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Gin ered tyyee Mele nov ig Duke Di Dat 8. oO oO oO ~ | | fo KK Ope Thyeo-Atohc Buffer Kegates Fy ry lee bere » Molrens Scanned with CamScanner_ COMPARATORS AND WAVEFORM GENERATORS open-loop conficurats : ypen-loop configuration operates in a nonlinear manner. nis of pu in thin mode, such as, comparators, detectors, oi o es namely converters, In thin ch x, we dhall discuss _eprator and its applications, n this chapter, we shall disc GOHPARATOR bs ee | somparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an op-amp “tha known reference voltage at the other input, It is basically an open-loop op-amp wi noi 2V yy (= Vox) a8 shown in the ideal transfer characteristics of Pig. 5.1 (a), However, ‘mmercial op-amp has the transfer characteristics of Vig, 5.1 (b). operational amplifier in the te are a number of applic “os and digital interfacing d V2 iy. Vyg) (e) Fig. 5-1 The transfer characteristics (a) Ideal comparator (b) Practical comparator ; «on that the change in the output state takes place with an inerement in input Wmay be ae te uncertainty region where output cannot be direetly defined. This y 2 mV. ee off-set voltage and off-set null compensating techniques can be used as B inj is Ee se. ‘here are basically two types of comparators: Scanned with CamScannerNon-inverting comparator rator. A fixed refer, verting comparator, comparator. reference Inverting comp a onsinverting CO eet (4) ny 2 (0 gS ee Sutput wae cla time ¥ Sivan Ww + . Phen eV p, goes to +V voliage 18 at Vay for 0, < Vee Amd Ye BOOS a i {sinusoidal input signal applied to {he (+) inp and negative Vege respectively: i ‘The circuit of Fig. 5. Vice is applied to (-) input an Vek jnown in Figs. 5.2 (b and ¢) fo, sat s Vow ov R Ai wn—fP k R Vow @ tok °V" (a) Fig. 5.2 (a) Non-inverting comparator, (0) Yer negati © Input and out In a practical circu; he (Pata ronnie for (b) Yer positive voltage divider with at Comparator vig eal ve With the guts, Obtad fa h the ned by usi, oben! 88 shown in re PPIy Voltages ve ang8 8 10 ko i tained by gi ig. 5.2 and V~ with gp PoteBtiometer which fo mt Of desired a, ViPeF connected to (-) Yentiometer, “Plitude and polarity Scanned with CamScannerrig. 53 @. The value of resistance R is chosen so that the zener diodes operate at the recommended current. It can be seen that the limiting voltages of v, are (Vz, + Vp) and _ (Vm + Vp) where Vp (~0.7 V) is the diode forward voltage. In the waveforms of Figs. 5.2 and 6.3, the output transitions are shown as taking place instantaneously. Practical circuits, however, take a certain amount of time to switch from ane voltage level to another. The actual waveform will therefore exhibit slanted edges as well as delays at the points of input threshold crossing, These effects are more noticeable at high frequencies where the output switching times are comparable or even longer than the input xiod itself. Thus there is an upper limit to the operating frequency of any comparator. If 741, the internally compensated op-amp is used as comparator, the primary limitation is the slew rate, Since 741C has slew rate equal to 0.5 Vijis, it takes 2 x 13/0.5 ~ 50 us (Vane = #13 V for 741) to swing from one saturation level to the other. In many applications, this 102 $¢ww—fP (a) (a) vPVot (b) ©) |. 5.3 (a) Inverting comparator. Input and output waveforms.(b) Ver > 0 Fan 83 ey tee 1 (d) Comparator with zener diode at the output Scanned with CamScannerEB] Linear Integrated Circuits se iti ible to use unc is too long. To decrease the response time, it is Poss ications. rs than compensateg al sot hn mri there are applications where even higher Spee are atandard logic families such 42° desired that the output logic levels be compatible lithic voltage comparators are ayy th CMOS, ECL. To accommodate these needs, ra ms ‘ld A710 and 760, the Nationat’ Some of the comparator chips available are the aa 710 is a high speed con tl 111, 160 and 311. The response time for 311 is 200 ns w! “sao available Sone ce a Q with a response time of 40 ns. CMOS comparators are pl c TLC 372 dual, TLC 374 quad (Texas Instruments), MC. 14574 quad (Motorola), ompensated op-amn, 5.2.1 Applications of Comparator Some important applications of comparator are: Zero crossing detector Window detector Time marker generator Phase meter. Zero Crossing Detector ov @ WN, Far 54 (8) Zero crossing detector (6) inpit and Output. waveforms Scanned with CamScannerTable 5.1 Three level comparator LED specifications Input (volts) Yellow LED 3 Green LED 2 Red LED 1 Less than 3V On Off Off Between 3V and 6V Off On of Greater than 6V Off Off On Fig. 5.5 Three level comparator with LED Indicator Scanned with CamScanner raeIf positive feedback is added to the comparator circuit, gain can be increased greatly. Cons quently, the transfer curve of comparator becomes more close to ideal curve. Theoreti if the loop gain —fAg,, is adjusted to unity, then the gain with feedback, Ay, becomes in! ‘This results in an abrupt (zero rise time) transition between the extreme values of out voltage. In practical circuits, however, it may not be possible to maintain loop-gain @: equal to unity for a long time because of supply voltage and temperature variations. value greater than unity ix chosen. This also gives an output ain virtually discont Scanned with CamScannerous at the compa: on voltage. This cireys tysteresis or backlash, <'**8°: This circuit, however, Figure 5.8 (a) shows such a re, fs 1 . i ‘Senerative comparator. er. The input volta i ‘ower ane To torminal The input apeied to the () input terminal and feedback voltage to the (+) voltage level. These wa Me age *i triggers the output v, every time it exceeds certain oltage (Vin). The hysteresis veya t® Called upper thresheld voltoxe (Vy) and lower threshold Vn Vann These 1 stetesis width is the difference between these two threshold voltages i.e. Vor ~ Vis- These threshold voltages ane calculated as follows. Suppose the output v= +... én ’ The superposition e voltage at now exhibits a phenomenon called ‘The circuit is also known as Schmitt (+) input terminal can be obtained by using RR, Rak, (6.1) ‘ur. As long as v; is less than Vyp, the t re t +V.a- When v, is just greater than Vu the output regeneratively —— i > Vur as shown in Fig. 6.8 (b), For vo = —Vaat» the voltage at the (+) input terminal is, Van = Vet RaVou (5.2) R+R, R+R, ‘This voltage is referred to as lower threshold voltage Vin. The input voltage v; must become lesser than Vip in order to cause v, to switch from ¥.,, to +Vaqt. A regenerative transition takes place as sho wn in Fig. 5.8 (c) and the output v, returns from —V,., to +Vyy, almost instantaneously. The complete transfer characteristics are shown in Fig. 5.8 (a). Ry ow > j Yo + R, Ry Veet (a) itt Tr istics for y increasing and inverti tt Trigger (b, ¢) Transfer characteristics Poue 8.8) An ei hesprasilleat (a) Composite input-output curve Scanned with CamScannerVur=Vmsind % tsin8 =V,JV,, (e) © Fig. 5.8 (e) Schmitt Trigger used as a squarer (f) Shift 6 in the output waveform for Vir = —Vp Note that Vir < Vup and the difference between these two voltages is the hysteresis width Viz and can be written as Vu = Vor — Vip = aa (3) Because of the hysteresis, the circuit triggers at a higher voltage for increasing signals than for decreasing ones. Further, note that if peak-to-peak input signal v; were smaller than Vy then the Schmitt trigger circuit, having responded at a threshold voltage by a transition in one direction would never reset itself, that is, once the output has jumped to, say, +V,4 it would remain at this level and never return to -V,.,. It may be seen from Eq. (6.3) that hysteresis width Vj is independent of Vie. The resistor Ry in Fig. 5.8 (a) is chosen equal to R,||R, to compensate for the input bias current, A non-inverting Schmitt trigger is obtained if v; and V,.¢ are interchanged in Fig. 5.8 (a) (Problem 5,10). The ‘most important application of Schmitt trigger circuit is to convert a very slowly varying input voltage into @ square wave output as shown in Fig. 5.8 (e). Ifin the circuit of Fig. 5.8 (a), Vier is chosen as zero volt, it follows from Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2) that RV, Vor = —Vyp = 2 sat. ur UBER, If an input sinusoid of frequency f = 1/T is a Sauare wave is obtained at the output. The vertical edge of the output waveform howeveh will not occur at the time the sine wave passes through zero [Fig. 5.8 (f] but is shifted it phase by @ where sin @ = Viy/V,, and V,, is the peak sinusoidal voltage. Special purpose Schmitt triggers are commercially available. T1-13, T1-14 and Ti-13? chips with totem pole output and Vyp = 1.7 V, Vin = 0.9 V are available. The T1-132 package pPlied to such a comparator, a symmetrical Scanned with CamScannerA simple op-amp square wave generator is shown in Fig. 5.10 (a). Also called a free running oscillator, the principle of generation of square wave output is to force an op-amp to operate in the saturation region. In Fig. 5.10 (a) fraction B = R2/(R; + R2) of the output is fed back to the (+) input terminal. Thus the reference voltage Vror is Bu, and may take values as — BV sa — Vet Veal 1-(1+8)0 7] () Br 88009 sr soe se wm se) oto Scanned with CamScanner— BVsqt- The output i Wier; Ee ae Sees et back to the (-) input terminal after integrating by 08 ching takes place resulting i never input at the (~) input terminal just exceeds ve 6 in a square wave output. In astable multivibrator, both + tates are quasi stable. ‘gonsider an instant of time when the output is at +V,,. The capacitor now starts charging ards +Vext through resistance R, as shown in Fig. 5.10 (b). The voltage at the (+) input inal is held at +BV,.. by Ry and R, combination. This condition continues as the charge Crises, until it has just exceeded + BV,at, the reference voltage. When the voltage at the (input terminal becomes just greater than this reference voltage, the output is driven to ‘Vy At this instant, the voltage on the capacitor is + BV,q. It begins to discharge through > that is, charges toward — Veat: When the output voltage switches to —V,., the capacitor jarges more and more negatively until its voltage just exceeds — BV... The output switches to + Vg The cycle repeats itself as shown in Fig. 5.10 (b). ‘The frequency is determined by the time it takes the capacitor to charge from —BVsa: to +fVjx, and vice versa. The voltage across the capacitor as a function of time is given by, v(t) = Vz +(V, Vz )ertRC 6.4) , the final value, V; = +V, ‘sat ‘ni the initial value, —V, Therefore, elt) = Voge + BV eat — Veat) oO"? vt) = Veot — Veat L + B) etre (5.5) Att =T,, voltage across the capacitor reaches BV,,, and switching takes place. Therefore, 73) = BVsat = Veat ~ Vent (+ Boer 8/2° (5.6) After algebraic manipulation, we get, T,= RC wn }*h C0 This give only one half of the period. Total time period 7 = 27, = 2RCIn ee) ad ; ical. tE eRe fore aC In 8. And for Ry = 1.16R,, it ean be seen that ri Ro then B = 06; 1 fo= 3RC : The output swings from + Vaxs %0 ~ Veww *°» a) v, peak-to-peak = 2 Voat Scanned with CamScanner¥ (a) are wave generator (©) Fig. 5.10 (c) Use of back to back zener diodes. (d) Asymmetric sq The peak to peak output amplitude can be varied by varying the power supply volta However, a better technique is to use back to back zener diodes as shown in Fig. 5.10 ( The output voltage is regulated to + (Vz + Vp) by the zener diodes. v, peak-to-peak = 2 (Vz + Vp) (6.1 Resistor R,, limits the currents drawn from the op-amp to, ee RB This circuit works reasonably well at audio frequencies. At higher frequencies, howev slew-rate of the op-amp limits the slope of the output square wave. If an asymmetric square wave is desired, then zener diodes with different break dov voltages Vz, and Vz) may be used. Then the output is either V,, or Vz, where Voy = Vai Vp and Viy = Vzz + Vp. It can be easily shown that the positive section is given by, T, = RC In ee (6. Ig = Vat Ve 6.1 The duration of negative section T, will be the same as given by Eq. (5.12) with Vo # Vio interchanged. An alternative method to get asymmetric square wave output is to add a de voltage s0¥! V in series Rz as shown in Fig. 5.10 (d). Now the capacitor C swings between the volt@ levels (BV. + V) and (—BVzq + V). If the voltage source V is made variable, voltage frequency conversion can be achieved though the variation will not be linear. Scanned with CamScanner