that most of the units are

relatively conformable. However, recent studies focused on various economic aspects of

the basin have resulted in the discovery of additional and more extensive faulting then

previously recognised (Esso 1981, Carne & Alexander, 1997; Hower, 2011; Sentry

Petroleum, 2011a,b). This work has demonstrated that many individual coal seams are

offset in places and are laterally discontinuous over tens of kilometres (Casey, 1967a,b;

Hower, 2011; Sentry Petroleum, 2011a,b).

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Figure 4- 3 Map of exposed faults and structures within the exposed Winton and Mackunda formations within the
study area. This figure highlights historical (A. Hoffmann et al., 1991) and recent (B. Howler et al., 2011) depicting a
great deal more faulting than what was originally described. Map modified from GeoScience Australia 2013.

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3. Study Area
3.1 Field Locations
Three primary field localities were investigated during this project, including:

expansive exposures at Bladensburg National Park (BNP) and Lark Quarry Conservation

Park (LQCP) near the town of Winton, Queensland, and an important fossil bearing locality

with poor surface exposure near IQ (Fig. 4-4). Nine stratigraphic sections were measured

at LQCP and an additional six sections were measured at BNP. Due to a lack of exposure,

no sections were measured at IQ. Instead, the stratigraphy of IQ was investigated and

correlated through investigation of regional well logs and cores.

Figure 4- 4 Arc GIS (10.1) Geo-referenced based map of exposed Winton and Mackunda Formation, along with the
expansive Quaternary Alluvium & Black Soil across the study area. Map also displays location of all field sights and core
localities across the study area. Cross section A-A’ displays the fairly constantly gentile dip across the basin and the
general thickening of the Winton Formation in the west.

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3.1.1 Bladensburg National Park
Bladensburg National Park (BNP) covers more than 48,900 hectares of Mitchell

grassland and channel country (Fig. 4-4). Much of the park is covered with “Jump Ups” or

buttes that offer exposure of Winton Formation. Fossil exploration in the area has been

minimal and yet to be documented.

3.1.2 Lark Quarry Conservation Park

South of Winton Queensland, Lark Quarry Conservation Park (LQCP) is the site of

one of the southern hemisphere’s best known dinosaur track sites (Fig. 4-4). The Lark

Quarry dinosaur tracksite (Australian Natural Heritage List, Place ID 105664) preserves

between 3,000-4,000 dinosaur footprints in an area little more than 200 m2. The original

interpretation of this site (Thulborn and Wade 1979, 1984, and 1989) suggested that a large

theropod chased a small heard of ornithopodian dinosaurs away from a lake shore.

However, a more recent investigation of the trackway, in combination with morphometric

analysis of the tracks and, detailed sedimentologic investigation of this site offers a

different interpretation. Romilio and Salisbury (2010) identified the large tracks as those of

a large, ornithiscian dinosaur, rather than a carnivore. And most recently, Romilio et al.

(2013) provide several lines of evidence to suggest that track site was produced over a

much longer duration of time in a fluvial setting; not the result of a ‘stampede’.

3.1.3 Isisford, Queensland

Isisford, Queensland (IQ), in the heart of the Queensland Outback, is world

renowned for the Isis Downs Shearing Shed, which is the largest in Australia (Fig. 4-4).

Fossil diversity is particularly rich in the region, but fossils are almost exclusively

recovered from large sandstone concretions. The most important discovery in this area is

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that of Isisfordia duncani, the earliest known Cretaceous crocodiliformes to exhibit modern

crocodilian characters. Exposure of the Winton Formation in this area is exceedingly poor;

however several locally derived cores were recovered in the area by Geoscience

Queensland and utilized for subsurface correlation.

3.2 Core Logging

Drill core analysis of the Winton and Mackunda formations were conducted at the

Geological Survey of Queensland core storage house in Zillmere, Queensland. In total,

eight cores were logged (although only five cores are utilized in this study). An additional

seven cores were digitized using the Hylogger system and the images and spectral analyses

for these cores were investigated. Finally, historic drill records/notes for eight additional

cores were also used in this study, and together, data from each of these core records was

used to construct the GIS basin model shown in Figure 4-4.

Eromanga 1 core was drilled east of Eromanga, Queensland (S26.6147/ E143.8801)

and 250 m of Winton strata were logged, starting at surface. The Winton Formation in

GSQ McKinlay 1, near McKinlay, Qld (S21.5925/ E142.2597) was logged from surface to

a depth of 240 m. GSQ Blackall 2 core (S 24.1626 /E144.2236), drilled near Blackall,

Queensland was logged between the Winton Formation at the surface exposure to a depth

of 300 m. GSQ Longreach 1-1B was drilled northeast of Longreach, Queensland

(S23.1119/E144.5996) and was logged between the Mackunda Formation surface

exposures and a depth of 350 m; however, no Winton Formation was encountered in this

core. GSQ Maneroo 1, which was drilled northeast of Maneroo, Queensland

(S23.3859/E144.4679) and was logged between the Winton Formation at the surface a

depth of 420 m. For additional stratigraphic correlation and visualization, published core

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logs for a number of other GSQ core logs were also utilized, including those for: Manuka 1,

Muttaburra 1, Machattie 1, Connemara 1, Augathella 1, Quilpie 1, and Thargomindah 1-1a

(Fig. 4-4).

4. Methods
4.1 Stratigraphy and Sedimentation
Sedimentologic analysis of the Winton Formation was conducted between 2010 and

2013. Detailed facies and architectural element analysis were performed following the

conceptual framework established by Miall (1977, 1985) and modifications to this

approach by Eberth and Miall (1991), Fielding (2001, 2006), Roberts (2007), and others.

For consistency, a uniform set of facies codes used to describe both the outcrop sections

and cores. In outcrop, detailed measured sections were constructed at the decimetre scale

in each of the three study areas using a Jacob’s Staff, Brunton Compass, and GPS.

Particular emphasis was placed on understanding and correlating important vertebrate fossil

localities in each study area. This included construction of bonebed and trackway maps for

sites at both BNP and LQCP based on historic records and photographs (Romillio et al.,

2013). Many horizons were walked out in order to define the horizontal and lateral

continuity of beds and facies.

The following types of field data were collected for each area and section: 1)

lithology; 2) the nature of the upper and lower bounding surfaces; 3) external unit geometry

and lateral extent; 4) scale and thickness of units; and 5) sedimentary and biogenic

structures (Miall, 1985). A series of distinct marker horizons were identified in the field

based on physical and sedimentologic characteristics and these were used to trace outcrops

along strike and lateral facies changes. In order to correlate the subsurface geology, core

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logs and drill records were used to construct a detailed GIS basin model (see below; Fig. 4-

4). Weathered and unweathered colour is based on the GSA Munsell Colour Chart (2009)

and the GSA Rock Colour Chart Committee (Goddard et al., 1980).

4.2 Arc GIS Reconstruction Models and Fence Diagram

A 3D visualization of the subsurface within the investigation area of Eromanga

Basin was created combining a suite of digital resources. Principally, this study utilized

ArcGIS 10.1 for digital reconstructions of the basin wide stratigraphic sections and

correlations. This study also utilized 3D GIS within Arc GIS 10.1 to better visualize

subsurface geology. All digital work was carried out in accordance with the “Working

with 3D GIS, Using ArcGIS” (V10.1, 2010). GDA94 is the official geodetic datum

adopted nationally across Australia on 1 January 2000. This was the datum used to gain

consistency across all raster and vector data displayed. Zone 55 was identified as the

most relevant for this portion of the Eromanga Basin. Regional geological maps of the

northern and central Eromanga Basin (Rock Unit & Structures) were imported and

floated on the digitised topographical surface for the region. The rock units of interest

were displayed. Only the fault structures were selected for display. The faults were

extruded to provide a pseudo 3D visualization. Both magnetic and gravitational survey

raster data were acquired. Three magnetic survey images were considered. This

included a 1st vertical derivative regional survey (magmap04) that covered the entire

region, a TMI and a higher resolution 1st vertical derivative (GSQP795tmivd1 image)

providing a partial coverage. The gravitational material covered a similar expanse as the

TMI. Seismic survey data was selected using the 2007 21 December 2D seismic

collector sheet. These results were not displayed within the visualization.

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 Logged drill information from 15 sites (including cores logged as part of this

study and additional original GSQ drill logs from surrounding wells) was used to enable

stratigraphic surfaces to be interpolated for the Winton and Mackunda formations. To

ensure consistent surface interpolations it was necessary to include both overlying and

underlying stratigraphic units. The core length applied relative to RL supplied the

vertical component (z), with the positions (x,y) input using the latitude and longitude

converted to decimal degrees. Top surfaces of each unit were generated using the

Ordinary kriging function. The semivariogram properties used a spherical model to

create the surface. The base surface of the Toolebuc Formation was also generated. The

function used 12 outer drill core details to create the interpolated surface. The

interpolated surface was then used to create a Triangulated Network (TiN).

A traditional block diagram, encompassing all fifteen drill locations was

generated using the extrude function. Extrude joins the nominated TiN surfaces and a

polygon shape that defines the area of interest. The polygon shape files used to provide

the outline for the extrude function were drawn to allow adjustment for faulting. These

polygon shapes had to be restricted to slightly inside the outer edge of the TiN to ensure

the extruded block created a “closed” shape. The blocks affected by dip-strike faults

were adjusted vertically to ensure the fence diagrams would display the faulting

appropriately. To create a fence diagram it was necessary to intersect a multipatch (3D)

shape with the block diagram. The intersecting multipatch was first drawn as a 2D

surface then extruded and converted to a multipatch. The intersect tool generates a

multipatch file of the intersection between the block unit and fence multipatch.

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5. Results
5.1 Sedimentology
Outcrop and core based facies analysis of the Winton Formation and the top of the

underlying Mackunda Formation resulted in identification of 22 lithofacies (Table 4-1; in

text all faces codes are listed in descending order of abundance). The repeated occurrence

of lithofacies in distinct combinations, together with the presence of diagnostic

architectural elements, was used to identify and interpret nine facies associations (FA) (Fig.

4-5a, b; Table 4-2). A detailed description of all nine facies associations is presented below,

and these are interpreted in terms of their depositional environment. Following the

approach and codes of Miall (1985, 1996), architectural elements, or lithosomes were

identified within different facies associations based on their geometry, associated facies,

and scale (Table 4-3). Bounding surfaces were commonly 0th to 4th order; however some

5th order may be inferred, but not strongly supported (Fig. 4-6a,b). Within the study areas,

two distinctive sedimentary patterns are observed. First, facies are overall coarser in BNP

than in LQCP, and second, in outcrop FAs gradually coarsen up-section in both areas.

Outcrop exposure in IQ is too limited to assess any trends. General coarsening upward

trends are also identified in most cores studied and published core logs.

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Table 4- 1 Lithofacies codes identified in the Winton and Mackunda formations. Modified from Miall, 2010.

120
Table 4- 2 Facies associations identified in in the Winton and Mackunda formations. Modified from Miall, 2010.

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Figure 4- 5a Typical outcrop patterns of Facies Associations 1-9 in outcrop at both Lark Quarry Conservation Park and
Bladensburg National Park: (FA1) massive-bedded sandstone, (FA2) thinly-bedded sandstone, (FA3) massive-bedded
siltstone, (FA4) thinly bedded siltstone, (FA5) tuffaceous mudstone, (FA6) thinly bedded protosol, (FA7) interlaminated
finely grained sandstone and siltstone, and (FA9) paraconglomerate.

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Figure 4- 5b Typical patterns of Facies Associations 1-8 in core.

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Figure 4- 6a Observed hierarchy of bounding surfaces in outcrop of the Winton Formation at Lark Quarry
Conservation Park and Bladensburg National Park.

Figure 4- 6b Observed hierarchy of bounding surfaces in core from both the Winton and Mackunda Formation from
around the study area.

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5.1.1 Major Sandstones (FA1)

Description
Major sandstones are a moderately common FA in both outcrop and core within the

Winton Formation. FA1 is composed of the following lithofacies: Sp, Sh, St, Se, Si, Sd,

Sm, Fl, Gmm, Gmx, and Sr (Sr is rare/poorly preserved) (Table 4-1). Individual sand

bodies range from massive (Sm) with only weak evidence of bedding (primarily due to

weathering) to well-bedded with excellent preservation of internal sedimentary structures

(St, Sr, Si, and Sp in particular). In outcrops, FA1 is most common in the middle and

upper portions of the Winton Formation, but only moderately abundant in the lower Winton

Formation. In core, FA1 is identified in the middle to upper Winton within Eromanga 1,

Blackall 2, McKinley 1, and Maneroo 1. Interestingly, FA1 is restricted to the very

uppermost part of the Mackunda Formation in the Longreach 1-1B core and absent from

the Mackunda Formation in Eromanga 1, Blackall 2, McKinley 1, and Maneroo 1.

FA1 units are characterised by sub-angular to sub-rounded, moderately to well-

sorted, medium to finely-grained sandstone that commonly fine upward. Less commonly,

FA1 units are characterized by coarse grained sandstones that exhibit less degrees of

textural maturity. In rare occurrences, FA1 grades to a very finely-grained siltstone at the

uppermost contacts (St, Sr). FA1 represents thick sandstone bodies exceeding ~0.5 m

thick; however, most beds are restricted to 0.5- 3.0 m in thickness. FA1 units can extend

continuously for a kilometre or more. FA1 is typified by basal 4th- to maybe 5th order

surfaces, which commonly form sharp to erosive contacts (more commonly, 4th order

surfaces are observed). Where basal 4th order surfaces are present, intraclast conglomerates

(Gmx) are almost always observed in the basal 0.10- 0.30 m of FA1. Internally, 0th to 3rd

order, bounding surfaces are common within FA1 sand bodies, with 3rd order surfaces

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characterized by thin lenses of Gmx. Individual beds within FA1 vary in thickness and

typically have multiple erosional to gradational internal bounding surfaces (1st-3rd order).

Individual cross-sets (St, Sp) are commonly between 0.3- 1.3 m thick. Lower bounding

surfaces are commonly sharply truncated or erosional.

Within FA1, five different architectural elements are recognized (sensu Miall, 2010,

2014), including channel elements (CH), lateral accretion elements (LA), sandy bed forms

(SB), scour hollows (HO), and laminated sands (LS) (Table 4-3). CH, LA, and SB are the

most prevalent and well-preserved at both LQCP and BNP. CH elements range in

thickness from 0.8- 2.0 m and extend laterally for 10.0- 40.0 m (sheets can laterally extend

for several kilometres or more). LA elements are relatively common and their morphology

is typically that of wedges or sheets, though rare lobes and trough-sets are present. LA toe

to crest height ranges from 0.5- 2.5 m and their widths generally exceed 5.0 m; however,

lack of continuous exposures and poor preservation inhibits precise measurements in most

cases. SB is also very common in outcrop, and ranges in thickness between 0.5- ~1.5 m,

and typically extends 10’s of meters in lateral extent. SB most commonly occurs in sheets;

however, rare lenses and wedges have been identified. Other architectural elements, such as

HO and LS, are present, but rare.

Interpretation
FA1 is interpreted to represent fluvial channel deposits. Large-scale macroform

elements identified within outcrop, including channel, LA, SB, LS, and CH are all

consistent with this interpretation (Fig. 7a,b,c,d) (Allen 1963; Nadon, 1994; Miall, 1996,

Fielding, 2006; Gibling, 2006; Nichols & Fisher, 2007; Miall, 2014). LA elements are

interpreted as ancient point bars and scroll bars, whereas the association of SB and CH in

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certain areas provide some evidence of high-sinuosity fluvial channels with well-defined

margins. The complexity and abundance internal bounding surfaces throughout individual

FA1 sand bodies suggest that flow waxed and waned over the course of deposition, as

would be expected in fluvial channel system. FA1 units commonly fine upwards,

suggesting that much of the bed is composed of migrating point bars, channel lag and

thalweg sediments (Fielding et al., 1999; Miall, 2014).

Table 4-3 Architectural elements (lithosomes) identified in the Winton Formation outcrops of Lark Quarry
Conservation Park and Bladensburg National Park. Modified from Miall, 2010, 2014.

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Figure 4- 7 Outcrop Facies associations (white), bounding surfaces (black), and fluvial architecture (green) in outcrop at
both Lark Quarry Conversation Park and Bladensburg National Park: A) Single in-filled abandoned channel (CH(FF))
bounded by a basal 4th order erosive surface, B) Multistorey FA2 scroll bars, each bounded by erosive 3rd order surface,
C) Moderately developed paleosol, D) Basal sheet FA4 overlain by angular bedded course grained FA1, E) Basal
tuffaceous mudstone overlain by multistorey FA2.

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5.1.2 Minor sandstones (FA2)

Description
Minor sandstones are a moderately common FA in both outcrop and core within the

Winton Formation. FA2 is composed of the following lithofacies: Sh, Sfv, Sr, Sd, Sm, Si,

St, Si, Fl, Gmm, Gmx and IvB. Generally, individual sand bodies range from massive (Sm)

to thinly-bedded with well-preserved sedimentary structures (St, Sr, and Si). In outcrop,

FA2 is most common in the upper Winton Formation; though, only moderately common in

the lower Winton Formation. FA2 is identified in all logged cores throughout the Winton

Formation, but this FA is considerably more abundant in the upper Winton Formation than

in the lower Winton or Mackunda formations.

FA2 units are characterized by moderate to well sorted, moderately rounded, fine

grained sandstones. Coarse-grained sandstones do occur, though not as common and

typically exhibit less textural maturity. FA2 represents thinly-bedded sandstone bodies that

are less than 0.5 m thick (most typically ~0.02- 0.3 m). Lateral extent of these units is

variable, but units can extend for 100’s of meters to several kilometres. Individual

lithofacies within FA2 vary in thickness and are characterized by both erosional to

gradational internal bounding surfaces (1st-3rd order). Individual trough and planar-cross

stratification is generally small scale (<0.20 m sets) and ripple cross lamination is

particularly abundant. All FA2 units generally fine-upward and are typified by basal 3rd-4th

order surfaces that commonly form sharp to erosive contacts. Where basal 4th order

surfaces are present (very rare possible 5th order), intraclast conglomerates (Gmx) are

observed in the lower 0.02-0.10 m of these units. Very similar to FA1, internal bounding

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surfaces are common, ranging from 0th to 3rd order. Internal 3rd order surfaces tend to be

defined by minor basal intraclast conglomerates (Gmx).

Interpretation
FA2 is interpreted to be associated with low-energy fluvial channel infill, crevasse

splays, sheet floods, levees, and waning flow with minor bed- load to suspension settling

(Allen 1963; Miall, 1996; Fielding, 2006, Nichols & Fisher, 2007). Strong lateral

correlation of these units can in certain cases be used to identify lateral relationships

between minor sandstone bodies (FA2) hosted within floodplain fines that are adjacent to

major sandstone bodies (FA1), confirming their precise origin as crevasse splay deposits.

The presence of upward fining and waning flow features, in combination with CH elements

in a handful of FA2 units is interpreted to represent a waning flow stage and channel filling

of secondary or tertiary tributary or auxiliary fluvial channels. They may potentially be

records of inactive, infilled channels within larger scale fluvial channel belts (Fig. 4-7b, c,

d; 8) (Nichols & Fisher, 2007; Miall, 2014). In some cases, these units also likely represent

isolated sheet flood deposits.

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Figure 4- 8 Observed facies associations in the Lower Winton Formation with outlined stratigraphic section of Hades
Hill at Lark Quarry Conservation Park: A) Uppermost section of the lower exposed Winton Formation with interbedding
of FA4 and multistory FA2, B) Middle lower exposures with basal interbedded siltstone, C) Middle lower exposed
massive bedded FA5 tuffaceous mudstone.

5.1.3 Major Siltstones (FA3)

Description

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 Major siltstones are a common FA in both outcrop and core within the Winton

Formation. FA3 is commonly composed of the following lithofacies: Sh, Sr, Sm, Sd, Se,

Sfv, Ss, Ssc, Fr, Fl, Flf, Fsc, C, IvB, P, Pb and Gmx. FA3 commonly forms minor cliffs

where exposures are preserved and commonly exhibits spheroidal in altered strata. In core,

FA3 is also identified throughout the upper and Lower Winton Formation in Eromanga 1,

Blackall 2, McKinlay 1, and Maneroo 1. This facies is limited to the very uppermost

Mackunda Formation in Maneroo 1 and McKinlay 1, and common in Longreach 1-1B.

Most FA3 units are characterised by moderate to well-rounded, well-sorted sandy

siltstones. Siltstones at both BNP and LQCP are commonly moderately– to well-cemented.

FA3 units are generally coarsely-grained to finely-grained siltstone and occasional

mudstone; altered units do not preserve grading characteristics in the uppermost Winton

Formation. FA3 bodies can exceed 4.0 m; however, most beds are restricted to 0.5- 3.0 m.

FA 3 is typified by basal 2nd to 3rd order surfaces which commonly range from gradational,

sharp, to irregular-eroded contacts. Third-order surfaces are present in two distinct

morphologies, immature paleosols and channelized structures. Third order surfaces are

also commonly characterised by thin intraformational conglomerate drapes; though these

may also be granular to coarse sand (Gmx). Individual facies within FA3 range in

thickness with sharp-erosional to gradational internal bedding surfaces (1st-3rd order).

Individual cross sets (St, Sp, Sr) are commonly between 0.04- 2.0 m thick. Lower

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bounding surfaces are commonly sharply truncated to erosive with rip-up clasts,

dominantly clay-mud rich. Bioturbation structures are commonly preserved (P, IvB, Pb).

Soft-sediment deformation and dewatering structures are also present, though preservation

is poor.

Within FA3, five different architectural elements are recognised including channel

elements (CH), lateral-accretion macroforms (LA), laminated sand sheets (LS), levee (LV),

and floodplain fines (FF). CH, LS, and FF are the most prevalent and well preserved at

both LQCP and BNP. CH presents in sheets that range in thickness from 0.5-4.0 m in

thickness and extend laterally for at most a kilometre; though, units generally extend for

200- 300 m. LA morphology is typically sheet-like, with minor variation to thickness over

many meters (50- 100 m); however, variable internal preservation inhibits complete

description. LA toe to crest height ranges from 0.5- 1.5 m and widths are generally

smaller, between 3.0-6.0 m. LS are present, though preservation quality over lateral

distance is variable and commonly discontinuous. Thickness ranges between 0.03-0.5 m,

and can range laterally between 100-150 m. LV is identified in upper and lower sections of

the exposed Winton Formation and commonly ranges in thickness between 2.0- 4.0 m in

thickness and between 200- 300 m (variable to outcrop quality).

Interpretation

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 FA3 is interpreted to represent very low energy fluvial channel and proximal

floodplain deposits based on their physical and structural characteristics (Fielding, 2006;

Miall, 2014). In several cases, lower bounding surfaces present erosive contacts and rip up

clasts interpreted as low energy sheet floods of active channel flow (Miall, 1996, 2014).

FA3 is commonly overlain by finer sediments which commonly exhibit well preserved

plant remains, paleosol and bioturbation structures, indicating channel migration and

shortly thereafter bank- levee development (Allen 1963; Miall, 1996). Lateral correlation

of these beds suggests that some of these events were long-lived in broad sweeping fluvial

dominantd flood plains.

5.1.4. Minor Siltstones (FA4)

Description
Minor siltstones are a common FA in both outcrop and core throughout the Winton

Formation. FA4 is commonly composed of the following lithofacies: Sm, Sh, Fm, St, Sd,

Sr, Fl, Fm, Fr, Tlcf, P, Pb, Gmx, and IvB (Table 4-1). Individual silt bodies range from

massive and void of internal structure (or poorly preserved) to well-developed and well-

preserved internal bedding and sedimentary structures (St, Sr, IvB). In outcrop at all study

areas, FA4 is identified in both upper and lower exposures of the Winton Formation. In

cores Eromanga 1, Blackall 2, McKinley 1, and Maneroo 1, FA4 is identified in both upper

and lower stratigraphic sections. This facies is also abundant in the Mackunda Formation

in cores McKinley 1, Blackall 2, Eromanga 1, Longreach 1-1B and Maneroo 1.

Most FA4 unites are characterised by moderate to well-rounded grain that

commonly show an overall fining upward pattern into very finely-grained siltstone to very

silty mudstones (St, Sr). Less commonly, FA4 units can be characterised by coarse grained

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silts which are commonly grain supported, and poorly consolidated. Overall, FA4

represents thin siltstone bodies which do not exceed a thickness of 0.5 m, with most units

ranging between ~0.01- 0.3 m. Lateral extent in FA4 is highly variable upon outcrop

quality. In some cases FA4 can be traced for half a kilometre; however, in most cases FA4

extends between 100-300 m. FA4 is typified by basal 0th to 3rd order surfaces which

commonly exhibits both sharp and erosive contacts. Basal 3rd order surfaces exhibit both

erosive surfaces including coarse sand to granular intraclasts (Gmx). Upper surfaces are

commonly 1st to 3rd order, and many are gradational in nature. Internally, 0th to 3rd order

surfaces are common within FA4 sand bodies. Commonly, internally sharp contacts of 1 st

to 2nd order are presented in thinly bedded lamina (0.02- 0.10 m). Individual cross-sets (St,

Sp, Sr) are commonly between 0.4 and 1.5 m thick. Lower bounding surfaces are

commonly sharply truncated and erosional. Lowermost inclined beds are commonly

courser with sand, mud or clay-clasts inclusions and generally fine-upwards. Thicker units

containing higher percentages of fines (silts/muds), and more often contain moderately to

well-preserved silty soil (protosol) and bioturbation structures (Sm, P, Pb, and IvB). In

FA4, also preserved vertical and bifurcating roots are within moderate to well-preserved

soil horizons.

Interpretation
FA4 is interpreted to be associated with fluvial channels and overbank fine deposits

based on their physical and structural characteristics (Allen 1963; Miall, 1996, 2014).

Smaller scale to isolated singular events includes minor sheet floods, abandoned channel

infill, levee development, and suspension settling along with weakly to moderately-

developed rooted paleosol horizons (Fig. 4-7c). Moderate lateral continuity of these beds

135
suggests that some of these events were well to moderate developed channel sets with

associated levee development.

5.1.5. Major Mudstones (FA5)

Description
Major mudstones are a moderately common FA in both outcrop and core within the

Winton Formation. FA5 is commonly composed of the following lithofacies: Ssc, Fm, Fl,

Flf, Fr, Fsc, VFc, IvB, C, PB and P (PB and P are infrequent). Individual mud bodies range

from massive (Fm) with only weak bedding to well-bedded with excellent preservation of

sedimentary structures to units that are moderate (Ssc, Fl, Fsc, VFc) to highly kaolinized-

lateritized. In outcrop at all study areas, FA1 is rarely present in the upper sections of the

Winton Formation and moderately common in the lower Winton Formation. In core, FA5

is identified in all sections of the Winton Formation in most cores. This facies is very

common in the upper and middle Mackunda Formation cores too.

FA5 is common and most beds restricted to between 0.8-2.0 m in thickness, but

with some units exceeding 3 m thick. Characterisation of lateral extent in FA5 is variable

upon the bedding morphology and outcrop quality. Lateral continuity can extend for

several hundred meters to several kilometres. FA5 is typified by basal 0th to 3rd order

surfaces that can have gradational, sharp, or irregular contacts. Lower contacts are

commonly expressed by 2nd or 3rd order surfaces. Internally, many units exhibit 0th-1st

order bounding surfaces with upper contacts displaying erosions to irregular. FA5 occurs

in three distinctive lithotypes: 1) moderate to highly kaolinized-lateritized units that

commonly erode into small cubic ped structures; 2) bentonitic, very clay rich units that

exhibit haystack to popcorn weathering; and 3) highly bioturbated units with evidence of

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colour mottling and development of colour horizons. In the lithtype, blocky ped structures

and small slickensides are also common, and the trace fossils are sometimes in-filled with

coarser silts and sands and secondary iron cements and small concretions.

Architectural Elements identified within FA5 include, in descending order of

abundance: FF, LV, and CH(FF). FF is typically observed in thick to massive bedded

units, which range 0.7-4.0 m, and laterally extended for kilometres. LV is commonly

observed in medium to thick beds which taper to a pinch out. Thickness of LV can range

from 0.8-3.2 m, and laterally extend for 200- 500 m. CH(FF) macroform elements are a

very distinctive feature associated with FA5 in outcrop. FA5 units with CH(FF) marcro

form elements have silty to sandy bases above erosional contacts and are most significant

in that preserve large quantities of well-preserved plant macrofossils (typically leaves). The

CH (FF) elements are small, typically only 1.5- 2.0 m thick and taper to a distinct pinch-

out, ranging about 30-80 m wide.

Interpretation
FA5 is interpreted to reflect deposition within low-energy proximal to distal

floodplain settings (Allen 1963; Miall, 1996; Ghosh et al., 2006). A range of depositional

environments are recognized for FA5 units, including ancient channel levee deposits and

small secondary channel fill deposits in the case of FA5 units with CH(FF) macroform

elements. Many FA5 units can be interpreted as pedogenically modified flood plain

deposits, or paleosols, based on the presence of such features as ped structures,

slickensides, mottling, colour banding, small Fe-oxide staining and concretions, and the

common presence of bioturbation, including clear root traces. The combination of these and

physical features indicate that most paleosols are only weakly developed, fitting the

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classification of ‘protosols’ (Brown and Kraus, 1987; Retallack, 1997; Demko et al., 2004;

Ghosh et al., 2006). FA5 units with distinct haystack and popcorn weathering features are

interpreted as swelling bentonitic mudstones that imply the presence of devitrified volcanic

ashes (Roberts and Hendrix, 2000). However, several of these units were collected and

separated to look for datable volcanic phenocrysts. In both cases, the coarse grained

separates included abundant detrital sediments and dating of the zircon separates indicated

that these are not primary ashes, but more likely developed as a result of weathering of

volcanic-lithic rich sandstones and siltstones. No evidence of primary volcanic ash beds

could be identified, although considerable effort was made to determine if such beds exist.

5.1.6. Minor Mudstones (FA6)

Description
Minor mudstones are a common occurring FA in all exposures and cores of the

Winton Formation. FA6 is commonly composed of the following lithofacies: Fm, Fl, Flf,

Fr, Fsc, VFc, IvB, PB, C, P and Ssc. Individual thinly bedded mudstone units range from

medium bedded (Fm) to very well thinly laminated. In outcrop at all study areas, FA6 is

exposed in both lower and upper sections in varying frequency. In core, FA6 is identified

in the middle to lower sections of the Winton Formation. FA6 is infrequent in the upper

most units. This facies is very common in the cores that also preserve the upper and middle

Mackunda Formation.

FA6 represents thinly-bedded mudstone bodies that do not exceed 0.5 m thick, with

most beds ranging between 0.05-0.3 m in thickness. Thicker units (0.2-0.5 m) tend to

partially preserve fine to medium scale lamina (Sm, Fl); however, many units are void of

internal sedimentary structure. Laterally continuous units can extend for many kilometres;

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however, most commonly extend for 200 to 400 m. This FA is better preserved in the

lower to middle exposures, primarily because upper exposures are deeply weathered and

highly altered. FA6 is typified by basal 0th to 3rd order surfaces with gradational to sharp

contacts. Lower bounding surfaces are commonly sharply truncated, flat lying and uniform.

Bioturbation in FA6 is common (IvB, PB, and P), and facies with rare mud cracks (Fm, Fl)

are present.

Interpretation
FA6 is interpreted to reflect deposition within low-energy floodplain settings.

Some FA6 units with evidence of mudcracks and bioturbation features, are interpreted be

very weakly developed paleosols. In several outcrop sections of preserved FA6,

indications of various levels of pedogenesis and stability, with some more intensely

developed than others (Fig. 4-7c).

5.1.7. Interlaminated sandy siltstones to silty mudstones (FA7)

Description
Interlaminated sandy siltstones to silty mudstones are moderately common

throughout the outcropping Winton Formation. FA7 is commonly composed of the

following lithofacies: Ssc, Sr, Fm, Fr, Fl, IvB, Pb, C, and P. FA7 tends to preserve fine to

medium scale, flat-lying lamina (Sm, Fl, Fr, Fm, Ssc). Individual couplets are tightly

packed with fairly continuous upper and lower bounding surfaces. In several instances

however, planar and ripple cross laminations are observed, along with abundant, small-

scale dewatering features. Bioturbation is also common. In outcrops, at all study areas,

FA7 is most commonly exposed in middle and upper sections of the Winton Formation. In

core, FA5 is identified in lower sections of the Winton Formation. This facies is very

common in cores that preserve the upper and middle Mackunda Formation.

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 FA7 units commonly range in outcrop from 0.1- 3.0 m in thickness and are laterally

continuous for up to a kilometre at most; however, most only extend for a few hundred

meters. Coarser laminae commonly exhibit sharp to erosive basal surfaces (2nd-3rd order

surfaces; Gmx). Internal bounding surfaces are 1st to 2nd order and range from gradational

to sharp boundariesIn core, two distinctive morphologies are identified: 1) tightly packed

rythmite (lenticular bedding with 0.0005-0.01 m sets) beds that are 0.10-5.0 m-thick,

restricted to the Mackunda Formation and 2) Thicker, flaser- bedded, interlaminated

siltstones and mudstone couplets (that reach up to 8 m thick in total) and are restricted to

the Mackunda and lowermost Winton Formation. Very little evidence of FA7 is found in

the middle or upper Winton Formation.

Interpretation
FA7 and associated sedimentary structures indicate minor cycles of increased and

decreased flow velocities within tidal flats and tidally influenced fluvial channels that are

most likely associated with middle to upper delta plain settings. This FA is almost

exclusively restricted to the Mackunda and Lower Winton Formation; however, rare

examples of FA7 are found alluvial upper Winton Formation outcrops. In these rare cases,

FA7 is most likely to have been generated by a secondary or tertiary fluvial channel with

waxing and waning flow velocities. Association of ripples, vertebrate tracks, and

invertebrate bioturbation markers indicate periods of repeated ponding in inactive fluvial

channels, closely followed by minor stream flow (Thulborn and Wade, 1984; Buatois and

Mangano, 2011; Romilio et al., 2013). In core, nearly all FA7 units are restricted to the

Makunda and lower Winton Formation and are interpreted to have been produced in

marginal marine, coastal, deltaic, and very distal tidally-influenced fluvial channels (Pontén

& Björklund, 2007). These tightly packaged units are interpreted as cyclical tidal

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rhythmites and non-cyclical couplets of flaser, wavy, and lenticular bedding. An upsection

progression from mudstone-dominantd lenticular bedding to sandstone and siltstone

dominantd flaser bedding is interpreted to represent a transition from tidal flat and lower

delta plain to middle and upper delta plain settings with a tidal marsh to deltaic setting.

5.1.8. Plant-rich or Carbonaceous silty-Mudstone to Coal (FA8)

Description

Description
Carbonaceous siltstones, mudstones, and thin coals comprise this FA in both

outcrop and core within the Winton Formation. FA8 is commonly composed of the

following lithofacies: Ssc, Fl, Fsc, C, PB, and P. FA9 is ranges from thin- to thick-bedded

siltstone and mudstone units that have moderate to very high amounts of carbonized or

whole plant material and coalified fragments (Fl, Ssc, Fsc, Fcf). In core, coal grade

commonly ranges from peat to lignite, although in rare occasions subbituminous coal is

present. In outcrop, plant material is very well-preserved and readily identified.

Individual horizons in outcrop range from 0.05 to 4.0 m in thickness; however,

with most beds range from 0.10 to 2.0 m. Lateral extent of FA8 units is variable, extending

upto 100-150 m. In core, FA8 does not 8.0 m in overall thickness and averages between

1.5 -5.0 m. FA8 is typified by upper and lower 0th to 2nd order bounding surfaces, which

commonly exhibit sharp contacts. Internally, weakly developed 0th to 1st order laminae are

common, defined by plant hashes and well-developed coalified fragments along

boundaries. In core, carbonaceous fragments range from isolated fragments (upper

Winton) to highly disseminated (lower Winton Formation).

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 In outcrop, FA8 is only exposed in the lowermost portion of the Upper Winton

Formation. Ch(FF) macroform elements are an important feature associated with the rare

FA9 units observed in outcrop. In core, FA8 is identified in both the middle and lower

Winton Formation This facies is absent in all but the uppermost Mackunda Formation in

core, where it is very common.

Interpretation

FA8 is interpreted to represent very low energy anoxic to disoxic accumulations of

plant material within abandoned channels, oxbow’s, billabongs and low-lying ponds and

swamps (Allen 1963; Fielding, 1985, 1987; Davies-Vollum and Wing, 1998). This FA is

most common in the uppermost Mackunda and lower Winton formations and most likely

associated with coastal mires and oxbow lakes, and backswamp settings to upper delta

plain settings. Thicker sections of peat to sub-grade coal are interpreted to have been

generated in swamp accumulations adjacent to back swamps to very distal fluvial

environments (Kraus & Aslan, 1993, Wing 1998). Many FA8 units occur in FA8 units

with CH(FF) macroform elements that are interpreted to represent oxbow swamps that

formed inabandoned channels (Fig. 4-7a). However, isolated non-lenticular horizons are

likely to have been ponds, minor swamps, or even plant and mud rich flood debris.

5.1.9. Intraformational Conglomerate (FA9)

Description
Intraformational conglomerate is a rare FA in both outcrop and core within the

Winton Formation. FA9 dominantly matrix supported paraconglomerate composed of the

following lithofacies: Gmm, Gmx, Sh, and Ss. In outcrop, at all study areas, FA9 is

restricted to the uppermost Winton Formation and in many weathered outcrops FA9 forms

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slump structures in the uppermost sections of many “Jump Ups”. In core, FA9 is isolated

to a handful or examples, none of which exceed a thickness of 0.30 m. This FA is not

identified in the Mackunda Formation.

FA9 represents an unstratified unit that is dominantd by matrix supported pebble to

cobble sized clasts commonly composed of Intraformational mud and silt. Matrix varies

from very coarse sand to very fine silt, which forms a support matrix for various sized clast

inclusions (0.01-0.30 m). In outcrop FA9 units are commonly about 1.0m in thickness, and

some units can be traced laterally for quite some distance in LQCP and BNP. Beds are

moderately continuous but thickness varies laterally to form discontinuous lense-like to

sheet-like geometries. Basal bounding surfaces are erosionally incised 4th order surfaces,

which are very irregular in nature. Upper surfaces are commonly weakly gradational into

overlying FA and can exhibit sharp upper surfaces. FA 9 units are void of any internal

structure.

Interpretation
The matrix supported nature of these conglomerates, composed of intraformation

mudstone, siltstone and sandstone clasts, suggests that these deposits represent minor, in

channel bank collapse events in some cases and small, localized debris flows in other cases.

The lateral continuity of some of these beds indicate dilute debris flows that maintained

matrix support over fairly long run-out distances prior to frictionally freezing. Several

distinct horizons observed at both LQCP and BNP may represent minor flooding events.

Upper bounding surfaces, which are gradations in nature, indicate a return to normal stream

flow conditions. It is perhaps possible that these units are associated with periods of

intense volcanic eruptions to the east in the Whitsundays Volcanic Province, and represent

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the distal expression of in channel lahars. However, it is perhaps, more likely that these are

simply the result of particularly intense flooding events.

5.2 Fossil preservation and distribution in the Winton Formation

5.2.1 Trace Fossils

In outcrop, facies assemblages FA2-FA9 preserve a broad suite of trace fossils of

varying diversity, quality, and intensity. Bann et al. (2008) constructed a hierarchy

(bioturbation index [BI]) for classifying the intensity of bioturbation in a given sedimentary

horizon from BI 0 (none) to BI 6 (intense). Following the criteria established by Bann et al.

(2008), a general characterization of the BI for different FAs of the Winton Formation was

performed. FA1 units typically show a BI of 0-1, though 1 is very rare and restricted to

finely-rained units. FA2 units typically record BI values of 0-2. FA3 typically records BI

values of 2; however, a several horizons have been identified with BI up to 3. FA4 exhibit

the broad range of bioturbation intensity (0 to 4). FA5 and FA6 either present bioturbation

and commonly a BI of ~3 (and commonly silty infill) or do not preserve at all. FA7, 8, and

9 commonly range around a BI of 2, however some fluctuation is noted and though only

roughly this may be classified into a BI of 3.

Many of the FAs that preserve diverse trace fossil assemblages are interpreted to

have formed within stable long-lived and well-developed horizons. The primary ichnotaxa

indentified throughout the Winton Formation are Skolithos, Scoyenia, and Planolities. The

association of these particular trace fossils together is characteristic of the Scoyenia

ichnofacies (Buatois and Mangano, 1995). The Scoyenia ichnofacies has been interpreted to

represent a continental environment with low-energy flow and periodic subaerial conditions

(MacEachern et al., 2010). This is consistent with sedimentological interpretations

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presented above for the Winton Formation, which indicate fluvial systems with well-

defined channel banks and point bars (FA1-4), along with incipient paleosol development

in many units (FA3-6, 8-9).

5.2.2 Vertebrate Fossils

Preservation styles of vertebrate fossil remains described from Isisford, Queensland

are unique to all other described from the Winton Formation. The Isisford assemblage is

interpreted to be entombed within the lower Winton Formation (Tucker et al., 2013; 2014).

Skeletal remains are well-preserved and commonly skeletons are associated and articulated.

High quality of preservation is a direct result of skeletal material being preserved in iron

cemented-volcanilithic-rich sandstone nodules. These nodules are commonly preserved

within FA1 and FA3. Fossil remains include Isisfordia duncani, a Eusuchia

Crocodyliform, along with a newly identified Ichthyodectiform fish and a newly discovered

dinosaurian (archosaur) taxa (Salisbury et al., 2006a). A direct result of these assemblage

patterns and lack of any outcrop has greatly inhibited their description. For the first time,

this locality can be interpreted based on the temporal placement of its entombed fossil

assemblage (Chapter 2), and coupled with a better understanding not only the source of the

entombing sediment (Chapter 3) and the facies which directly affected the emplacement on

preservation of said fossil accumulations (this chapter).

On the other hand, many of the more advanced dinosaurian forms are described

from the upper Winton Formation at either LQCP or BNP (Salisbury et al., 2006b). These

associated to isolated remains are of poorer quality when directly compared to those

described from Isisford. Elements found at the surface are commonly weathered and

fragmentary; though preservation quality greatly increases with burial. This is especially

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true for a minor multi-individual bonebed at BNP. Commonly, these isolated-associated

elements are preserved in coarsely grained FA3-FA4, though some do occur in finely

grained FA1 and FA2. Presently, dinosaurian taxa associated with these upper horizons are

the very fragmentary remains of the theropod (Saurischia, Dinosauria), Australovenator

wintonensis, and the fragmentary remains of several sauropods (saurischia, dinosauria),

Diamantinasaurus matildae and Wintonotitan wattsi (Hocknull et al., 2009), along with the

newly discovered yet undescribed material by Salisbury and crew.

5.3 Stratigraphy
In both BNP and LQCP surface exposures are spotty at best. Many possible surface

exposures are covered by ‘black-soil’ and Quaternary Alluvium with scattered exposures in

low-lying depressions, drainage channels, and dry modern fluvial channels (Fig. 4-4, 4-8,

4-9, 4-10, 4-11). ‘jump-up’ exposure ranges ~14- 36 m at LQCP, and similarly at BNP.

Consistently, each ‘jump-up’ utilised could be separated into three vertical subgroups based

on levels of alteration (Fig. 9). Unit A, the base unit has little to no alterations, and

contained the best preserved sedimentary structures in any of these unites. Typically, Unit

A was about 12-16 m in thickness and laterally continuous beds can stretch for several

kilometres. Individual units within Unit A are overall fine grained then overlying units.

Bedding and architectural notes are readily identifiable, and facies are easily diagnosed.

Unit B preserves many structural and sedimentological features though is characterised by

moderate levels of physical and chemical alteration. Depending on the level of surficial

weathering, Unit B can range between 3-8 m. Preservation of individual and associated

sedimentary features or architectural elements is moderate to spotty at best. Large scale

architectural elements are rare and often poorly preserved or isolated. Moderate to higher

degrees of weathering is identified by the intensity of associated spheroidal weathering,

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which can be very pervasive. Unit C, the uppermost unit is characterized by being greatly

altered and most often highly weathered. Unit C generally forms 1-4 m thick cliff-like cap

rock to all of the observed ‘jump ups’. Unit C is only laterally continuous though out the

study area; however, correlation of individual beds can be limited to 500 m to a maximum

of 1-2 kms. Many of these units have been altered to a laterite, and many compositional

characteristics are hard to discern. However, many of these units preserve medium to fine

scale sedimentary features and associated trace fossils.

Figure 4- 9 A) Displays Units A B and C in vertical section of Monkey Head Hill in Lark Quarry Conservation Park. B)
Simplified cross section across Lark Quarry Conservation Park displaying Units A, B and C in vertical schematic.

Stratigraphic relationships are somewhat troublesome between LQCP and BNP.

Based solely on average strike and dip (n<1º NE; in agreement with Senior et al., 1978),

LQCP would be slightly higher in stratigraphic relationship compared to BNP (Fig. 4-10).

Stratigraphically, key marker beds contain floral, faunal and dated detrital minerals. It is

also interpreted that stratigraphic sections are slightly higher and younger at LQCP then

those at BNP (Tucker et al., 2013; Tucker et al., 2014). However, many studies are

indicating this basin is highly faulted, indicating that lateral correlation should be

rigorously tested. Also, Tucker et al. (2014) and this study find a great deal of evidence to

illustrate a depositional hierarchy between BNP and LQCP.

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Figure 4- 10 ArcGIS based cross section from Lark Quarry Conservation Park to Bladensburg Nation Park of key
correlative bed of the last occurring tuffaceous FA5 mudstone with extrapolated regional dip of ~1º.

5.3.1 Outcrop Stratigraphy

In LQCP, the first and lowermost exposed sections of the Winton Formation are

best exposed and the most unaltered in Hades Hill (~ 13.5 m; Unit A). Features identified

in Hades Hill are observed all other Jump Ups or surface exposures in LQCP (Fig. 8a-c,

11). In BNP, units are inherently very similar if not identical; however, quality of outcrop is

a great deal less than LQCP. It should be noted, these lower units contain overall higher

percentages of muds and clays as support matrix than any other overlying unit. Commonly,

basal units are composed of repetitive and interbedded packages of FA2-FA6, with minor

occurrences of FA1, FA5, GA6 or FA8. FA2 occurs in eight distinctive successive step-

like beds which are commonly 0.4-1.3 m in thickness. In-between each FA2 is groupings

of interbedded and repeating succession of FA3-FA6 with very infrequent beds of FA8

(FA5 and FA6 contains high percentages of silt progressing up-section).

Several major, but isolated lenticular bodies preserve FA8; at its thickest part ranges

between 0.8-1.0 m and commonly pinches-out. FA8 is interpreted to be in-filled

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abandoned channels with preserved plant remains and trace fossils preserved therein. FA2,

FA4 and FA6 average between 0.02-0.4 m in thickness. The common association of FA1,

FA2, and FA4 is interpreted to be in-channel to directly adjacent to actively migrating

channels. Stacked sections of FA5 and FA6 (sometimes interbedded with FA4), which

exhibit both paleosol and bioturbation characteristics likely represents minor bank and

levee development to well-developed and long-lived bank (Fig. 8b,c). Both cross bedding

(FA2 & FA4) and very small-scale ripple lamination reflects in-channel activity is common

in FA1-FA4, and is interpreted to represent channel fill. The ratio between

channel/overbank percentages is estimated between 80%/20%; however, this may be

erroneous considering local preservation quality. Palaeocurrent data based on in-channel

features and averaged in a westerly orientation (335º-334º).

In both LQCP and BNP, the exposed middle sections (Unit B) are moderately

altered, though preserved both sedimentary and architectural elements (Fig. 9a-h). The

amount of alteration can readily be addressed; a higher presence of spheroidal weathering

structures is directly indicative of higher amounts of weathered/altered feldspar. The

contact of units A and B in outcrop is quite distinct; the uppermost stratum in Unit A is

either a fine grained FA4 or a silty FA6 with either is noted as a gradational or an erosive

contact with the very lowermost stratum of Unit B. As many of these upper units seem to

have a great deal less clays and muds within FA1-FA4 its contact is likely a result of

digenetic iron saturation and porosity levels (Fig. 9a). Unit B, throughout LQCP is similar

in many ways to that of unit A; however, FA1 and FA3 have a great deal more presence.

FA1-FA9 is present in various forms and this unit is partially describable in each ‘jump-up’

at LQCP and also BNP.

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 There is a distinct lack of muds FA5-6 in the upper section of Unit B at both LQCP

and BNP, where a distinct thickening of FA1-4 is observed. FA5 and FA6 are rare, but if

present likely represent waning channel floods or short-term levee development. Overall,

better quality of outcrop is at LQCP; however, large-scale architectural notes are better

preserved in BNP. This includes many channelized elements (point bars and scroll bars) in

FA1-FA4. Interlaminated finely grains sandstones and siltstone (FA7) are interpreted to

represents saturated sediment deposited during waxing and waning flow periods (Fig. 9d,e).

Uppermost sections of Unit B, thicker units of FA1 occur along with fine grained

and FA3 and FA4 which commonly preserve numerous palaeosol indicators, bioturbation,

and root traces (Fig. 4-9). This is interpreted to represent that upper units in the northwest

likely experienced channel migration and therein developed into a moderately to poorly

drained floodplain directly adjacent to the channels. On the other hand, other upper

sections of Unit B are dominantd by FA1, FA2, FA7, and capped by FA9. FA1 is a great

deal coarser and occasionally grain supported. There is a distinctive loss of supporting

clays and muds, though some very fine sands and silts are present. The increase of overall

grain size strongly indicates a rise in fluvial energy from lower channelized structures

identified in the underlying Unit A. FA2 is present in much thinner horizons and likely to

represent minor sheet floods within individual channel(s). FA7 is best preserved in these

sections, indicating a repetitive waxing and waning of flow within these channels. The

upper most section of Unit B in many sections is a thick-bedded paraconglomerate (FA9)

with a highly erosive basal surface. Spheroidal weathering is present in varying degrees in

FA1-FA4 in upper portions of Unit 2. However, secondary digenetic iron has somewhat

aided in the preservation of biogenic features within these altered units.

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Figure 4- 11 Facies associations observed in outcrop of the upper Winton Formation: Section type 1 dominantly
contains poorly to moderately developed palaeosols to protosols (9a,b,c). These stable and developing horizons preserve
a broad suite of soil, floral and bioturbation indicators (9a,b), incised banks (9c), which commonly form short cliff-like
structures (9d). Interlaminated FA7’s occur regularly and are interpreted to be erosive waxing and waning periods (9e),
On the other hand, Section type 2 is typified by lower bank and levee deposits which are then incised by a very active
group of channel coarse grained cross bedded sandstones (9f,g,h).

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 In LQCP, the uppermost section of Unit C are altered, though preserves

sedimentary and architectural elements (1.0-4.0 m). At BNP, the uppermost sections are

highly alerted, with most commonly forming lateritized to heavily kaolinized caprocks.

The contact of unit B and C is gradational to erosive, though this is highly variable to

preservation quality. Much of Unit C could be described as lateritic to extremely

kaolinized. Many are weathered into a series of heavily cubic fracturing beds averaging

about 0.5-1.0m. If beds are stacked, the lowermost is still fairly competent, however

progressing up-section, beds quickly become heavily fractured and disjointed. As with

Unit 2, the same east and west (east-fluvial channel and west-floodplain) separation of

environmental indicators and sediment patterns are recognised in Unit 3 and interpreted as

such. Units at BNP preserve less sedimentary features and structures then those at LQCP.

In sections at Hidden Hill and Dingo Den, horizons are craggy and commonly form short

cliff-like structures with no discernable features.

5.3.2 Core Stratigraphy

By utilizing preserved stratigraphic core logs from around that basin, a much better

understanding of the Winton as a whole was achieved (Fig. 4-10a-d). The first occurrence

of the Winton Formation is at surface in all cores except for that of GSQ Longreach 1-1B.

All cores preserving various portions of the Winton Formation that were re-reviewed by

this study include GSQ cores; Eromanga 1, Blackall 2, McKinley 1, Maneroo 1, and

Longreach 1-1B. All GSQ Cores preserve the underlying Mackunda Formation.

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Figure 4- 12 Facies associations observed in cored sections of the Winton and Mackunda Formation: A) upper
Winton Formation sections dominantd by massively bedded FA1 with 2nd to 3rd, B) The lower Winton contains a great
deal more heterolithic lamina and bedding dominantly silty in nature, C) The conformable contact between the Winton
and Mackunda Formation is identified by the first occurring coal measure, D) The uppermost Mackunda is distinctly silt
and mud dominantd with very thick beds of tidal rhythmites and deformed lenticular lamina.

In the middle and lower Mackunda Formation, a distinct lack of all sands is noted

(Fig. 4-10d). Bedding becomes dominantd by well-preserved lenticular and tidal rhythmite

sequences. Numerous normal and reverse grading was identified throughout these sections

of interbedded clay rich muds and very fine siltstones. It is likely that many of these
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deposits in the upper to middle Mackunda indicate a transition from the delta front to the

pro delta (Bhattacharya, 2010). This section of core is also the lowermost occurrence of

calcite and other evaporites minerals within the strata. These minerals can occur in discrete

lamina (during deposition) or as crack and fissure infill (post-deposition). In core there was

no obvious identified marine biogenic trace, however there were many horizons which

displayed deformation as a result of dewatering in multiple sequences of lamina. It is

interpreted that the upper Mackunda preserves a period of deposition which was

dominantly shallow marine, coastal to the mouth of a fluvial dominantd delta (lower-upper

delta plain) (Bhattacharya and Walker, 1992; Helland-Hansen and Gjellberg, 1994;

Bhattacharya, 2010). The upper Mackunda is much the same; however, laminae become a

great deal more heterolithic, shifting from flaser to wavy or wavy to lenticular mixed

laminae. This greatly signifies mixed energies as these areas transitioned from delta-front-

coastal to upper delta plain to the lower delta plain in the very lowermost Winton

Formation.

The contact between the lowermost Winton Formation and uppermost Mackunda

Formation is diagnosed by the lowermost major coal seam in the Mackunda (or last

occurring coal in the Winton Formation) (Fig. 4-12c), which this study agrees with (Draper,

2002). In many cores, it was observed that this first occurrence of coal was often

accompanied by the last occurrence of marine oyster shells and shell hash. A third

characteristic of this contact, though very gradual, is a general fining of sediment down

section and an increase of muds. High degrees of coalified plant debris likely indicate the

local to regional development of swamps, wetlands or coastal woodlands. Disseminated to

isolated and fragmentary coalified flakes indicate minor incorporation of floral remains but

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more likely indicates deposition within adjacent to swamps and mangroves within the

upper to lower delta plain.

Within the the lower Winton Formation, the first distinctive occurrence of FA5,

FA7, FA8 and loss of FA 1 and a dramatic thinning of FA2 to be no thicker than 0.8m (Fig.

4-12a,b). Interpreted facies transition from dominantly terrestrial environments to very

tidally influenced distal channels to tidal, backswamp, and coastal environments. Major

bounding surfaces transition from 2nd- 3rd order surfaces. Internally these units dominantly

contain 1st to 2nd order surfaces. However, prevalent sedimentary structures still indicate

fluvial in-channel structures (ripple cross-laminations, low-angle cross stratification, and

trough cross cutting). These sedimentary structures are commonly accompanied by mud

drapes and settling fines which are interbedded. The abundance of these minor mud lenses

quickly increases progressing down hole. The occurrence of these minor lenses likely

occurred in association with fluvial environments events such as floods and levee bank

development or in adjacent-to fluvial environments.

The uppermost beds of the Winton Formation (n<30.0m-40.0m) in core are

commonly very coarse- to finely-grained sandstones and interbedded coarse siltstones,

FA1-FA4 (Fig. 4-10a). The upper Winton Formation is herein defined by the greater

amount of terrestrial facies. Both macro and micro-scale sedimentary features were

identified in core; however, the lateral extent of these features is at best inferred.

Architecture notes preserved in core include large and very small-scale ripple lamination

reflects which is interpreted to be in-channel activity. Very minor interlaminated, very fine

silts and very fine sands are interpreted as thinly bedded (n<2.0m) waning channel floods,

along with very minor levee development. The ratio between channel/overbank

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percentages is estimated at 90%/10%. This depositional pattern is moderately to fairly

continuous for the first 20.0-30.0m. In underlying sections, there is a loss of any sandy

units, signifying a complete loss of FA1 and FA2.

6. Discussion
6.1 Depositional environments
Previous studies have interpreted the mid-Cretaceous portion of the Eromanga

Basin to have undergone a region wide seaway regression (Fig. 4-13). This study is in

agreement that marine deposition dominantd much of the lower to middle sections of the

Mackunda Formation and that a major mechanism of environmental change within the

basin is regression. However, the progression into overlying strata is a bit dubious. This

study finds that the transition from the Upper Mackunda Formation to the Lower Winton

Formation, depositional environments indicate deltaic to coastal and shallow-marine

environmental influences. The Lower Winton Formation is more associated with distal

floodplain to delta associated environments with a great deal more tidal influences. A

majority of Upper Winton Formation depositional environments are dominantly alluvial in

nature within a broad sweeping floodplain. This study strived to provide more localized

environmental interpretations that accompany recent fossil discoveries. The results of this

study greatly support the historical broad-scale interpretation of the Eromanga Basin.

However, this study has successfully provided key context concerning the environments

and deposition of sediments therein. To understand the evolution of environments within

the northern Eromanga Basin, stratigraphic, sedimentological, paleontological, and

paleobiological (derived from both field sites and regional core) are herein synthesized.

156
Figure4- 13 Simplified paleogeographic maps modified from Veevers (2000; and references therein) with symbols
showing the retreat of the Eromanga Shallow Interior Seaway: A) No older than 104-102 Ma, the first occurrence of
coastal deposits in the far east of the basin, as the central and western cores preserve dominantly shallow marine
conditions, B) No older than 100-102Ma, the lower Winton Formation preserve distal deltaic to coastal environments;
however far western cores preserve shallow marine sediments, C) No older than 92-94Ma, the middle Winton Formation
deposited preserves fully terrestrial environments except the farthest western core which preserved coastal-rhythmites, D)
The transition into the upper Winton Formation which is estimated to be deposited no older than 92 Ma, in all cores
preserves terrestrial associations of sediments and both trace and body fossil assemblages. Temporal rates, paleocurrent
and sediment source terranes discussed in detail within Tucker et al. (2014).

6.1.1 Middle to Upper Mackunda; Distal Delta Front to Prodelta (subtidal platform)
depositional environments
Much of the Mackunda Formation and underlying strata are interpreted to represent

a transgressive/regressive shallow marine seaway (Fig. 4-10d;4-13; Draper, 2002; Veevers,

2000a,b,c). This study finds that shallow seaway deposition shifted in the Middle

Mackunda Formation which is interpreted to be part of an evolving prodelta system. The

transition between the proximal delta fronts and distal fronts are interpreted to occur in the

uppermost Mackunda Formation. This is interpreted as the early stages of the shallow

157
seaway retreat and the initiation of deltaic depositional conditions. Upper sections of the

Mackunda Formation exhibit a sedimentary record which is in transition from a lower delta

plain to an upper delta plain with tidal influence, which continue into the lowermost

Winton Formation. This change in deposition co-occurs with the first appearance of coal

within the middle-upper delta plain (wetlands/swamps). This also accompanies a shift from

dominantly marine to marginal-estuarine faunal assemblages. This transition is not

recorded in all cores. Centrally located cores indicate transition environments; western

cores are dominantly shallow marine.

6.1.2 Lower Winton Formation; Tidally influenced depositional environments

The Lower Winton Formation is interpreted from both core and field observations.

Key sedimentary features indicate that the Upper Mackunda Formation and Lower Winton

Formation occurred in marginal to deltaic associated environments (Fig. 4-10b,c;4-13).

This section of strata is interpreted to reflect the transition in deposition from

prodelta/coastline to upper deltaic environments. Many associated sedimentary features

indicate that this was likely a channel dominantd delta with periodic floods. Many

associated environments likely represent very broad lower delta plain wetlands, swamps,

and marshes rich in floral accumulation in anoxic environments (Fig. 4-10b,c). Vertebrate

fossils also agree with the interpreted association of marginal environments (Salisbury et

al., 2006a). Transitioning into the upper sections of the Lower Winton Formation also

indicates another environmental shift. This progression likely indicates the delta

prograding westward and this eastern portion of the Eromanga Basin is likely an evolving

distal floodplain (marginally still tidally influenced). A caveat to this is deposition in the

cores of the western portion of the basin which in the Middle Winton Formation is still

shallow marine to prodelta (Fig. 4-10c,d).

158
6.1.3 Upper Winton Formation; Alluvial Depositional Environments
Key sedimentary elements identified in the Upper Winton Formation from both

outcrop and core aided in providing insights into its varied depositional history (Fig. 4-13).

In a regional scale, deposition within the Upper Winton Formation strongly indicates that at

this point in basin evolution, alluvial environments were the main mechanism for the

emplacement of sediment. This broad area is interpreted to have been a long-lived

freshwater floodplain with multiple meandering channels. On a local scale, channel

deposits indicate active migration and channel development throughout the floodplain.

Associated structures including overbank and abandoned channel deposits are identified

throughout the stratigraphy. Development of both levees and banks ranged from short-

lived and isolated to long-lived and very stable. Biogenic activity ranged from poor to

intensely bioturbated protosol horizons, along with deep-reaching bifurcating roots.

Accompanying this, are the preserved remains of secondary and tertiary plant communities,

which ranges from leaves, branches, and bark to stumps and moderately complete tree

sections. With the association of these factors, it is likely that this flood plain represented

wet conditions with minor seasonality. Emerging, yet to be described, microvertebrate and

invertebrate assemblages from both LQCP and BNP ranges from freshwater bivalves to

freshwater fish also support a long-lived wet and stable environment.

159
Figure 4- 11 Artistic reconstruction of the uppermost Winton Formation based on sedimentological, trace and body
fossil assemblages at Lark Quarry Conservation Park. Reconstruction done by Owen Li (Petrified Pencils, 2013).

160
6.2 Revised stratigraphy and correlation of the Winton Formation and its floras and
faunas
A key objective in this investigation was to follow-up on the considerably refined

age of the Mackunda and Winton formation reported in Tucker et al. (2013 [Chapter 1]) by

refining the stratigraphic correlations of key fossil sites, and indeed the entire stratigraphy.

This objective is a particularly daunting task because of the extremely flat, low relief nature

of the exposed Winton and Mackunda stratigraphy across the Eromanga Basin. There is

actually very little stratigraphy at surface to work with in the first place and those few areas

where relatively thick sections are exposed (at ‘jump ups’) are also characterized by intense

surficial weathering that further complicates long distance correlations between sites.

Traditionally, because the dip on these beds is relatively gentle, facies tend to look

relatively similar, and there are few signs of clear structures exposed at surface, most of the

Winton Formation fossil localities have been assumed to be roughly correlative and lumped

into the Upper Winton Formation.

However, as noted above, significant variations and taphonomic characteristics do

characterize different fossil localities in the Winton Formation. For instance, the important

Isisford vertebrate fauna from Isisford, Queensland has traditionally been assumed to be

part of the Upper Winton Formation based on regional stratigraphic dip trends and location

within the basin. However, when compared to other putatively upper Winton localities like

Bladensburg, Lark Quarry and Australian age of Dinosaurs sites, there are clear differences,

not only in the composition of the fauna but also in its palaeoenvironmental reconstruction

and depositional setting (Salisbury et al., 2006). For instance the Isisford fauna is

dominantd by aquatic forms, some of which commonly have marine affinities (Salisbury,

pers com. 2014). Much greater similarity seems to exist between the other three localities.

161
 Hence, a key component of this study involved investigating new approaches for

refining stratigraphic correlations between these sites and within the stratigraphy. To this

end, detrital zircon datasets presented in Tucker et al. (2013 [Chapter 2], and 2014 [Chapter

3]) were reinvestigated for their stratigraphic utility. In addition, detailed stratigraphic

sections and cores logged in this study were combined with other published core logs and a

number of scanned core records provided by GSQ (via their Hylogging system). These

logs were correlated and used to develop a basin model in ArcGIS. In addition, a thorough

review of the available geophysical and structural data and literature on the Eromanga

Basin were compiled and used to identify key structural complications in the basin.

A number of important stratigraphic patterns are revealed in the detrital zircon

datasets. Firstly, near continuous spectra of detrital zircon ages are observed between ~200

-92 Ma (especially between ~110-92) Ma when all zircon ages (n=719) are observed. This

suggests that arc volcanism was relatively continuous throughout the Mesozoic, and that

syndepositional, or near syndepositional age zircon grains were continuously shed into the

basin. Although it should be noted that these grain ages represent maximum deposition

ages only, and that their absence does not necessarily mean that a stratum is only as old as

the youngest zircon. For instance, the Middle Mackunda detrital zircon sample yields a

maximum depositional age at or around 128Ma (see Chapters 2-3), yet we have identified

that this unit is no older than ~105 Ma (Tucker et al., 2013; InPrep). Directly above this

unit, the youngest grains in the very Uppermost Mackunda Formation are no older than 102

Ma.

Detrital zircon samples recovered from the conformably overlying lower Winton

Formation indicate a maximum depositional age at or around 100 Ma. Progressing up

162
section into the middle Winton Formation, recovered grain ages indicate the first

occurrence of grains younger than 100 M. For the middle Winton Formation, youngest

maximum depositional age would be between 93-94 Ma (two individual grains are

younger; however these do not constitute true clusters or populations). This is conformable

with overlying of the uppermost Winton Formation, which contains youngest maximum

depositional grain ages that are between 92-93 Ma. This significant maximum depositional

grain age pattern is a repeated occurrence in six individual samples from across the basin.

However, recovered grain ages from Isisford, which were originally interpreted to be

surface exposures of the uppermost Winton Formation, are not in agreement with this

conclusion. Therefore, this study questioned the validity of Isisford’s stratigraphical

positioning when compared to other fossil bearing localities. This problem was further

exacerbated by the lack of similarity between associated fossil assemblages found in

Isisford compared to other upper Winton Formation localities. This was originally thought

to represent minor variation in depositional regimes and sedimentary input. However,

when this study reconstructed basic basin wide facies models via key fossil localities and

core logs, Isisford directly correlated with facies associations identified in the lower

Winton. Thus, Isisford’s faunal composition and palaeoenvironmental setting reflects

subsurface structural variability rather than a reflection of unique depositional conditions.

Upon review of modern and historical records, the upper units of the Eromanga Basin are

highly faulted over very short distances.

This study sought to construct a multifaceted palaeontological and sedimentological

based framework to address the placement of key fossil localities of the Winton Formation.

As an unexpected result, this study has found compelling evidence for the first

163
identification of two, temporally separate vertebrate assemblages within the Winton

Formation. When combining near identical fossil assemblages (floral and faunal), with

congruent facies associations and a very robust detrital record, this study confidently places

the deposition of the upper Winton Formation at an age no older than 92-94 Ma. This is

also true for the lower Winton Formation. By coupling fossil and facies information form

Isisford with regional cores, this study confidently places the deposition of the lower

Winton Formation no older than 100 Ma. Excitingly, this has several key impacts on

vertebrate assemblages: 1) that fossil assemblages within Isisford are not contemporaneous

with Lark Quarry Conservation Park or Bladensburg, 2) that by coupling fossil, detrital and

facies associations, this study was able to identify and resolve cryptic stratigraphic qualms,

and 3) for the first time, confidently display that the Winton Formation can be informally

separated into a lower and upper section. The informal split of the Winton Formation

strongly suggests a considerable temporal unconformity and could be the result of a

sequence boundary associated with the final retreat of the Eromanga Sea from the basin.

7. Conclusion
Detailed facies and architectural analysis of the Winton Formation and underlying

Mackunda Formation, has resulted in a much better understanding of the

palaeoenviroments and stratigraphy of this important vertebrate-bearing succession.

Twenty-two reoccurring facies codes were identified and utilized to construct nine distinct

facies associations. Each facies association was coupled with available palaeontologic and

near-syndepositional geochronological data, and as a result, the progression of

environmental change could be reliably interpreted within the Mackunda and Winton

formations. Depositional conditions no older than 104 Ma indicates that much of the

164
Eromanga Basins was inundated with the last stages of a shallow marine seaway.

However, by an age no older than 100 Ma, sedimetological evidence indicates receding

shallow marine to coastal environments in the eastern-most reaches of the basin. On the

other hand, the overlying Winton Formation is interpreted to preserve evidence of an

evolving terrestrial depositional regime. Based on the association of sedimentary and

biological indicators, the lower Winton Formation is interpreted to have deposited sediment

within very distal flood plains to lower delta plains. The Upper Winton Formation is

dominantd by an association of alluvial floodplain deposits which hosted multiple

migrating channels within a low-lying, flood plain. This west- to southwest retreat of the

shallow marine seaway continued for much of the Cenomanian, 102-92 Ma, or younger.

This study has found that for much of the Cenomanian to Turonian, deposition of sediments

was dominantd by the developments of a westward expanding progradational river system

dominanted delta front under normal regression influences.

The utilization of these methodologies has not only facilitated stratigraphic

correlation between key fossil localities but also aids in the identification of two temporally

distinct faunal assemblages in the Winton Formation. Based on these results, faunal

assemblages and their palaeoecosystems currently excavated at Lark Quarry Conservation

Park and Bladensburg National Park are near-contemporaneous. On the other hand, fossil

assemblages and their palaeoecosystems near Isisford, Queensland are unique to those in

the central portions of the Eromanga Basin and interpreted to preserve lower stratigraphic

units of the Winton Formation. It should be stressed that there is likely numerous shallow

fault systems inbetween these and similar fossil assemblage sites between Isisford and

Winton, Queensland. Thus, any temporal placement of this fossil material should be

165
rigorously tested and coupled with other means of stratigraphic or temporal placement, ergo

radiometric dating.

Furthermore, this multifaceted approach has identified of cryptic structural

complexities not readily noticed in the field, along with the informal separation of the lower

and upper Winton Formation with an associated temporal unconformity. Detrital zircon

data were critical to identifying all of these factors and emphasize the utility of detrital

zircon geochronology for better constraining other terrestrial faunal assemblages. For the

first time, this study has confidently provided a robust geological and palaeontological

based framework for relating various Winton based assemblages. Furthermore, for the first

time, this framework will allow much more accurate comparisons between Australian

Winton taxa to similar forms in other locations around Gondwana (i.e Rio Limay Subgroup

of the Neuquén Basin of Argintina, and the Santo Anastácio and Adamantina Formations of

the Bauru Basin, of Brazil).

166
167
 Chapter 5

Thesis Summary

168
 The rapid separation of Gondwana, principally during the Cretaceous, represented

one of the most important palaeobiogeographic dispersal and subsequent vicariance events

in Earth history. The relationship of fossils from the eastern-most portions of Gondwana,

in particular Australia; remain poorly understood due to poor temporal and

palaeoenvironmental constraints on this important fossil record (Bonaparte, 1986; Agnolin

et al., 2010). In light of many recent discoveries of new fossils in the Winton Formation

that are beginning to shed light on the radiation and dispersal of dinosaurian clades between

South America and Australia via Antarctica (Agnolin et al., 2010), the issue of poor

geologic context has become acute. Hence, the overriding goal of this study was to provide

key temporal, stratigraphic and palaeoenvironmental information for the Winton Formation

and its entombed flora and fauna.

In order to improve upon previous palynological-based temporal constraints, this

thesis first investigated the potential for utilizing maximum depositional age constraints

derived from detrital zircons via U-Pb LA-ICPMS geochronology. This investigation

proved to be far more successful than expected, demonstrating that much of the formation

formed syndepositionally with the final stages of arc volcanism associated with subduction

along the east coast of northeastern Australia. By utilizing various statistical approaches

for determining maximum depositional age from detrital zircon populations, this study

concluded in Chapter 1 that the most richly fossiliferous portion of the Upper Winton

Formation, was deposited no earlier than Cenomanian-Turonian Boundary (92-94 Ma),

and indeed, these fossils are most likely wholly Turonian or younger. Additional detrital

zircon samples were investigated for sedimentary provenance analysis in Chapter 2 and this

work both confirmed the age of the Upper Winton Formation and extended the post-

169
Cenomanian-Turonian boundary age interpretation for the formation for strata of the

middle Winton Formation too. More specifically the combined results of Chapters 1 and 2

now indicate that nearly all known Winton Fossil are Turonian or younger. However, one

very interesting stratigraphic trend that was also determined first through detrital zircon

patterns, and since supported by seismic and structural data, is that a considerable

unconformity likely exists between the lower and upper Winton Formation. This is

recognized by a distinct gap in the detrital zircon age spectra between all Mackunda and

lower Winton samples and all middle to upper Winton Samples. Specifically, the youngest

detrital zircons observed in the middle to upper Mackunda formation are ~104-102 Ma, and

102-100 Ma in all lower Winton samples, whereas all other middle and upper Winton

Formation samples preserve detrital zircons that encompass the entire age spectra between

100 to 94 Ma, with several key samples preserving 93-92 Ma grains. This suggests that the

lack of grains younger than 100 Ma in any lower Winton Formation samples is a true

stratigraphic signal. This finding is particularly important in that one of the most important

fossil localities in all of the Winton Formation (Isisford), which was originally thought to

be part of the Upper Winton Formation, yielded a zircon age spectra similar to that of the

Upper Mackunda and lower Winton Formation. Absolutely no young (post 100 Ma) grains

were observed. This led to a closer inspection of the regional geology and geophysics and

the development of a GIS basin model (Chapter 3). As a result of this investigation, a

significant fault zone was identified between Isisford other the key fossil localities at

Bladensburg and Lark Quarry in the upper Winton Formation and confirms that Isisford is

indeed part of the Lower Winton Formation. A brief inspection of the Isisford fauna

indicates a distinctly different faunal composition than the rest of the Winton Formation.

Furthermore, the characterization of the fauna’s entombing sediment also strongly indicates
170
a mixed depositional environment, including brackish to marine elements amongst the

terrestrial components. This hypothesis requires greater faunal analysis and detailed

taphonomic investigation; however, the stratigraphic implications are clear. Hence, the

methodologies applied in each chapter successively build together to develop a robust

approach to identifying cryptic structural complexities in the field and recognizing

temporally distinct faunal assemblages in the Winton Formation. For the first time, we can

reliably say that the Winton Formation preserves two distinct vertebrate assemblages. This

includes: 1) the Lower Winton fauna (Isisford) that was deposited after 102 Ma and

probably not later than 100-99 Ma; and 2) the upper Winton fauna, interpreted to be no

older than the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary.

In addition to the significant temporal and stratigraphic advances to understanding

the Winton Formation and its flora and fauna, this study has also led to a significantly

improved understanding of the sedimentary provenance and drainage evolution of the final

stages of the Eromanga Basin. Yet more significantly, this provenance investigation has

helped to answer a number of long standing mysteries surrounding the tectonic history of

the Eastern Margin of Australia during the mid-Cretaceous.

The sedimentary provenance of the Mackunda and Winton Formations is dominantd

by late Mesozoic arc-derived volcanolithic sediment input from the east. Very minor

polyphase reworked grain populations from the Archean to Proterozoic were identified in

all samples. These grains are likely derived from western lying cratons and reworked into

eastern lying metasediments that are re-eroded. Minor Palaeozoic (500 to 200 Ma)

populations were also identified in all samples, and many of these grains can be readily

associated with local terranes in northeastern Queensland. As a whole, all samples are

171
dominantd by Mesozoic grain ages spanning a near continuous age spectra between 250 to

92 Ma. Key detrital population between the Ordovician to Latest Triassic can be

confidently associated with long-standing subduction of the Phoenix-Pacific Plate under

that of the evolving Gondwana/Australian eastern margin (New England & Kennedy

Provinces). The presence of Triassic thru mid-Cretaceous age zircons is particularly

interesting as this is a time period in which the tectonic activity of eastern Australia is not

well understood. By utilizing the recovered zircon grain populations, we can readily

interpret that there was volcanic activity throughout the Mesozoic, and that it continued

nearly uninterrupted. Younger populations between 130 to 95 Ma are confidently

associated with arc volcanics of this age known from Whitsunday Volcanic Province. A

tail of younger grains between 94-92 Ma demonstrate that this volcanic system was active

longer than previously thought and that rifting of the (Tasman Basin) took place only after

92 Ma. Thus, during the Mesozoic, near continuous production of arc-related magmatic

activity along the eastern Australian margin supplied what would later be fossil entombing

volcanalithic rich sediment.

The final contribution of this thesis to the field is a much better sedimentologic and

palaeoenvironmental understanding of the uppermost stratigraphic units in the Eromanga

Basin, the Mackunda and Winton formation. This study has found that for much of the

Cenomanian and Turonian, as the Eromanga Sea retreated to the west, fully alluvial

environments succeed deltaic and tidal systems. This progradational phase is a direct result

of the retreat of the Eromanga Seaway which is interpreted to have initiated no older than

104 Ma and continued to drain well into the Turonian. In sum, the results of this thesis

have led to a more rigorous and temporally constrained depositional history for the middle

172
Cretaceous in the Eromanga Basin, and a significantly expanded understanding the tectonic

history of eastern Australia during this time. It is hoped that the results of this work will

help to place the mid-Cretaceous flora and fauna of Australian into a constrained

Gondwana, and indeed global context.

173
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Romilio, A., Tucker, R. T., & Salisbury, S. W. (2013). Reevaluation of the Lark Quarry dinosaur
Tracksite (late Albian–Cenomanian Winton Formation, central-western Queensland, Australia): no
longer a stampede?. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 33(1), 102-120.

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