TEXT AS A CONNECTED DISCOURSE

Text vs Discourse collective nouns which are used to describe

TEXT is made up of DISCOURSE is the groups of things, such as a flock of birds.
sentences. use of such
sentences. Written text acquires the characteristics of
connected discourse when:
A text is made up of A discourse is made Its ideas are linked logically.
sentences having up of utterances a. Begin a logical division paragraph with
the property of having the property a topic sentence.
grammatical of coherence.
b. In the supporting sentences, discuss
cohesion.
each point one after the other.
c. Introduce each new point with a signal
word or phrase.
TEXT BECOMES A CONNECTED DISCOURSE d. In addition, support each point with a
WHEN WE READ IT convincing detail such as an example
- Texts are connected discourse if it is or statistic.
both cohesive and coherent e. Finally, end a logical division
paragraph with a concluding sentence.
COHESION:___________________________________
_ Connectives for listing arguments
The link between sentences, words and Firstly This can be used for
phrases are visible, or easily understandable. the first supporting
Example: argument
Secondly, These can be used
Cara loves to cook dinner for her husband
furthermore, for any further
Carl. The dinner that she likes cooking the
moreover, in supporting
most is lasagna. Lasagna is a very popular
addition arguments
dish in Italy. Italians are also known for their
Finally This can be used for
heavy accents. Accents can tell you where in the last supporting
the world people come from. There are over 7 argument
billion people on earth.

Concluding Connectives
COHERENCE:__________________________________
In conclusion These all carry roughly the
The theme or the main idea of the essay or
In summary same meaning. They
writing piece is understandable Thus should be used to
Example: indicate that you are
There are different types of nouns in the making final statements
that cover all the
English language. There are proper nouns
supporting arguments in
which are the names of people or places, such
a very general way
as Tamara or North Korea. There are abstract
In fact/Indeed 1. To connect a more
nouns which are used to describe things that
detailed statement
aren’t physical, such as emotions. There are with a preceding
 TEXT AS A CONNECTED DISCOURSE
general statement 7. Illustrating – for example, such as, for
2. To connect a instance, as revealed by, in the case of, as
statement which is shown by, etc.
more factual and exact 8. Comparing – equally, in the same way,
with a preceding like, similarly, likewise, as with, as
statement that is more compared with, etc.
debatable and general

A text is a connected discourse, which

We could view discourse as a process.
means that all ideas in the text must be
Meaning is derived through the reader’s related in the sense that they would
interaction with the text. express only one main idea, or that the text
must have unity by combining all ideas to
Qualities of a text____________________________ emphasize central idea.
1. Cohesion: The parts are connected
2. Coherence: The overall text has meaning
3. Intentionality: The writer’s attitude and
purpose can be discerned
4. Acceptability: The text is recognized
5. Informativity: There is a quantity of new
or expected information
6. Situationality: The text’s topic is
situationally and culturally appropriate
7. Intertextuality: The text can be linked to
preceding discourse

Connectives Used for Different Purposes___

1. Adding – and, also, as well as, moreover,
furthermore, besides, in addition, etc.
2. Cause & Effect – because, so, therefore,
thus, consequently, as a result of, etc.
3. Sequencing – next, then, first, second,
finally, meanwhile, after, etc.
4. Contrasting – whereas, instead of,
alternatively, otherwise, unlike, on the
other hand, in contrast, etc.
5. Qualifying – however, although, unless,
except, if, as long as, apart from, yet,
despite, etc.
6. Emphasizing – above all, in particular,
especially, significantly, indeed, notably,
most of all
 PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
A repeated form or technique in writing
which allows writers to clearly elaborate
points/ideas in a text
Signal words: words and phrase that show
the connection between ideas. Common
signal words show emphasis, addition,
comparison or contrast, illustration.
Patterns of Development
 Narration  Persuasion
 Description  Comparison and
 Definition Contrast
 Cause and Effect  Classification and
Exemplification
 Problem and
Solution
1. NARRATION
- The most basic pattern of
development
- Describes how, when, and where an
event or occurrence actually happened
- Used to tell a story or focus on a set of
related events
Clipped Narration____________________________
“He came and talked to us. Then he left the
house and then he drove the car back home”
Paced Narration______________________________
“He came and talked to us for a few
moments. He seemed upset, but he managed
to get through all the bad news. Shaking our
hands before he left the house come twilight,
he seemed to feel better now that he had
delivered the news”
2. DESCRIPTION
- The pattern of development which
goes into details about a specific
object, person, or location, in order to
firmly set its appearance
- Taste, hearing, sight, smell, touch
Objective Description________________________
Factual and scientific characteristics
Subjective Description_______________________
Used to ‘paint a picture’
3. DEFINITION
- Explains not just what something
means or is, but also what something
does, what something is used for, what
something looks like, etc.
- Overlaps with other pattern
Denotative Meaning_________________________
Defines concepts in the most factual way,
which is often used in scientific, proper, or
real world facts
Connotative Meaning________________________
Defines the objects in a more personal way
Signal words for definition
is defined as, means, to define, as defined,
refers to, to illustrate
4. CLASSIFICATION AND
EXEMPLIFICATION
- Classify: divides things into groups,
classes, or categories on criteria or
standards
- Exemplify: provides examples and
illustrations in order to further clarify
or explain the concept or subject
matter
Signal words for classification
another, classified as, one kind, the last
group, another kind, final type, the first
category, the next part
Signal words for exemplification
after all, for instance, namely, that is, as an
example, in other words, put another way,
to be specific, consider the following, in
 PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
particular, specifically, to clarify, for
example, in short, stated differently, to
illustrate
5. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST
- Organizes ideas based on how events,
places, people, things, and concepts
are similar to or different from one
another
Signal words for comparison
also, equally, in the same way, similarly, as,
in a similar fashion, like, to compare, both,
in comparison, likewise
Signal words for contrast
although, despite, instead, otherwise, and
yet, even so, however, still, as opposed to,
even though, nevertheless, the fact
remains, but, in contrast, nonetheless,
unlike, conversely, in spite of, on the
contrary, whereas, counter to, in the
meantime, on the other hand, yet
6. CAUSE AND EFFECT
- Explains why something happens or
what results a particular event
Signal words for cause
as, for, in view of (the fact), owing to (the
fact), because (of the fact), for the reason
that, in as much as, seeing that, being that,
in that, one reason, since, due to (the fact
that)
Signal words for effect
accordingly, consequently, in consequence,
so that, as a consequence, for this reason,
so, therefore, as a result (of this), hence, so
much (so) that, thus, because (of this)
7. PROBLEM AND SOLUTION
- Focuses on either a problem or
solution in a particular area or situation
Signal words for problem and solution
but, the problem, one solution is, first,
second, the solution, one way is,
nonetheless, one reason for the
8. PERSUASION
- Convinces readers to agree to an
argument or claim about a particular
topic
Signal words for emphasizing a point
again, in that case, to emphasize, truly, for
this reason, indeed, to repeat, with this in
mind, in fact
Signal words for concluding and
summarizing
Accordingly, consequently, in brief,
inevitably, in a nutshell, all in all, due to, in
conclusion, on the whole, therefore, as a
result, finally, in short, since, thus, as I have
said, in any event, in summary, in essence,
to sum up
Signal words for conceding a point
admittedly, it is true that, obviously, true,
assuredly, needless to say, of course,
undoubtedly, certainly, no doubt, to be
sure, unquestionably, granted
 A single essay may contain many or all of
the discussed patterns
 Most of the patterns may be placed
anywhere in your text
 The combination of patterns depend on
the writer
 SIMPLE AND CRITICAL READING
SIMPLE READING does the text mean?
• Refers to the act of identifying the basic Direction
meaning of a text read WITH the text AGAINST the text
• It includes knowing what the text is saying (taking for granted (questioning its
as well as the main ideas it imparts to the it is right) assumptions and
readers argument,
• Readers can understand the message interpreting
conveyed by a text meaning in context
Response
CRITICAL READING
Restatement, Description,
• Refers to the more advanced form of
Summary Interpretation,
reading
Evaluation
• It includes recognizing the writer’s
purpose in writing, knowing the text, Prepare for Critical Reading_________________
reflecting on what it does, and knowing 1. Self-Reflect: What experiences,
more what the text means assumptions, knowledge, and perspectives
• Readers can analyze the pieces of do you bring to the text? What biases
evidence presented and discussed in the might you have? Are you able to keep an
text open mind and consider other points of
view?
Purpose
2. Read to Understand:
READING CRITICAL READING
a. Examine the text and context: Who is
To get a basic grasp To form judgments
the author, publisher? Where and
of the text about HOW a text
works when was it written? What kind of text
is it?
Activity
b. Skim the text: What is the topic? What
Absorbing/ Analyzing/
Understanding Interpreting/ are the main ideas?
Evaluating c. Resolve confusion: Look up unfamiliar
Focus words or terms in dictionaries or
glossaries. Go over difficult passages
What a text SAYS What a text DOES
and MEANS to clarify them
Questions Process for Critical Reading_________________
What is the text How does the text To read critically, you must think critically.
saying? What work? How is it This involves analysis, interpretation, and
information can I argued? What are
evaluation. Each of these processes helps you
get out of it? the choices made?
to interact with the text in different ways:
The patterns that
highlighting important points and examples,
result? What kind of
reasoning/evidence taking notes, testing answers to your
are used? What are questions, brainstorming, outlining,
the underlying describing aspects of the text or argument,
assumptions? What reflecting on your own reading and thinking,
 SIMPLE AND CRITICAL READING
raising objections to the ideas or evidence
presented, etc.
 IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT
CLAIMS
- A statement that the author wants the
reader to accept
- Writer’s point or position regarding the
chosen topic

• It is a 1-sentence statement expressing

writer’s main argument
• The complexity, effectiveness, and
quality of the entire paper hinges on
the claim
• It defines your paper’s goals, direction,
scope, and existence and is supported
by evidence, quotations,
argumentation, expert opinion,
statistics, and telling details

CLAIMS
1. Thesis Statements (Main Claim)
2. Topic Sentences

Explicit Claim (Explicitus)____________________

Obvious and apparent; directly stated (with
no room left for implications)

Implicit Claim (Implicitus)___________________

Not expressed clearly; only suggested;
indirectly stated (implied, i.e. not expressed
directly but still understood because it is
suggested by the choice of words, the tone of
voice)
 TYPES OF CLAIMS
CLAIM OF FACT (Quantifiable topic)
• Relates to the statement that can be
verified, no matter how difficult
• Inferred from a reliable source of
information; can be proven by steadfast
information or data
• Not dependent on merely on a person’s
preference, but can be true or false
• States the main argument and defines
vague and controversial terms
• Supported with factual information such
as statistics, testimony, and observation
Example
a. Santa Claus is real
b. The earth is warming rapidly
because of the continuous growth
of Global warming
c. Cancer is not contagious
CLAIM OF VALUE
• Is based on personal taste or practices and
morality
• Argues whether something is good or bad
• A statement about which is better, more
important, more desirable, more needed,
or more useful
Example
a. It is more advantageous for a
Filipino child grow up speaking
Filipino instead of English for it
helps them establish their L1 first
before learning the L2
b. Buying and fixing a house is better
than building a new one because it
is more practical

CLAIM OF POLICY
• An argument that asserts the
implementation of a certain policy
• Driven by the need to present a solution
to problems that have arisen
• Sometimes given as a response to a claim
of fact
• Begins with “should,” “ought to,” or
“must.”

Example
a. The government must devote more
funds to building schools than
building roads for it offers more
economic improvement
b. With the grave crimes occurring
today, death penalty must be
revived
c. A national ID system should be
adopted to bring order
d. Beauty contests should be banned
because of the negative impact it
give to losing contestants
 HYPERTEXT AND INTERTEXT
There is always an inspiration behind the
writing of a text
Being a critical reader also involves
understanding that texts are always
developed with a certain context
A text is neither writer nor read in a vacuum;
its meaning and interpretation are affected by
a given set of circumstances
CONTEXT
Social, cultural, political, historical, and
other related circumstances that surround
the text and from the terms from which it
can be better understood and evaluated
INTERTEXTUAL/INTERTEXTUALITY
• is the shaping of the text’s meaning by
another text
• a literary device that creates an
interrelationship between texts and
generates related understanding in
separated works
• the connections between language,
images, characters, themes, or subjects
depending on their similarities in
language, genre, or discourse
• This view recognizes that the text is always
influenced by previous texts
JULIA KRISTEVA______________________________
French semiotician in the 1960s
- Intertexto (Latin): “to intermingle
while weaving”
- Kristeva argued that all works of
literature being produced
contemporarily are intertextual with
the works that came before it
Any text can be considered a work of
intertextuality because it builds on the
structures that existed before it
Intertextuality does not require citing or
referencing punctuation (such as quotation
marks) and is often mistaken for plagiarism
Fan fiction is a great example of
intertextuality. In fan fiction, authors enter the
fictional worlds of other authors and create
their own stories
Function of Intertextuality
A majority of writers borrow ideas from
previous works to give a layer of meaning
to their own works
Importance of Intertextuality
Intertextuality shows how much a culture
can influence its authors, even as the
authors in turn influence the culture
HYPERTEXT/HYPERTEXTUALITY
• is text displayed on a computer display or
other electronic devices with references
(Hyperlinks) to other text which the reader
can immediately access, or where text can
be revealed progressively at multiple level
of details
• Connects topics on a screen to related
information, graphics, videos, and music –
information is not simply related to the
text
This information appears as links and is
usually accessed by clicking
The reader can jump to more information
about a topic, which in turn may have more
links
This opens up the reader to a wider
horizon of information to a new direction
 PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT
Well-written Text COHERENCE AND COHESION
1. Organization • Coherence – refers to how easy it is to
2. Cohesion and Coherence understand the writing. It presents ideas
3. Language Used that are continuous, united, rational, and
4. Mechanics linked with one another

Organization – this is the structural  Coherence and cohesion – both

framework for writing. It is important to are essentials properties which
effective writing because it provides readers make texts easier to understand
with a framework to help them fulfil their
• Cohesion – refers to the connectivity in a
expectations for the text. This is the logical
text. It deals with the quality of being
progression and completeness of ideas in a
grammatically correct in the sentence level
text. Organization is achieved when ideas are
to assure consistency in the paragraph
logically and accurately arranged
level
Coherence - by coherence we mean that
Ways to create Cohesion_____________________
every part of a composition must contribute
1. Reference – this involves the use of
to one main unifying thought, which means
determiners and pronouns in the
that the various parts of a text must follow
succeeding statements in place of the
one another in an order which makes their
nouns used in the previous statement.
relationship clear.
a. Karla enjoyed playing baseball. She
Cohesion - means that the overall text has said that is definitely her new favorite
meaning. sport.

2. Ellipsis – this involves omitting words

ORGANIZATION
which were already introduced in the first
1. Chronological Pattern
context and do not need to be repeated in
- Either forward or backward
the latter part.
- According to the order of time
a. I already shuffled the cards. Now pick
2. Spatial Pattern two.
- Either start from left to right, from the
3. Lexis – this involves the use of synonyms,
door to the window, or from ceiling to
hyponyms, and superordinates of words.
the floor
a. The keyboard, monitor, and mouse
- According on How they appear
are still working in this computer.
physically
4. Substitution – this involves the use of a
3. Climactic Pattern
word or phrase to replace another that is
- Either from the most to the list
previously used. One and the same are
important or vice versa
commonly used in substitution.
- According to the order of importance
a. Gelai hates a dress, but that one look
great on her
 PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT
5. Use of Cohesive nouns – Cohesion nouns
are used in the same way as lexis and
lexical chains. They are called “umbrella
nouns” because they can summarize many
words into one.
a. The teacher told Res that he missed a
position paper, a book report, and a
short film review, but he has still given
a chance to submit those projects.
6. Use of Conjunctions – used to create
cohesion in texts include listing words
such as first, next, and last; linkers for
addition such as and, moreover, and also;
words that show contrast such as but,
however, and despite; and words that
signal cause and effect such as therefore,
because, and as a result.
a. Swimming alone is against the rules of
the beach resort. Moreover, it is
dangerous.
LANGUAGE USED (Formal and Informal)
Formal Language_____________________________
less personal and is used when writing
academic texts such as research papers and
professional texts such as business proposals,
resumes, and the like
it rarely involves the use of the first person
pronouns I and we.
it is typically used when addressing people
you do not personally know, those with a
higher position or authority, and those whom
you want to impress.
Informal Language___________________________
It includes colloquialisms, contractions,
abbreviations, and idioms.
It is commonly used outside the academic
and professional contexts such as in text
messaging, emails, and in some business
correspondence.
it is typically used when addressing friends,
family members, and those people close to
you.
it often involves the use of the first person
pronouns I and we
Language use tips in writing
1. Do not be biased. Use general terms as
much as possible
2. Be clear, concise, and direct to the point
3. Avoid using technical or highfalutin
words, and aim to write texts which are
easy to understand
4. Use a tone in writing that is appropriate
for the people being addressed
5. Maintain consistency all throughout the
text
MECHANICS
1. Spacing – refers to those areas between
words, letters, lines, and paragraph
a. Use a space to separate words within a
sentence or phrase.
b. Set one space between sentences.
c. Leave one space after a comma, colon,
or semicolon.
d. Do not use a space before or after an
en dash or em dash.
e. Do not leave a space between
enclosures such as quotation marks,
parentheses and brackets, and the
enclosed words.
f. Do not set a space before or after a
hyphen, except for suspended
compounds.
g. Insert a space between a number and a
unit of measurement, except for
angles.
 PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT
2. Punctuations – refers to the use of
various marks to r separate the elements
of a text from one another. It ensures
clarity in meaning and structure. It also
helps to convey the emotions expressed in
every statement throughout the entire
text. By observing proper punctuation in
writing, readers will not be confused or
misled.
- Period (.), Comma (,), Semicolon (;),
Colon (:), Question Mark (?),
Exclamation Point (!), Hyphen, En Dash,
Em Dash, Parentheses (), Slash/Virgule
(/), Single Quotation Marks (‘’), Double
Quotation Marks (“”), Apostrophe (‘),
Ellipsis (…)
3. Italization – refers to the setting of the
elements of text such as words and
phrases into italics. It is a style of typeface
in which the letters slant to the right.
Italicization serves the following purposes:
to show the distinction of certain words
from the others, to emphasize certain
words, and to set certain words apart from
the rest.
Commonly italicized Text Elements
• Titles of major works
• Words used as reproduced sound
• Emphasized words or phrases
• Foreign words and phrases, technical
terms, and unfamiliar words
• Letters and words used as words
• Names of vehicles
4. Capitalization – refers to the setting of a
certain word's first letter in uppercase. This
is observed especially in formal writing
and less in casual exchange of messages
using various forms of media.
5. Abbreviation – refers to the setting of a
word or a phrase in shortened form. This
is commonly done to save time and space
in writing. Some abbreviations are used in
everyday communication, while others are
exclusive to a particular setting or context.
Many of these abbreviations are
considered informal, so it is important to
avoid using them in writing formal texts.
Six types of Abbreviations
1. Acronym – formed from the first letters
of a group of words (LOL – laugh out
loud)
2. Initialism – formed from the first letters
of a group of words (WHO – World
Health Organization)
3. Clipping/Shortening – formed by
omitting the beginning/end of a word
(plane – airplane)
4. Blend/Portmanteau – made up of two
or more words joined together to coin a
new word (spoon – spoon + fork)
5. Conventional abbreviation – made by
omitting letters from the middle of a
word (Dr. – Doctor)
6. Contraction – made up of words
combined together and pronounced as
one (I’m – I am)
• Well-written texts are not accidental but
are fruits of a carefully planned and
elaborate process of writing.
• Organization entails that the idea in
writing must be interconnected with one
another.
• It is essential to arrange ideas logically in
order for your readers to follow what you
want to say in writing.
• If there is cohesion, it is expected that
coherence will also be achieved.
• Miscommunication occurs if the writer
haphazardly chooses words without
considering his or her readers.