Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines.

Part III:
engine concepts for reduced emissions, lower
fuel consumption, and noise abatement
Colin F. McDonald
McDonald Thermal Engineering, La Jolla, California, USA
Aristide F. Massardo
Faculty of Engineering, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
Colin Rodgers
ITC, San Diego, California, USA, and
Aubrey Stone
San Diego, California, USA

Abstract
Purpose – This paper seeks to evaluate the potential of heat exchanged aeroengines for future Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), helicopter, and aircraft
propulsion, with emphasis placed on reduced emissions, lower fuel burn, and less noise.
Design/methodology/approach – Aeroengine performance analyses were carried out covering a wide range of parameters for more complex
thermodynamic cycles. This led to the identification of major component features and the establishing of preconceptual aeroengine layout concepts for
various types of recuperated and ICR variants.
Findings – Novel aeroengine architectures were identified for heat exchanged turboshaft, turboprop, and turbofan variants covering a wide range of
applications. While conceptual in nature, the results of the analyses and design studies generally concluded that heat exchanged engines represent a viable
solution to meet demanding defence and commercial aeropropulsion needs in the 2015-2020 timeframe, but they would require extensive development.
Research limitations/implications – As highlighted in Parts I and II, early development work was focused on the use of recuperation, but this is only
practical with compressor pressure ratios up to about 10. For today’s aeroengines with pressure ratios up to about 50, improvement in SFC can only be
realised by incorporating intercooling and recuperation. The new aeroengine concepts presented are clearly in an embryonic stage, but these should
enable gas turbine and heat exchanger specialists to advance the technology by conducting more in-depth analytical and design studies to establish
higher efficiency and “greener” gas turbine aviation propulsion systems.
Originality/value – It is recognised that meeting future environmental and economic requirements will have a profound effect on aeroengine design
and operation, and near-term efforts will be focused on improving conventional simple-cycle engines. This paper has addressed the longer-term
potential of heat exchanged aeroengines and has discussed novel design concepts. A deployment strategy, aimed at gaining confidence with emphasis
placed on assuring engine reliability, has been suggested, with the initial development and flight worthiness test of a small recuperated turboprop
engine for UAVs, followed by a larger recuperated turboshaft engine for a military helicopter, and then advancement to a larger and far more complex
ICR turbofan engine.

Keywords Aircraft engines, Helicopters, Aircraft

Paper type Technical paper

Nomenclature EU ¼ European Union

GTF ¼ geared turbofan
BPR ¼ bypass ratio hp ¼ horsepower
CAD ¼ computer aided design HP ¼ high pressure
CFD ¼ computational fluid dynamics IC ¼ intercooler
CLEAN ¼ component validator for environmentally ICR ¼ intercooled and recuperated
friendly aero-engine IR ¼ infrared
IRA ¼ intercooled recuperated aeroengine
kW ¼ kilowatt
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at LP ¼ low pressure
www.emeraldinsight.com/1748-8842.htm

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
80/4 (2008) 408– 426
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1748-8842]
[DOI 10.1108/00022660810882773]
The authors would like to thank Dr John Mason, Professor David Gordon
Wilson, Professor Pericles Pilidis, Bryan Seegers, and Jim Oswald for their
advice and suggestions. This paper has been enhanced by the inclusion of
hardware photographs and sketches and the authors express their
appreciation to all concerned, with credits being duly noted.

408
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines
Colin F. McDonald et al.
NEWAC ¼ new aeroengine concepts
NTU ¼ number of transfer units
OPR ¼ overall pressure ratio
ORNL ¼ Oak Ridge National Laboratory
SFC ¼ specific fuel consumption
SLS ¼ sea level static
SP ¼ specific power
ST ¼ specific thrust
TIT ¼ turbine inlet temperature
UAV ¼ unmanned aerial vehicle
UCAV ¼ unmanned combat aerial vehicle
1. Introduction
At the start of the twenty-first century there are many
significant challenges facing the aeroengine industry, the
salient ones being reduced emissions, improved SFC, less
noise, and lower life cycle cost. Because of the comprehensive
industry and user infrastructures there is obviously a large
incentive to advance the state-of-the-art of current
conventional engines to the extent possible based on the
simplest of thermodynamic cycles. Whether a combination of
all the changes projected in the areas of thermodynamics, gas
dynamics, mechanics, materials, manufacturing tolerances,
and the introduction of changes such as magnetic bearings,
variable geometry, increased electrical drives, and more
complex engine architectures, etc. will meet ever demanding
environmental and economic goals in the future remains to be
seen.
In concert with this activity, other engine concepts with the
potential for reducing emissions when burning a variety of
liquid fuels (e.g. crude oil derived products, synthetic
kerosene made from coal, biodiesel, ethanol, etc.) will be
studied. However; focus in this paper is on the retention of the
Brayton cycle, but now embodying a more complex
thermodynamic system, with the inclusion of heat
exchangers. This is not really a new idea, but the magnitude
of the projected benefits it could offer in today’s climate will
likely make the studies more intensive than the intermittent
work done in the past, over a span of 65 years. In the early
days of propulsion gas turbines the basic motivation for
investigating heat exchanged variants (as discussed in Parts I
and II) was essentially to reduce the SFC of simple cycle
engines to permit increased range for maritime patrol aircraft
(using turboprop engines) and military helicopters (using
turboshaft engines).
Today there are at least five factors which could be
perceived as indicating that now is the time for serious
consideration being given to the use of heat exchangers in gas
turbine propulsion aeroengines. They are as follows, although
not necessarily in order of importance:
.
reduction in emissions;
.
reduced fuel burn in an era of high-fuel cost;
.
lower engine noise;
.
the emergence today of structurally sound light weight
high temperature heat exchangers; and
.
an urgent need to lower exhaust thermal signature to
reduce vulnerability (particularly for low-flying military
helicopters) from shoulder launched heat seeking missiles.
Covering a range of aeroengine types and applications the
work reported in Part III to determine the viability of heat
exchanger use is essentially focused on three tasks, namely:
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Volume 80 · Number 4 · 2008 · 408 –426
1 performance analysis to evaluate the potential reduction
in SFC;
2 establish simplistic layout concepts to portray major
engine features; and
3 formulate a realistic strategy for their deployment.
2. Potential heat exchanged engine concepts
It is recognised that the activities leading to the introduction
and entry into service of say a large recuperated and
intercooled turbofan engine would represent many years of
development, verification and reliability assurance, and would
be a costly endeavour with significant risk. The development
and deployment strategy suggested by the authors is based on
an incremental approach, with initial fabrication,
development and flight worthiness testing of a recuperated
turboprop engine for a military UAV. This would be followed
by a larger recuperated turboshaft engine for a military
helicopter. The valuable experience gained from these
projects, particularly flight worthiness verification, reliability
and the establishment of a sound technology base, would give
an added degree of confidence for advancing to a larger and
more complex IRC turbofan engine. Another reason for the
proposed staged approach is the availability of funds. It is
doubtful in today’s business climate whether the very large
cost needed to introduce an ICR turbofan, for commercial
airliner service after say 2020, would be made available from
the private sector in the USA.
The pie type of chart shown on Figure 1 is simple in nature,
but it is a convenient way of portraying various elements covered
in this paper. It essentially relates basic propulsion gas turbine
types, with potential applications, the heat exchangers needed,
and projected benefits. It is far from being comprehensive but
endeavours to put into perspective where heat exchangers could
be used in near-term and future gas turbine aeroengine
concepts. The range of applications is large, and just a few of the
most likely ones are discussed below.
3. Small heat exchanged engine concepts
3.1 Recuperated turboshaft engine concepts
Turboshaft engines are of particular interest because of the
dominant role they play in helicopter propulsion, for both
military and civil applications. In this field near-term activities
will be focused on the power uprating of current engines
(bearing in mind that they have a lifetime of about 30 years),
and the introduction of new conventional simple-cycle
engines. However, it is possible that situations such as
the recent rapid escalation of fuel cost, and the need to reduce
helicopter vulnerability to shoulder-launched heat seeking
missiles by reducing exhaust thermal signature, could
stimulate the development of more efficient recuperated
turboshaft engines.
3.1.1 1,000 hp (746 kW) engine concept
For discussion purposes it is meaningful to focus on a future
recuperated engine rated under SLS conditions at about
1,000 hp (746 kW), this being in about the 5 lb/s (2.27 kg/s)
airflow class, since there is interest in this engine size for light
helicopters, and it would permit a comparison to be made
with a design concept made in the past (McDonald, 1970),
and with other concepts generated over the years.
The recuperated engine concept shown on Figure 2
embodying a single stage radial compressor, and axial stages
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Colin F. McDonald et al. Volume 80 · Number 4 · 2008 · 408 –426

Figure 1 Possible future aeroengine alternative concepts utilizing heat exchanged cycles

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Projected Benefits

Heat Exchanger Types

Potential Applications

Note: Pie chart illustrative only, and proportions shown are not representative

Figure 2 Recuperated turboshaft engine concept concept a recuperator effectiveness of 0.70 was selected, this
being slightly higher than the aforementioned 1970 engine
Recuperator design. To enable a comparison to be made with this earlier
Air Inlet design a compressor pressure ratio of 9, and a TIT of 2,300 F
(1,2608C) were retained. Based on the various component
Exhaust efficiencies assumed the estimated SFC and SP were 0.34 lb/
hp h (0.21 kg/kW h) and 215 hp/lb/s (353 kW/kg/s),
respectively. The projected SFC was about 7 percent less
than for the 1970 design, this being a reflection of the slightly
higher recuperator effectiveness assumed and some
advancements made in component technology since then.

3.1.1.2 Impact of recuperator effectiveness The actual selection

of recuperator effectiveness is dependent on mission profile
and flight duration. The impact of recuperator effectiveness
for the gas generator and power turbine, is based on the most
and TIT on SFC is shown on Figure 4. For helicopter mission
simplistic approach to yield minimum weight. A two-pass
times of say 2-3 h it was felt that based on previous studies the
cross-counterflow annular tubular recuperator is installed to
selection of 70 percent effectiveness for this engine concept
the rear of the turbine exit to minimize engine diameter. The
was about right. Lower values of SFC could be projected with
major features of this turboshaft engine have been compared
higher values of effectiveness, but this would result in an
with earlier variants in this power class on Table I from Part II
of this paper. increased matrix weight as shown with the approximate
relative weight lines superimposed on the performance array.
3.1.1.1 Estimated performance Performance data for this For special applications a higher value of recuperator
engine concept showing the impact of pressure ratio and TIT effectiveness would give a reduced gas exhaust temperature,
on SFC and SP are shown on Figure 3. For this design with an attendant lower IR signature.

410
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Colin F. McDonald et al. Volume 80 · Number 4 · 2008 · 408 –426

Figure 3 Performance array for future 1,000 hp recuperated turboshaft aeroengine

0.40

Lines of Turbine

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION, Ib/hp.hr (SLS)

0.39 Inlet Temperature °F

2,000
20
Lines of
0.38 Compressor
Pressure Ratio

2,100
0.37
16

2,200
0.36

2,300
12
0.35
Estimated
A performance of 1,000 hp 8

0
2,40
Heat Exchanged Turboshaft
0.34
Engine with Recuperator
Effectiveness of 0.70

0.33
160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
SPECIFIC POWER hp/Ib/sec (SLS)

Figure 4 Influence of heat exchanger effectiveness on performance of recuperated turboshaft engine

Tentative Design Point for Recuperated

Turboshaft Engine in 1,000 hp Class with RECUPERATOR
0.39 Compressor Pressure Ratio of 9.0 EFFECTIVENESS
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION, Ib/hp.hr (SLS)

0.60
0.38 Lines of Relative
Recuperator Matrix 0.65
0.37 Weight 0.70
0.75
0.36
0.80
0

0.35
0.6

0.34
0
0.8

2,000
1.2 0

0.33
1.0

2,100
0

2,200
0

0.32
1.4

2,300
0.31 2,400
2,500
0.30 2,600
TURBINE INLET
2,700
2,800 TEMPERATURE °F

3.1.1.3 Recuperator temperature limitations Recuperator metal Two of the major parameters that impact the temperature
temperature limits are based on the magnitude of the of the hot gas entering the recuperator are TIT and pressure
material’s tensile strength and its resistance to corrosion, ratio. An array relating these for the 1,000 hp (746 kW)
oxidation and creep deformation. For propulsion applications recuperated turboshaft engine is shown on Figure 5, and
the severe thermal transients during aircraft take-off and bands of data with approximate recuperator material
landing will have a significant impact on the recuperator temperature limitations are shown. It is recognised that with
design to ensure mechanical integrity and long life. In terms different assumptions, others might portray the data
of recuperator materials screening and selection, significant differently.
research is under way at ORNL, primarily aimed at the Three operating regimes are included on this figure.
microturbine market (Lara-Curzio et al., 2004; Maziasz et al., Number one is representative of the recuperated turboshaft
2005; Pint et al., 2006). Candidate recuperator alloys for engine test flown in a helicopter in 1967, where the
elevated temperature service have been discussed previously temperature level of the hot gas entering the recuperator
(McDonald, 2003). enabled the well known Type 347 stainless steel to be used.

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 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Colin F. McDonald et al. Volume 80 · Number 4 · 2008 · 408 –426

Figure 5 Approximate recuperator material temperature limitations for heat exchanged turboshaft gas turbine in 1,000 hp class

Key 1. 1960's Technology (• Recuperated T63

Helicopter Gas Turbine Test Flown in 1967)
2. Tentative Regime for Recuperated Turboshaft
Engine for Service in 2010-2015
3. Advanced Recuperated Turboshaft Engine
Utilizing Ceramic Components
Lines of Constant
2,000 Specific Fuel Heat
Consumption (SLS) Exchanger
1,900
RECUPERATOR HOT GAS INLET TEMPERATUR, °F

Ib/hp.hr. Materials

1,800 Microturbine Ceramics and

Operating Projected
Technology Corbon/Carbon
1,700 Regime for
Advancement Composites
Comparison

0.32
1,600

0.33
0.34
1,500 0.35 3

1,400 2,800 Nickel

Based
1,300 2 2,600 Alloys

1,200 Austenitic
4 St. St.
1,100 2,400
1
Ferritic
1,000 6 2,200
St. St.
8
900 2,000
10 TURBINE INLET
800 12 1,800 TEMPERATURE °F
14
16
COMPRESSOR
PRESSURE RATIO

The line linking the three regimes projects technology Figure 6 Compact ICR vehicular gas turbine
advancements to achieve lower values of SFC. Regime
number two projects a future advanced all-metallic
recuperated turboshaft engine. The major factor contributing
to lower SFC is the higher TIT. The resulting higher gas
temperature entering the recuperator necessitates the use of a
nickel-based alloy, with Inconel 625 being an attractive
candidate, although with a significantly higher cost.
The full performance potential of such a recuperated
turboshaft engine, operating at very high values of TIT, as
shown in regime number three, necessitates the use of ceramics
in the hot-end components, including the recuperator, and this
will be discussed in a later section.

3.1.1.4 Small ICR turboshaft engine A disadvantage of

including an IC in a recuperated helicopter turboshaft engine
is that during static conditions the benefits of intercooling are
negated because of lack of ram air cooling flow. It is true that a
more complex engine layout could be established with an
engine driven fan to provide cooling airflow through the heat
exchanger. Such a system was developed in the 1960s, and a
very compact and sophisticated, but complex engine, with air-
to-air cooling was developed by the Ford Motor Company for
vehicular applications (Pietsch and Swatman, 1965), and a
view of this interesting engine is shown on Figure 6.
Source: Courtesy Ford Motor Company
3.1.1.5 Projected turboshaft SFC trend SFC trends (for SLS
conditions) over a range of engine power levels are shown on wide range of factors including cycle parameters (e.g. pressure
Figure 7. The SFC curves, particularly for simple cycle ratio, TIT, component efficiencies, etc.), and turbomachinery
engines, were generated based on data points from open type (i.e. radial and axial flow), that span a period of over five
literature sources. They bound a scatter of data reflecting a decades. For simple cycle engines in the power range

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 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Colin F. McDonald et al. Volume 80 · Number 4 · 2008 · 408 –426

Figure 7 Simple-cycle and recuperated turboshaft engine performance projection

Recuperated T63 Band of Power - SFC Data for

Simple Cycle Turboshaft Engines Reflects

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION, lb/hp.hr (SL Static, 59°F)

0.70 Turboshaft Engine
Many Variables Including Compressor
Test Flown in a Pressure Ratio, Turbine Inlet Temperature,
Helicopter in 1967 Component Efficiencies, Axial and
Radial Flow Turbomachinery Over Five Decades
0.60
Early Turbos
Postulated haft Engines
Performance Advancement
With Ceramic Components
0.50
SIMPLE CYCLE ENGINES
State-of-the-
Art Technolo
gy
Advanced Turb
0.40 oshaft Engines
Engine Concept 1970
P r o jec t ed
B a n d for R
Engine ecuperated Tu
rboshaft Engines
0.30 Concept
1980 Projected Performance
Projected Performance For Recuperated
AL-34-1 Engine
Advancement with Turboshaft Engine
Projection 1992 Ceramic Recuperator For 2010-2015 Service
0.20
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000 2,200 2,400 2,600 2,800 3,000
ENGINE SHAFT HORSEPOWER

below about 1,500 hp (1,120 kW), it can be seen that Figure 8 Recuperated turboprop engine concept
achieving an SFC approaching 0.40 lb/hp h (0.24 kg/kW h),
this corresponding to a thermal efficiency approaching Recuperator
35 percent, is challenging.
In the case of recuperated engines, the SFC curves below a
power of about 1,000 hp (746 kW) were based on engines where
design concepts were actually established, and the trend then
extrapolated to higher power values. The band of projected
SFC is based on the use of metallic recuperators, which will be
used in the foreseeable future. It can be seen that to approach a
very challenging SFC of 0.30 lb/hp h (0.18 kg/kW h), ceramic
components, including the recuperator, would be required to
give a thermal efficiency of 45 percent.

3.2 Small heat exchanged turboprop engines extended operation in the thin air at altitudes above
3.2.1 Recuperated turboprop engine concept 60,000 ft (18,290 m). One solution is a very HP ratio
As discussed in Part I of this paper a recuperated turboprop intercooled turboprop engine (Rodgers, 1992). Utilizing
engine (the T78) in the 4,000 hp (2,985 kW) class was tested multiple intercooled stages a turboprop engine concept with
42 years ago but not deployed or replicated. Today there is a compressor pressure ratio of 64 is shown on Figure 9.
interest in turboprops in the civil aviation field for small Another HP ratio engine involving intercooling but without
commuter aircraft operating over relatively short distances. recuperation is shown on Figure 10. High-SP would be a
With the currently high cost of fuel, the use of more efficient feature of this engine concept by virtue of having re-heat
recuperated variants would yield reduced fuel burn. However, between the gas generator and power turbines.
it is unlikely that funding for the development of such an
engine would come from the private sector. For such new Figure 9 High altitude intercooled turboprop engine concept
engines the deployment strategy would be to rely on their
initial use for military applications, with a subsequent transfer
of technology for civil aviation as appropriate. Intercoolers
The turboprop is really a turboshaft engine with the power
turbine driving a propeller through a gearbox. A recuperated
turboprop engine concept is shown on Figure 8. This
represents the most simplistic engine case, and several other
concepts are discussed in the following sections.

3.2.2 Intercooled turboprop engine concepts

High altitude, long endurance unmanned aircraft impose
unique requirements on engine propulsion systems. Gas
turbines offer attractive power-to-weight ratios, but significant
changes to the thermodynamic cycle are necessary for

413
3.2.3 ICR turboprop engine concept
An ICR turboprop engine concept is shown on Figure 11.
Operating with a HP ratio an IC is positioned between the
two radial compressor stages. Installation of this engine
necessitates providing ram air cooling for the IC. The increase
in efficiency of such an engine over the recuperated version
would be modest, but there would be a gain in SP. The added
weight of the two heat exchangers would have an adverse
effect on engine specific weight, and mission duration
evaluations would be needed to determine the applicability
of such a small turboprop engine concept.
3.2.4 Semi-closed ICR turboprop concept
Another interesting heat exchanged engine concept, but based
on an even more complex mechanical arrangement, is the semi-
closed cycle (Rodgers, 1999; Meitner and Senick, 2000). The In its simplest single-shaft form this engine embodies an axial
turboprop concept shown on Figure 12 shows intercooling and fan, single stage radial compressor and turbine, an annular
recuperation. In this concept the flow of gas leaving the HP combustor, and an annular recuperator, the latter being
turbine is split, with one stream (after passing through installed behind the turbomachinery to minimize the engine
the recuperator hot side) being re-circulated and mixed with diameter. A larger power variant of a two-shaft engine using
the air flow from the LP compressor prior to entering the IC. axial flow turbines is shown on Figure 14.
Projected advantages over the ICR cycle include higher SP
based on unit air inlet flow, a relatively flat SFC curve with
power, reduced emissions, lower noise and smaller recuperator he(is)-370estg
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The aforementioned discussion can be extended to
include small heat exchanged turbofan engine concepts.
A small recuperated turbofan concept is shown on Figure 13.
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines
Colin F. McDonald et al.
Figure 15 ICR turbofan engine concept
Intercooler
Bypass Flow Recuperator
a single stage axial fan, a two stage radial compressor with
intercooling between the stages, and a two stage axial turbine. In
this simple engine cross-section the IC is shown installed in the
bypass duct. In reality an engine of this type, with relatively
high-BPR, does not need the full fan flow for the air-to-air IC,
and the required amount of air would be extracted from the
bypass duct and pass through the heat exchanger matrix.
4. UAV gas turbine engine concepts
4.1 Simple cycle engines
It is interesting to note that under US Government funding a
94 hp (70 kW) twin-spool turboprop engine for UAV
propulsion was developed by M-DOT. A view of this small
simple cycle TPR 80 engine with an aft drive power turbine
and gearbox is shown on Figure 16. It has been stated
(M-DOT Web Site, 2004) that this small turboprop engine
could be engineered in a recuperated form.
Figure 16 Small turboprop engine for UAV
Source: Courtesty M-DOT
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Volume 80 · Number 4 · 2008 · 408 –426
4.2 Small recuperated turboprop concept
Based on existing gas turbine technology a small recuperated
turboprop engine concept is shown on Figure 17(a). In its
simplest form this all metallic engine would embody radial flow
turbomachinery and a light weight annular recuperator, and a
variable pitch propeller could be deployed in the near-term.
In the longer-term there could be a transition to a variant
with lower SFC based on the use of ceramic components.
While still in an early stage of development, it is the
emergence of a compact ceramic micro-channel recuperator
(to be discussed in a later section) that could contribute to the
viability of such a higher efficiency, light weight recuperated
small turboprop engine.
For a small UAV, a ceramic highly recuperated turboprop
using heavy oil, and rated at say 10 hp (7.5 kW), has the
potential for an efficiency approaching 30 percent. The
demonstration of such a small ceramic engine for a durable
life of at least 200 h could likely be achieved in a period of
about 3 years based on a dedicated R&D effort. Perhaps,
capable of making a contribution towards such an application,
a small recuperated ceramic microturbine demonstrator
concept for electrical power generation has been proposed
(McDonald and Rodgers, 2007).
4.3 Small recuperated turbofan engine concept
The major constraints for such an engine include light weight,
operational durability, low-fuel burn, and low cost, and small
turbofan design concepts addressing these requirements for
UAV’s have been reported previously (Rodgers, 2001, 2005).
In the past it had been thought that the benefits of
recuperation on lower SFC and thermal signature would be
outweighed by the additional bulk and weight of metallic
recuperators, and this topic has been addressed recently for
UAVs (Lindquist, 2006).
There is current interest in the use of small gas turbines for
UAV applications (Buysschaert and Hendrick, 2005), and the
possible use of a recuperated engine with a lower IR signature
has also been suggested for UCAVs (Barrie, 2007).
In its simplest form a small recuperated UAV turbofan
engine concept with variable inlet guide vanes is shown on
Figure 17(b). It has a single stage axial fan, and could have
engine core commonality with the small recuperated
turboprop mentioned above. Initially deployed as an all-
metallic engine, an advanced version with hot end ceramic
components including the turbine, combustor, recuperator,
and connecting ducts, would yield higher efficiency.
5. Very small propulsion gas turbine engines
While there is a magazine devoted to very small gas turbines
for model aircraft (Jet Power, 2007) this technology is rarely
discussed in the technical literature. Innovative and well
engineered very small simple cycle engines have been test
Figure 17 Small heat exchanged UAV engine concepts
Recuperator Recuperator
(a) Recuperated Turboprop (b) Recuperated Turbofan
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines
Colin F. McDonald et al.
flown in model aircraft. An example of a very small turboprop
engine rated at about 8 hp (6 kW) is shown on Figure 18
(WREN Turbines Web Site, 2005). A small turbofan engine
with a thrust of 45 lb (20.4 kg) built for a one sixth scale
Harrier aircraft has been demonstrated (Schuster, 2007).
Research has been reported (Yoshida et al., 2004;
Matsunama, 2005; Iki et al., 2006) on the testing of a
model aircraft micro gas turbine with a ceramic radial flow
turbine.
Now it is obviously not being suggested that heat exchanged
versions of model aircraft engines be made. However, it is not
inconceivable that for some UAV applications, advantage
could be taken of this technology to engineer more efficient
very small recuperated engines.
The question of how small a recuperated gas turbine could be
considered for propulsion purposes has essentially been
answered by the fabrication and testing of a “palm-top”
recuperated gas turbine in Japan (Nagashima, 2005;
Nagashima et al., 2005). Various views of this interesting very
small engine are shown on Figure 19, with the compactness of
this gas turbine being noteworthy. While shown as a
turbogenerator with an annular fuel tank surrounding the
generator it was not designed for propulsion service. However,
one could visualize that in its present form such a gas turbine
could provide power for an electric motor driven propeller or
fan. Similarly replacing the generator with a speed reduction
gearbox would facilitate a directly driven turboprop or turbofan.
Aerospace applications are foreseen for this very small
recuperated gas turbine developed in Japan (Nagashima,
2005; Nagashima et al., 2005).
6. Large heat exchanged turbofan engine
6.1 Long-term challenge
The greatest challenge to engineers in the field of heat
exchanged propulsion gas turbines is for large turbofan
engines, and their deployment is viewed as a long-term
venture for commercial aircraft. The motivation for seriously
studying them today is their potential to alleviate three
concerns that affect users worldwide, namely significantly
Figure 18 Small turboprop engine for model aircraft
Source: Courtesty WREN Turbines Ltd
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
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lowering emissions, improving engine efficiency to reduce fuel
burn, and lessening noise by using a geared fan.
While in the early sections of this paper emphasis was on
recuperation, this alone is not feasible for very HP ratio engines,
and the introduction of an IC is mandatory. A combination of
them in a ICR engine yields a reduction in SFC, and with
intercooling the thermal efficiency is not significantly impacted
by OPR. In terms of the thermodynamic cycle, gas flow paths,
and engine architecture a large ICR turbofan is much more
complex than engines currently in airline service, and intensive
component development, static engine testing, and an extended
period of flight worthiness testing will be required to prove their
integrity and reliability. A suggested deployment strategy to
realise the introduction of this type of aeroengine is covered in a
later section.
6.2 ICR engine configuration
There has been some interest in heat exchanged turbofan
engine configurations for more than three decades, and early
studies were essentially carried out to explore their potential
(Kentfield, 1975; Young, 1975; Gray and Witherspoon, 1976;
Hirschkron and Neitzel, 1976; Bennett, 1983; Miura and
Sakurai, 1984). Later studies (Papadopoulos and Pilidis,
2000; Lundbladh and Sjunnesson, 2003; Colmenares et al.,
2007) extended this work in an era when large simple cycle
turbofans were dominant in commercial airline service.
A simplistic schematic showing the installation of an IC and
recuperator and the gas flow paths in a high-BPR turbofan is
shown on Figure 20 (Norris, 2003). With high-BPR turbofans
a very high percentage of the overall thrust comes from the
fan, and “cool” air extracted from the bypass duct is an
excellent heat sink for the air-to-air IC.
The cross-section of a large high-BPR ICR turbofan shown
on Figure 21 is a scantling which is included essentially to
illustrate engine major features and gas flow paths, and clearly
is not meant to represent an actual conceptual design. The
sketch shows a three shaft turbomachinery arrangement with
power to the single stage fan being driven through a speed
reduction gearbox, this being incorporated to reduce the fan
noise level. Air leaving the LP compressor is cooled in an IC
before entering the HP compressor. The IC is installed in a
duct and uses air bled from the fan discharge as the heat sink.
Air leaving the HP compressor is transported to the back of
the engine and is heated in the recuperator before flowing
forward to the combustor inlet. In the two-pass cross-
counterflow recuperator the HP compressor air flows
two-pass inside the tubes, and the turbine exit LP gas flows
single pass across the tube bundle and is discharged to the
atmosphere through the exhaust nozzle. The heat exchangers
are shown installed in a “block” form and their actual
configuration, orientation and gas flow paths would be
determined from detailed thermal and gas flow analyses.
6.3 ICR engine performance
Undertaking detailed engine performance estimates is beyond
the scope of this paper, but it is necessary to put into
perspective a performance comparison between large simple
cycle and heat exchanged turbofans. There are many
parameters that impact turbofan performance, the major
ones being fan pressure ratio, OPR, BPR, TIT, cooling flows,
and component efficiencies. In addition for heat exchanged
variants, there are the effectiveness and pressure loss values of
the recuperator and IC.
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Colin F. McDonald et al. Volume 80 · Number 4 · 2008 · 408 –426

Figure 19 Compact recuperated palm-top micro gas turbine

Exhaust gas

Fuel tank Recuperator

Control system
Inverter
Cooling fins Combustor
Air

f 180
Combustor Recuperator
Outer dia. 90mm Outer dia. 180mm
Bearing Bearing
Inner dia. 40mm Inner dia. 110mm
Generator Compressor Turbine Length 140mm Length 200mm
335

Source: Courtesty University of Japan

Figure 20 Flow diagram for large ICR turbofan engine concept

Fan Intercooler High-pressure turbine

Intermediate-pressure turbine
Low-pressure turbine
Recuperator

Gear Low-pressure compressor High-pressure compressor

Source: Courtesty Flight International

Figure 21 Large ICR turbofan engine concept What is important for the evaluation of heat exchanged turbofan
engines is the performance (i.e. SFC) at altitude cruise
conditions where the bulk of the time is spent for long
endurance flights. The estimation of performance under this
Intercooler
condition requires detailed compressor and turbine maps,
off-design component efficiencies, altitude and Mach number
definition, and engine nacelle installation details (to determine
drag). Such data were not available to the authors, and estimated
performance data were computed for static sea level maximum
take-off thrust conditions for an uninstalled engine. Fortunately
for comparison purposes SFC data under this static condition are
Recuperator
more often quoted by aeroengine companies and others (Hirst,
1985; Aviation Week & Space Technology, 2007; Elliott, 1994).
With BPRs increasing to 10 or even higher, a tentative
performance array for future generation large simple cycle

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turbofan engines is shown on Figure 22. SFC values on the upper Figure 23 Projected ICR turbofan performance array based on SLR
part of the vertical axis are included for early turbofan engines for maximum thrust take-off, uninstalled engine conditions
reference. The range of SFCs was taken from technical data
tables for commercial turbofan engines in previously mentioned Curves Based on
– Turbine Inlet Temperature 2,700°F
references (Hirst, 1985; Elliott, 1994). Well known early – Recuperator Effectiveness 0.75
turbofan engines such as the CFM56-2, RB211-22B, JT9D- – Intercooler Effectiveness 0.80
7R4D and PW2037 are bounded in this range.
Approximate SFC
To permit a performance comparison to be made with a Tentative Projection
Projection for Future
future ICR variant, a challenging value of SFC of just over 0.32 Large High Pressure Ratio of SFC for Long-
0.27 lb/lb h (at SLS conditions) is projected for an advanced Simple Cycle Turbofan Term Goal of a Large
0.31 Engines ICR Turbofan Engine
simple cycle turbofan with an OPR approaching 50, and a TIT

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION, Ib/Ib/hr (SLS)

of 2,700 F (1,4828C). The shape of the curves are reasonably 0.30
consistent with work reported by others (Miura and Sakurai,
1984; Yadav et al., 2005). For a given pressure ratio, an increase 0.29 10
in TITresults in an increase in both SFC and ST. In contrast, for
0.28
a given TIT, an increase in pressure ratio results in a lower value
of SFC and ST, suggesting that if the range of the curves were 0.27
expanded an optimum SFC and ST solution (although not 12
0.26 Approx
necessarily a practical one) would be apparent. 12% SFC
The performance array shown on Figure 23 shows the 0.25 Reduction
effect that OPR and BPR have on SFC and ST for an IRC 14
turbofan engine. The data portrayed are for a constant TIT of 0.24
2,700 F (1,4828C), this being the same value as quoted above 0.23 16
for the simple cycle case so that a direct comparison can be
made. The actual selection of the two heat exchanger 0.22
18
effectiveness values would be determined from a detailed 0.21
cycle optimization study for a given flight duration. For this BYPASS
0.20 50 20
array values of recuperator and IC effectiveness of 0.75 and 40 RATIO
0.80, respectively, were selected. Compared with the 30
20

Figure 22 Simple-cycle turbofan performance array based on SLS OVERALL PRESSURE RATIO
maximum thrust take-off, uninstalled engine conditions
aforementioned simple cycle case it can be seen that with
Curves Based on
– Bypass Ratio 10 intercooling the SFC is not strongly impacted by OPR.
0.35 – Fan Pressure Ratio 1.50 While the efficiency levels of major components (e.g.
20 compressor and turbine) are near plateauing, it is recognised
Approximate SFC Range 2,900
that incremental improvements, using sophisticated CFD
0.34 For Early Turbofans with
BPR's on the Order of 5 2,800 methodology for example, will be realised. Accordingly, in
establishing the projected performance data on Figures 22
and 23 modest component efficiency advancements were
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION, Ib/Ib/hr (SLS)

0.33 TURBINE INLET

TEMPERATURE °F assumed for the two turbofan variants.
With a geared fan ICR turbofan engine an attractive SFC
Target SFC for 2,700
0.32 30 can be realized by increasing the BPR to 15, and operating
Large Turbofan with
Pressure Ratio and with a much reduced OPR of 30. The major benefits of the
BPR on the Order of 2,600 latter are reduced number of stages, shorter bearing spans,
0.31 40 and 8 Respectively reduced rotor weight and eased rotor dynamics. For the above
2,500 40 values and assumed cycle parameters the projected SLS
maximum thrust SFC was estimated as 0.242 lb/lb h. This
0.30 represents an SFC reduction of about 12 percent (as shown
OVERALL on Figure 23) compared with the projected performance of an
50 PRESSURE advanced HP ratio simple cycle turbofan.
0.29 It is recognised that the carpet plot shown on Figure 23 is
RATIO
simplistic and the effects of many more parameters must be
included. An excellent preliminary study towards this,
0.28
including informative coloured carpet plots showing the
Challenging SFC Goal effects that the major parameters have on emissions, has been
0.27 For Future Large reported recently for a geared fan ICR engine for short range
High Pressure Ratio civil aircraft (Colmenares et al., 2007). It is noted here, for
Simple Cycle Turbofan comparison purposes, that the SFC data in this reference are
0.26 quoted as being at SLS conditions, but in fact they were for a
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 flight condition corresponding to a Mach number of 0.20
SPECIFIC THRUST, Ib/Ib/sec (Pilidis, 2007).

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 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines
Colin F. McDonald et al.
In the preceding section focus has been on means of
reducing SFC, but two vital elements have not been
addressed in this paper, namely that of engine weight and
throttle response. Knowing total engine plus fuel weight is
critical, and what needs to be determined for various flight
durations is to what extent the increased weight of an ICR
turbofan would be compensated for by reduced fuel burn. An
approach to address this is covered as follows.
6.4 ICR turbofan SFC-engine weight issue
Establishing the overall weight of a large ICR turbofan is a
complex endeavour and beyond the capabilities of the
authors, and for realism this must be addressed by technical
specialists based on an actual engine conceptual design.
In the previous section, emphasis was placed on engine
performance considerations, particularly the impact of major
parameters on SFC. However; we would be remiss if we did
not extend this to a trade-off of SFC impact on engine weight,
and an approximate means to address this during the
preconceptual design phase is the use of the well known
Breguet Range and Endurance Equation (Nygen and Shultz,
1996), which states the following:
 
V L Wto
Range ¼ £ £ Ln
SFC D We
where V, true airspeed; SFC, specific fuel consumption; L/D,
aircraft lift/drag ratio; Wto, aircraft take-off weight; We,
landing weight of non-hx’d aircraft; We may also say; Wfo,
max. fuel wt at tak-eoff (non-hx’d plane); F, fraction of takeoff
fuel remaining upon landing; E, total weight of non heat
exchanged engines.
It is assumed that the takeoff weight of an aircraft remains
the same when heat exchanged engines are used, this means
that the fuel inventory weight must be lowered by the heat
exchanger(s) weight. However; the maximum landing weight
is penalised by this weight.
We may take the weight of a heat exchanged engine of the
same power as hE. In applying the above equation some
assumptions have to be made (to be re-examined in a later
paper when an actual heat exchanged engine conceptual
design has been established), namely that the addition of heat
exchangers (i.e. recuperator and IC) does not in itself increase
aircraft drag. Then, if the heat exchanged engine aircraft
keeps the same speed, L/D, payload, range and the same fuel
margin the ratio of SFCs of the heat exchanged/non-heat
exchanged engine can be determined from the following
equation:
 
Ln½Wto=ðWe 2 Eðh 2 1ÞðF 2 1ÞÞ

Ratio ¼
LnðWto=WeÞ
where, Ln is the natural logarithm, We ¼ Wto 2 Wfoð1 2 FÞ.
To be able to interpret the above equation in a reasonably
meaningful manner, it is necessary to postulate the
characteristics of a “virtual reality” aircraft, say for example
one about the same size as the ubiquitous Boeing 737, with
the following data being assumed:
.
Aircraft flight range 2,000 miles (3,219 km).
.
Flight time 4 h.
.
Engine thrust 24,000 lb (10,714 kg); sea level 6,350 lb
(2,880 kg) Cruise.
.
SFC 0.35 lb/lb/h (SL), 0.65 lb/lb/h (Cruise).
.
Engine weight (1 of 2), 4220 lb (1,915 kg).
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
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.
Take-off weight 150,000 lb (68,058 kg).
.
Maximum landing weight 124,000 lb (56,260 kg).
. Maximum fuel capacity 6,200 gallons (23,470 l).
Based on the above assumed aircraft, engine, flight data, and
for simplicity considering only the cruise portion of the flight,
the above equation yields the relationship between the ratio of
heat exchanged/simple cycle engine weight and percentage
reduction in SFC to breakeven (i.e. to justify the use of a heat
exchanged variant). It was assumed that the same fraction of
the take-off fuel remained after the landing.
For the propulsion gas turbines modified in the 1960s to
include a recuperator (as discussed in Part I), the
recuperated-to-simple cycle engine weight ratios for these
non-optimum power plants (with “bolted on” recuperators)
were on the order of 1.5. Using today’s much improved state-
of-the-art engine technology, and lighter weight heat
exchanger types of construction, it not unreasonable to
postulate for a future ICR turbofan engine that this ratio
should not be greater than say 1.25-1.30 for an engine
designed from the onset to embody heat exchangers. Now
bearing in mind the simplified assumptions made using both
the Breguet equation, the aircraft, engine, and flight
characteristics, this weight ratio target implies (as shown on
Figure 24) that an SFC reduction in excess of about 7 percent
is needed to justify the use of a heat exchanged engine, but
clearly because of the extended time-frame needed to deploy a
heat exchanged variant, this cannot be directly correlated with
today’s conventional simple-cycle turbofan engines.
Because of the proprietary nature of engine performance
data, comparisons can only be made on projections as shown
on Figure 22. It is assumed that with continued technology
advancements the SFC of existing turbofans will be reduced
to on the order of 0.31 lb/lb/h, and indeed this may have
already been achieved in modern medium size commercial
turbofan engines. The more advanced and larger size
turbofans soon to enter service with reduced fuel burn,
could perhaps reduce this by a further 15 percent (i.e. to
0.27 lb/lb/h). This value may be regarded as a target to
compare with a future large IRC turbofan, and as can be seen
from Figure 23, the potential for a further 12 percent
reduction in SFC is projected.
We recognise that this finding is very sensitive to the
assumptions made and is only for one postulated aircraft and
flight profile. Other researchers might interpret the data
differently, and indeed this could lead to a meaningful
rationalisation on this topic.
7. Recuperator technology state-of-the-art
As mentioned in Part II of this paper no significant
advancements have been made in plain and dimpled tube
recuperator technology. Development has continued on plate-
fin recuperators, and units with proven structural integrity
have found acceptance with industrial gas turbines and
microturbines. However, by the very nature of their
construction they have high-specific weight, and are not
considered a viable option for heat exchanged aeroengines,
where light weight is of the essence. Candidate recuperator
types that are viewed as having features such as light weight,
compact size and compatible gas flow paths for future
aeroengines are discussed below.
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Colin F. McDonald et al. Volume 80 · Number 4 · 2008 · 408 –426

Figure 24 Breakeven SFC/engine weight for heat exchanged turbofan

14

13

12

Approximate Percentage Reduction in SFC Needed

11

10

8 Target Weight Ratio

For Future ICR
7 Turbofan Engines

5 Value Typical of Simple Cycle

Propulsion Gas Turbine Turboprop
4 and Turboshaft Engines Modified
to Include Recuperators, and
3 Development Tested in the 1960's

0
1.0 1.10 1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60
Engine Weight Ratio, Heat Exchanged / Non-Heat Exchanged
Notes: 1. Data based on the use the Breguet Range Equation; 2. Based on passenger
aircraft of similar size to the Boeing 737, powered by two turbofan engines; 3. Flight
range/time 2,000 miles (3,219 km) / 4 hours; 4. Maximum fues weight at take-off;
5. Same percentage fuel margin upon landing

7.1 Types of surface geometry Future improvements to reduce the size and weight of
7.1.1 Primary surface geometry primary surface recuperators could be realized by using a
Recuperators with different types of surface characteristics have skewed cross-corrugated geometry that was pionereed in
been developed based on manufacturing processes that form the Germany three decades ago (Kleeman, 1978; Foerster and
heat transfer geometries directly from thin foil stock. Basic Kleeman, 1978). Rig testing of this geometry (Kleeman,
elements are formed and sealing between the gas and air flow 1979) revealed turbulent flow down to very low-Reynolds
passages is done by welding. This type of construction has numbers. This type of geometry has never been deployed but
demonstrated a high degree of structural integrity in the has been evaluated for microturbine recuperator application
thermally cyclic environment characteristic of gas turbines. (McDonald, 2000b; Utriainen and Sunden, 2002).
Primary surface recuperators have found acceptance particularly
in the microturbine field where low cost and being amenable to 7.1.2 Oval tube geometry
high-volume automated manufacturing processes are Advancements in the tubular geometry field have shown that
paramount. Several types of this kind of recuperator have been oval tubes (sometimes referred to as profile tubes) arranged in
reported previously (Kadambi et al., 1992; Oswald et al., 1999; bundles have superior heat transfer characteristics in the
Treese et al., 2002; Lagerstrom and Xie, 2002; Antoine and laminar flow regime. Pioneered by MTU Aero Engines in
Prieels, 2002; McDonald, 2000a). They can be fabricated in Germany a recuperator assembly made from profile tubes is
platular or annular configurations, and several thousand of this shown on Figure 25. The tubes are folded from sheet and
type have been fabricated for LP ratio microturbine service (30 then seal welded. They are then bent into U shaped geometry
and 60 kW units) and they have accumulated over a million and brazed into manifolds to form the matrix. As can be seen
operating hours without a failure (Treese et al., 2002). Primary from the figure such a configuration is amenable to a compact
surface types might find acceptance for fairly LP ratio and light weight two-pass cross-counterflow arrangement,
recuperated turboshaft helicopter engines or turboprop/ with the air passing two-pass inside the tubes, and the gas
turbofan engines for UAVs. This type of recuperator is unlikely flowing single pass across the tube bundle.
to be used for HP ratio engines. Since there are no supporting This type of construction was proposed over 17 years ago by
structural elements between the air and gas passages (such as the MTU for potential propulsion applications (Pellischek, 1990,
conducting/bridging secondary surfaces in plate-fin heat 1991; Pellischek and Kumf, 1991). It has been used in the
exchangers) there could be a tendency under high-temperature recuperator for the LV100 tank gas turbine engine (Pellischek
creep conditions, for deformation of the HP air passage causing it and Reile, 1992).
to bulge into the LP gas channel, remembering that for a large The recuperator in an aeroengine operates in a high
ICR turbofan the internal pressure differential in the recuperator temperature and severe cyclic environment, and a very
could be as high as 40 atm. extensive development and testing effort must be undertaken

420
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines
Colin F. McDonald et al.
Figure 25 Light weight two-pass cross counterflow profile-tube
recuperator core
Source: Courtesty MTU Aero Engines
to demonstrate structural integrity, high reliability and long life.
The complex nature of the thermomechanical design and the
various analyses being undertaken for a profile tube recuperator
for an IRA turbofan engine have been reported recently
(Schoenenborn, 2004; Schoenenborn et al., 2004).
7.2 Recuperator flow configuration
Recuperators in service today, particularly high-effectiveness
units for microturbines, embody a counterflow configuration
in which the temperature gradient in the matrix is in the axial
direction giving the best heat transfer solution. In the various
engine layout concepts covered in previous sections, differing
types of tubular recuperators were selected essentially based
on the following:
.
light weight construction;
.
to minimize engine diameter;
.
ability to accommodate very high-internal pressure
differential; and
.
be compatible with engine gas flow paths.
In most of the cases they are not practically amenable to a
counterflow configuration, thus cross-counterflow arrangements
are necessary. At an effectiveness level of 0.70, the penalty paid in
terms of surface area required would be on the order of 15 percent
in going from a pure counterflow matrix to a two pass cross-
counterflow arrangement (McDonald, 1972).
7.3 Recuperator materials considerations
For current industrial gas turbines and future aeroengines the
heat exchangers will utilize existing metallic materials and
proven types of construction. A brief discussion on materials
used today, and their temperature limitations was given in
Section 3.1.1.3. Looking into the future, the potential of non-
metallic heat exchangers in gas turbines including aeroengines
is briefly discussed below.
7.3.1 Ceramic recuperator
Above a recuperator gas inlet temperature of about
1,400 F (7608C) a ceramic heat exchanger is required. The
use of compact fixed-boundary ceramic heat exchangers
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has fascinated engineers for industrial and gas turbine
applications for many years (McDonald, 1980).
Several organizations worldwide have undertaken and
reported ceramic recuperator studies and development
activities mainly in support of vehicular gas turbine projects
(Foerster et al., 1979; Kleiner et al., 1984; McDonald, 1996,
1997; Ferrato and Thonon, 1997; McDonald and Rodgers,
2005). However, over the years there have been no well co-
ordinated efforts or continuity of R&D with the result that a
viable product does not exist today.
Until recently the authors had felt that ceramic recuperators
would have as their genesis the same type of surface geometry
as metallic heat exchangers, but an emerging technology has
made that thinking essentially obsolete. Using laminated
object manufacturing methods a compact silicon carbide
micro-channel recuperator is being developed by Ceramatec
(Wilson et al., 2005). In the green state micro-channels are
made in a flexible form and then sintered into monolithic
structures. The basic elements are stacked to form a module
as shown on Figure 26. While this ceramic micro-channel
recuperator is still in an early stage of development a small
microturbine demonstrator concept has been proposed
(McDonald and Rodgers, 2007) embodying ceramic
components which include the turbine, combustor, and
recuperator. The successful operation of such a small engine
would provide a benchmark and technology base for
advancing to future recuperated ceramic engines.
For first generation recuperated turboshaft, turboprop, and
turbofan engines metallic heat exchangers would be used.
The initial use of ceramic heat exchangers would likely be for
a recuperated turboprop for a UAV. Operating experience
from this could pave the way for a larger turboshaft engine
with a ceramic recuperator for a light helicopter.
7.3.2 Composite material heat exchangers
Carbon-carbon composite materials have high strength-to-
weight ratios, and good high-temperature capability. For special
propulsion applications they have been proposed for high-
temperature components in gas turbines over a quarter of a
century ago (Danis et al., 1981). In order to prevent carbon-
carbon composite components from burning at elevated
Figure 26 Ceramic micro-channel gas turbine recuperator module
Source: Courtesty Cermatec Inc
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines
Colin F. McDonald et al.
temperature, oxidation resistant coatings must be applied. Such
work in support of aircraft systems has been reported (Watts
et al., 1999) and could perhaps be extended to the levels of
temperature that would be needed in future gas turbine
propulsion systems. Other work done on intermediate
temperature carbon-carbon heat exchangers (Stevenson et al.,
1999; Filburn et al., 2006) may be applicable to light weight ICs
needed in ICR turbofan engines.
8. European IRA program
So far in this paper only the potential of heat exchanged
propulsion gas turbines has been discussed, however there has
been interest in this technology in Europe for almost two
decades. Following work done by MTU Aero Engines on
conventional turbofan and propfan engine concepts (Grieb
and Eckardt, 1986) a heat exchanged engine concept based
on a counter-rotating shrouded propfan was discussed a few
years later by MTU in Germany (Grieb and Simon, 1990).
The engine cross-section on Figure 27 shows a comparison of
major features between a simple cycle version and a variant
embodying an IC and recuperator.
A decade later an initial IRA turbofan concept from MTU
was described (Taverna and Morrocco, 2002), and is shown
in an embryonic form on Figure 28. This schematic bears a
resemblance to the concept mentioned above in that in
embodies a profile tube recuperator installed to the rear of the
engine core, and with the IC utilizing air extracted from the
bypass duct. It was the emergence of this engine concept, and
the subsequent development effort undertaken in Europe,
that essentially motivated the authors to write this three part
paper on heat exchanged propulsion gas turbine technology.
Sponsored by the EU under the 5th Framework Research
Programme, one part of the efficient and environmentally
friendly aeroengine (EEFAE) technology programme
designated CLEAN headed by MTU Aero Engines and
Snecma Moteurs was directed towards the long-term
application of new technologies in aeroengines. The CLEAN
project involved the validation of components for a IRA
turbofan engine. A design concept was established for a high-
BPR, three shaft, geared fan, IRA in the 45,000 lb (20,417 kg)
Figure 27 Recuperated and intercooled propfan engine concept
HEAT EXCHANGED VARIANT
INTERCOOLER
SIMPLE CYCLE ENGINE
Source: Courtesty MTU Aero Engines
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Volume 80 · Number 4 · 2008 · 408 –426
thrust class for narrow body aircraft service after the year 2020.
The project was aimed at reducing fuel consumption and with it
carbon dioxide emissions by as much as 20 percent, and NOx by
as much as 80 percent. Details of the IRA engine design concept
and performance have been reported previously (Wilfert and
Masse, 2001; Krammer et al., 2003; Boggia and Rud, 2004,
2005, Technology Update, 2006).
With many variables considered, the analyses indicated
important trends, a noticeable one being that with intercooling
the SFC is not strongly impacted by OPR, unlike a simple cycle
engine. Parametric studies, involving many variables including
BPR, OPR, and turbine cooling flows, together with an imposed
TIT of 2,780 F (1,5278C) showed an attractive SFC for a IRA
turbofan. The recuperator effectiveness was 0.775 (at
maximum climb), and for other operating conditions varied
between 0.69 and 0.83 (Schoenenborn, 2004; Schoenenborn
et al., 2004).
The component testing phase of the project was
successfully completed in December 2005, and using the
results of the tests, a study performed together with Airbus
proved the advantages of the geared fan and IRA concept
(Wilfert et al., 2005a). At the culmination of the R&D
programme it was projected that an aircraft equipped with an
ICR engine would reduce fuel burn by up to 17 percent
compared with an actual engine, and would enable a 6 percent
lighter aircraft (Wilfert et al., 2005b).
With completion of the CLEAN project, follow-on work is
underway on NEWAC, a project to validate new technologies
aimed at further reducing carbon dioxide and NOx emissions.
This includes further work on recuperator and IC
optimization for the IRA engine concept.
9. Recuperated engine deployment scenario
While subject to market forces, and perhaps environmental
legislation, it is unlikely that in the near-future the private
sector in the USA will initiate the development of heat
exchanged propulsion engines for civil aircraft since this
would span many years and entail very high cost and risk. As
has occurred frequently in the past, projects of this type are
often first pioneered to meet defence needs, with subsequent
RECUPERATOR
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Colin F. McDonald et al. Volume 80 · Number 4 · 2008 · 408 –426

Figure 28 ICR turbofan engine concept
Source: Courtesty MTU Aero Engines
technology transfer to commercial applications. To gain
confidence, and establish reliability of the heat exchanged
approach it would seem prudent to demonstrate smaller
engines before embarking on the ultimate and most complex
application, namely that of a large high-BPR, multi-spool,
geared fan, ICR turbofan engine.
The authors feel that the proposed simplified heat
exchanged engine deployment scenario shown on Figure 29
exhibits realism, and captures the essence of material
discussed in Parts I-III of this paper.
Figure 29 Projected recuperated aeroengine deployment scenario
A good starting point would be to address the need for more
efficient small recuperated engines for UAV applications. With
a dedicated R&D effort the demonstration of such a small
engine with a light weight ceramic micro-channel recuperator
for a UAV in about three years does not seem unreasonable.
The next step could be the development of a recuperated
turboshaft engine in the 1,000-1,500 hp (746-1,120 kW) class
for military helicopter service and this is suggested. The goal
of such an engine utilizing a light weight recuperator would be
to demonstrate an SFC of less than 0.35 lb/hp h (0.21 kg/
kW h), a bare engine specific weight of more than 5 hp/lb
(8.2 kW/kg), and reduced IR signature. A helicopter flight
worthiness test with such a recuperated turboshaft engine
should be achievable in less than five years.
An ICR turbofan is the ultimate application, but this
represents a formidable challenge considering the complexity
of such an engine. The design and performance of the major
engine components would be based on proven aeroengine
technology, but the same cannot be said of the light weight
recuperator where operation in high temperature and cyclic
environments are new in the gas turbine propulsion field, and
testing over an extended period will be required to verify heat
exchanger reliability. A very extensive development and
testing effort for the complete engine assembly must be
undertaken to demonstrate integrity, reliability, performance

Recuperated
Turboshaft
Engine
For Light
Helicopter
ICR Turbofan
Engine Concept
ENGINE TECHNOLOGY ADVANCEMENT

Small UAV
Recuperated T63 Recuperated
turboshaft engine Turboprop
Bristol Theseus
Concept Higher
Recuperated
Turboprop Efficiency
Engine Version with
Ceramic
Components

Recuperated
Turbofan Variant
T78 Recuperated
Turboprop Engine

PROJECTED RECUPERATED AEROENGINE EVOLUTION

423
 Recuperated gas turbine aeroengines
Colin F. McDonald et al.
and emissions. Such an engine might be ready for commercial
service after the year 2020.
10. Summary
It was not the purpose of this three-part paper to provide in-
depth technical analyses and actual engine designs, but rather
to cover various aspects of the technology over a full spectrum
of potential heat exchanged engine applications in a
reasonably broad manner, essentially to stimulate further
work by specialists. Also included are a number of germane
open-literature references for those not intimately familiar
with the topic.
While the flight worthiness test of a light military helicopter
in 1967 powered solely by a recuperated T63 turboshaft
engine was successful, there were a number of economic and
technical factors that negated deployment of an engine of this
type.
After this, limited studies were carried out for almost a
decade, and in 1975 an aeroengine paper was published
entitled “The heat exchanger cycle: has its time come?”
(Young, 1975). Based on the then current state-of-the-art it
was abundantly clear that the answer to the question posed
was a resounding “no”, and would remain so for the many
reasons discussed, for a further 25 years or so.
This situation would change around the turn of the twenty-
first century when a series of socio-economic factors surfaced,
and industry recognised that they would have a profound
effect on the design and operation of gas turbine propulsion
engines. For future commercial aircraft, reducing emissions,
minimising fuel burn in a era of high-aviation fuel cost, and
lowering noise level will be paramount. To some, particularly
aeroengine companies in Europe, these factors indicated that
indeed the time had now come to seriously evaluate the
potential of heat exchanged aeroengines.
There are many areas not covered in this paper that need to
be addressed, the salient ones including the following. The
parasitic weight of the heat exchangers, and the extent to
which fuel inventory can be reduced to offset this by the virtue
of lower SFC needs detailed evaluation. From the flight test of
a helicopter powered by a recuperated turboshaft engine
many years ago, a reduction in engine noise was observed due
to the “muffling” effect of the recuperator. Noise attenuation
for the various heat exchanged engines discussed in this paper
needs to be addressed. Also the effect that the thermal
capacitance of the recuperator and IC have on engine power
change and throttle response is important in the design of the
control system. A topic that the authors have not seen
addressed in the open literature is the increased vulnerability
of heat exchanged engines to foreign material ingestion (e.g.
birds, dust, ice, etc.). Such debris could end on the matrix
faces of the IC and recuperator. While future aeroengines will
have clean combustion, the possibility of fouling of the
recuperator would have to be investigated.
An ambitious development programme addressing a geared
fan IRA turbofan is being undertaken in Europe. Gas turbine
engineers worldwide can clearly benefit from this innovative
EU-funded pioneering effort being headed by MTU Aero
Engines and Snecma Moteurs.
In closing, it is hoped that the potential of heat exchanged
propulsion engines in the twenty-first century, as covered in this
paper will stimulate technical interest leading to detailed
analyses, designs, component development, engine fabrication,
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Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Volume 80 · Number 4 · 2008 · 408 –426
flight worthiness testing, and the eventual deployment of
“greener” higher efficiency heat exchanged engines to meet
defence and commercial gas turbine propulsion needs in an
economic and environmentally acceptable manner in coming
decades.
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Corresponding author
Colin F. McDonald can be contacted at: kmcdona1@san.rr.
com