12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), June18-21, 2007
An application of elastic wheel/rail bi-contact theory to the hunting of bogie
Tr. Mazilu*
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest
Bucharest, Romania
Abstract—The hunting of bogie is simulated. The elastic
wheel/rail bi-contact theory is applied. The limit cycles for bogie
hunting are analyzed. The hunting movement on a track which
has random alignment irregularities is studied.
Keywords: bogie, hunting, limit cycle, bi-contact wheel/rail
I. Introduction
The hunting movement occurring in case of the railway
vehicles is a consequence of the reversed conic shape of
the rolling surfaces. If the axle is transversally displaced,
the wheel that finds itself closer to the rail will have a
larger rolling diameter than the other one, which rolls on a
smaller diameter (fig.1). *
Fig. 1. The axle hunting.
The wheels are fixed in a rigid manner to the axle’s
body and therefore, the wheel rolling on a larger diameter
will advance quicker than the other one, which will
always stay behind. The axle spins compared to the
vertical axis and eventually will approach the track’s
middle axis. When reaching that point, the axle’s spinning
angle will be at its highest value and both wheels will roll
on even diameters. Next, the axle will continue its
movement, leaving the center position to the opposite side
form the initial lateral displacement, forcing the wheel to
roll on smaller and smaller diameters and the other one on
increasingly larger diameters. Both wheels will reach the
same level at the precise moment when the axle center is
situated at the maximum distance from the rail’s
longitudinal axis. From now on, the movement will repeat
itself in reverse. The axle center’s trajectory is a hunting
curve.
This movement is passed over to the bogie and to the
vehicle’s body through suspension elements. During the
circulation, this hunting movement is also sustained by
rail’s alignment irregularities; therefore its intensity will
be influenced by the size of these irregularities. In
addition to that, the regime of this hunting movement
*
E-mail: trmazilu@yahoo.com
1
depends on the running speed - at low speeds, this
movement is stable and at high speeds, this movement
becomes unstable. The actual speed for which the
movement loses its stability is also known as critical
hunting speed. As long as the movement is stable, the axle
will follow approximately the rail’s alignment
irregularities without touching the interior rail flanges.
When becoming unstable, the magnitude of the lateral
movement increases in a manner in which the axle’s
lateral displacement is consumed. The exterior flange of
the wheel will smash the interior rail flange thus
producing shocks that will affect severely the vehicle’s
running quality, the mechanical strenght for both, the
vehicle and the rail and never the less the circulation
safety. Because of this loss of stability the hunting
movement is one of the main factors of speed limits for
railway vehicles.
Fig. 2. The wheel/rail contact point: a) mono-contact; b) bi-contact.
This movement that we present here is an interesting
example of non-linear vibration. The movement’s non
linearity is governed by the laws of geometry and friction.
Generally, the wheel/rail contact is represented by a point
on the rolling surface (the so-called “mono – contact”), as
it may be seen in fig. 2a. If the axle consumes its lateral
displacement, the attacking wheel’s flange will touch the
rail’s interior flange. This particular situation is known as
“bi – contact” and occurs when there are two actual
contact points between the wheel and the rail (see fig. 2b).
On the other hand, the friction force has a non – linear
variation, which depends on the so-called “creepage”
(which is the ratio between the wheel’s slip speed and the
wheel’s transport speed) when the wheel approaches to
the appropriate rail.
This type of movement was studied since late 19th
century – Klingel determined for the first time the
wavelength for the hunting movement [1]. Also bringing
major contributions to the study, we mention Wickens [2,
3] and Joly [4], who analyzed the movement’s stability
12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), June18-21, 2007

using linear models. Non – linear models were used by De yrij (axle i, wheel j). The sleeper standing right under the ‘i‘
Pater [5], van Bommel [6] and Cooperrider [7]. Pascal [8] axle moves transversally with ysi. The sleeper and the rails
and Shabana [9] developed their own methods for are moving together in the vertical zsi movement and in
calculating the wheel/rail contact forces. the roll ϕsi movement.
This work uses a calculus method for contact forces, All elastic and damping elements have linear
which is based on the theory of the elastic bi-contact [10, characteristics.
11]. The limit cycles for bogie hunting are analyzed. We The equations of motion are resulting through the
also study the hunting movement on a track which has application of the Lagrange equations method. The
random alignment irregularities. following were obtained:
1. The equations of motion of the bogie:
II. Theoretical analysis
m&y& + c y (2 y& − y& 1 − y& 2 ) + k y (2 y − y1 − y 2 ) = 0, (1)
Next we study the hunting movement for a two-axle
bogie. The mechanical model is presented in fig.3. The m&z& + c z (2 z& − z&1 − z& 2 ) + k z (2 z − z1 − z 2 ) = 0, (2)
movement is considered to be reported to the fixed
referential ωξηζ. The bogie moves along the ωξ axis at a && + c ϕ (2ϕ& − ϕ& 1 − ϕ& 2 ) + k ϕ (2ϕ − ϕ1 − ϕ 2 ) = 0,
I xϕ (3)
constant velocity, V. The bogie’s suspended mass is
considered to be a rigid with 5 degrees of freedom: two
 z& − z& 2   z − z2 
translations – shaking y and lifting z; three rotations – roll I y &θ& + c θ  2θ& + 1  + k θ  2θ + 1
  = 0, (4)
 a   a 
ϕ, gallop θ and hunting ψ. The bogie’s mass center is
situated at axle level. Usually, modern passenger coaches I zψ && + c ψx (2ψ& − ψ& 1 − ψ& 2 ) + k ψx (2ψ − ψ1 − ψ 2 ) +
fulfill this requirement.  y& − y& 2   y − y2  (5)
+ c ψy  2ψ& − 1  + k ψy  2ψ − 1  = 0,
 a   a 

where m stands suspended bogie mass, Ix, Iy and Iz for the

inertia moments, kx, ky and kz for the elastic constants, cx,
cy and cz for the damping constants, 2a for bogie
wheelbase, 2b for transversal suspension base and cϕ=
czb2, kϕ= kzb2, cψx= cxb2, kψx= kxb2, cψy= cya2, kψy= kya2, cθ=
cza2 and kθ= kza2;

2. The equations of motion of the axle ‘i’

m 0 &x&i + c x ( x& i − x& ) + k x ( x i − x ) = X i1 + X i 2 , (6)

[
m 0 &y&i + c y y& i − y& + (−1) i aψ& + ] (7)
[ ]
+ k y y i − y + (−1) i aψ = Yi1 + Yi 2 ,
Fig. 3. The mechanical model for a bogie hunting.

The axles are rigid bodies with four degrees of freedom:

[
m0 &z&i + c z z& i − z& + (−1) i aθ& + ] (8)
two translations – bumping back xi and shaking yi – and [ i
]
+ k z z i − z + (−1) aθ = Qi1 + Qi 2 − 2Q,
two rotations – the revolution θi and hunting ψ i with
i=1÷2. The axle’s lifting zi and roll ϕi movements are not I 0 &θ& = -r ( X i1 + X i 2 ), (9)
independent. The corresponding movement equations are
though written, in order for them to be used in the calculus && i + c ϕ (ϕ& i − ϕ& ) + k ϕ (ϕ i − ϕ) − I 0 e (V / r )ψ
I 0e ϕ &i =
for reaction forces on the rolling surfaces. Also, we took (10)
in our consideration, the axle’s gyroscopic effect. = -r (Yi1 + Yi 2 ) + e(Qi1 − Qi 2 ),
The track is considered as a 3 rigid bodies system,
elastically connected together and to the ground. In && i + cψx (ψ
I 0e ψ & i − ψ& ) + k ψx (ψ i − ψ ) + I 0 e (V / r )ϕ& i =
parallel to the elastic elements, damping elements were (11)
considered as well. The periodic variation of the rail’s = -e( X i1 − X i 2 ),
lateral stiffness caused by the periodic sleeper support is
negligible. The rails have lateral independent movements

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12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), June18-21, 2007

where m0 stands for axle mass, I0 and I0e for the inertia
moments, 2e for the distance between the wheel/rail
contact points, r for wheel radius and Xij, Yij, Qij for the
projections of the resultant of the wheel/rail contact force;
3. The equations of motion of the track as it follows
- the equation of motion of the rail under wheel j of axle i
m r &y&rij + c r ( y& rij − y& si ) + k r ( y rij − y si ) = −Yij + (−1) j Qtgγ ,
(11)
- the equation of motion of the sleeper under axle i
m s &y&si + c sy y& si + c r (2 y& si − y& ri1 − y& ri 2 ) +
(12)
+ k sy y si + k r (2 y si − y ri1 − y ri 2 ) = 0,
(m s + 2m r )&z&si + c sz z& si + k sz z si = 2Q − Qi1 − Qi 2 , (13)
(I s + 2m r e 2 )ϕ
&& si + c sz e r2 ϕ& si + k sz e r2 ϕ si = −e(Qi1 − Qi 2 ),
(14)
where mr stands for the rail mass, ms for the sleeper mass,
Is for sleeper’s inertia moment, kr, ksy and ksz for the elastic
constants, cr, csy, and csz for damping constants and 2Q for
static axle load.
κν x N κν yz N
Tx = − , T yz = − (18)
2
1 + (κν / µ ) 1 + (κν / µ )2
where νx and νyz stand for the components of the creepage
known as ν, κ is the creepage coefficient determined in
accordance to Kalker’s theory [14] and µ is the coefficient
of adherence. The creepage is determined mainly by
axle’s kinematics.
The equation system may be solved numerically using
the Runge – Kutta method. If both wheels of the same
axle are in a mono – contact position, the normal forces
are calculated from the algebraic system formed by the
axle’s lifting and roll movement equations. These
equations were obtained by substituting the accelerations
of the dependent movements (zi and ϕi) with the
accelerations of the independent coordinates. The
corresponding formulas result from the axle’s kinematical
analysis. If one wheel is in a bi – contact position, the
reaction force on the flange is an additional unknown
value. The problem may be solved iterative, using the
formula for the flange elastic deformations (Hertz). The
elastic deformation of the flange is correlated with the
axle and rail positions, which are known for each
integration step. The elastic deformation of the flange is
calculated according to the elastic bi – contact theory.

III. Numerical application

Next we analyze numerically the hunting movement for

Fig. 4. The wheel/rail contact forces
The wheel/rail contact forces are presented in fig.4
(mono – contact): the normal force Nij and the friction
force Tij with its components Txij and Tyzij. The
components of the resultants of the contact forces are
( )
X ij = T xij + σ δ fij T fij ,
( ) (
Yij = m N ij sin γ ij ± ϕ si + T yzij cos γ ij ± ϕ si +
( )[ ( )
+ σ δ fij m N fij sin γ f ± ϕ si + T fyzij cos γ f ± ϕ si , (
a bogie. The bogie and track main parameters are: m =
3680 kg, Ix = 3680 kgm2, Iy = 1200 kgm2, Iz = 3800 kgm2,
kx = 40 MN/m, ky = 6 MN/m, kz = 1.25 MN/m, cx = 27
kN/(m/s), cy = 10.5 kN/(m/s), cz = 8.6 kN/(m/s), m0=
1310 kg, I0 = 740 kgm2, I0e = 210 kgm2, 2e =1.5 m, 2a =
2.56 m, 2b = 2 m, r = 0.445 m, 2Q = 110 kN, mr = 60 kg,
ms = 240 kg, Is = 135 kgm2, kr =70 MN/m, ksy = 70
MN/m, ksz = 65 MN/m , cr = 100 kN/(m/s), csy = 300
kN/(m/s), csz= 140 kN/(m/s). The CFR S 78 wheel profile
and UIC 60 rail are considered.
(15) Before solving the movement equations numerically,
the critical hunting speed was calculated (linear model).
) The linear equation system has the following matrix
)] (16) structure:

( ) (
Qij = N ij cos γ ij ± ϕ ti ± T yzij sin γ ij ± ϕ ti +
( )[ ( ) (
+ σ δ fij N bij sin γ f ± ϕ si ± T fyzij sin γ f ± ϕ si ,
where γij stands for the contact angle, δfij for the wheel’s
elastic deformation in case of flange contact (subscript f)
and σ(.) is the Heaviside function.
The friction force depends on the creepage in a non –
linear matter. Chartet’s modified formula [12] was used
[13]
{q& } = A{q}
)
(17)
)] in which {q} is the column for state parameters and A is
the system matrix. The A matrix’ own values were
calculated compared to the speed. The real part of these
values is negative at low speeds, which means that the
bogie is stable. When this part becomes positive, the
bogie becomes unstable and the critical speed may be
determined. In this particular case, the critical speed is V
= 69.6 m/s.

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12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), June18-21, 2007

The existence of this unstable limit cycle shows that the

hunting instability may occur even at speeds below the
critical hunting speed (linear model). The vehicle’s top
speed must be small enough in order to avoid instability
debut on accepted geometrical irregularities.

Fig. 5. The lateral displacement of the first axle (local

sinusoidal defect, V = 65 m/s ).

In case of the numerical simulation (non – linear

model), the bogie is supposed to pass over a local
sinusoidal alignment defect with its length equal to the
wavelength. Figure 5 presents the lateral displacement of
the first axle for V = 65 m/s, defect amplitude: u = 2 mm Fig. 8. The lateral displacement of the first axle (u=2.05 mm,
and defect wavelength λ = 18 m. The movement is λ=18m, V=66.2m/s).
damped and the hunting of the bogie is stable.
The speed and the amplitude of the unstable limit cycle
are depending directly on the defect amplitude (defect
length remains constant): high speed – low amplitude of
the limit cycle – low defect amplitude. The unstable limit
cycle disappears at the critical speed (linear model).

Fig. 6. The lateral displacement of the first axle (unstable limit

cycle, u=2 mm, λ=18m, V=66.2m/s).

Figure 6 presents the lateral displacement of the first

axle for V = 66.2 m/s, defect amplitude: 2 mm and defect
wavelength of 18 m. Basically, the movement has a
constant amplitude. The trajectories in phase’s plane are
closed curves - limit cycle. The axles do not touch the rail Fig. 9. The lateral displacement of the first axle (stable limit
interior flange. cycle, u=2.1 mm, λ=18m, V=66.2m/s).

Fig. 7. The lateral displacement of the first axle (u=1.95

mm, λ=18m, V=66.2m/s).
The bogie movement is damped if the defect amplitude
is smaller, 1.95 mm respectively; although the speed
remained the same 66.2 m/s (see fig. 7).
If the defect amplitude increases to 2.05 mm, the
movement amplitude increases along with the time (see
fig. 8). As a conclusion, the limit cycle (without touching
the interior rail flange) is unstable.
Fig. 10. The normal forces: a. on the rolling surface; b. on the
wheel flange.
Next we consider the bogie running at the unstable limit
cycle speed (66.2 m/s) but this time the defect has a
larger amplitude, 2.1 mm respectively. The amplitude of
the hunting movement increases until the wheels reach
contact with the interior rail flange (fig. 9). The
movement becomes now periodic and the phase

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12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), June18-21, 2007
trajectories are closed curves – another limit cycle was
reached. When the wheel flange hits the rail, the rolling
surface is unloaded and the flange becomes loaded (fig.
10). The guiding force (Y) increases (fig. 11). Also
receiving tremendous shocks are the whole rolling
apparatus and the rail (fig. 12-13).
Fig. 11. The guiding forces on the first axle.
Fig. 12. First axle’s lateral acceleration.
Fig. 13. Rail’s lateral acceleration
Fig. 14. The lateral displacement of the first axle (u=3mm,
λ=18m, V=66.2m/s).
Figure 14 presents the lateral displacement of the first
axle for defect amplitude of 3 mm. After a short period of
time, the same limit cycle appears. The limit cycle which
is caused by the rail flanges is stable (locally). If defect
5
amplitude is 4.6 mm, the wheel is completely unloaded
and as a consequence the derailment occurs.
Fig. 15. The alignment defects.
The hunting on a rail which has random alignment
irregularities is studied. The studied sector has a length of
500 m and alignment defects of wavelengths from 10 to
82 m (fig. 15). The rail’s geometry is obtained through
integration from the spectral density of the alignment
defects. This spectral density has the following shape
A
S u (Ω) =
(B + Ω )3
where Ω stands for the wave number, A and B are
constants that minimize the error between the theoretical
and the real (measured) spectre. The phases of the
spectral components were randomly chosen between – π
and π. The efficient value for alignament defects is 1.17
mm. The track has two local defects with amplitudes of
+4.25 and -4.22 mm. The quality level of this track is
QN2 [15].
Fig. 16 . The lateral displacement of the first axle (random
behaviour, V=45 m/s).
Figure 16 presents the lateral displacement of the first
axle when running at V = 45 m/s. By comparing the two
graphs shown in figures 15 and 16 it’s easy to observe
that the axle follows the alignment defects of the rail. The
flange contact does not occur this time. The bogie’s
hunting is stable.
Figure 17 presents the lateral displacement of the first
axle when running at V = 60 m/s. This time, the main
characteristics of the movement are modified. The local
12th IFToMM World Congress, Besançon (France), June18-21, 2007
defects lead to repeated touches between the wheel and
the rail. The bogie’s hunting becomes locally unstable.
Fig. 17. The lateral displacement of the first axle (random
behaviour, V=60 m/s).
Fig. 18. The lateral displacement of the first axle (random
behaviour, V=63 m/s).
Fig. 19. The lateral acceleration in the bogie center.
Figure 18 presents the displacement of the first axle
when running at 63 m/s. The situation changes
dramatically. After a very short time, the axle enters a
limit cycles regime, at random amplitudes. The wheels
are touching the interior rail flange. The bogie’s efficient
acceleration increases very much (fig. 19).
IV. Conclusions
The hunting movement of the railway vehicles is caused
mainly by the conic wheel profiles and limits the top
speed because of its instability.
The hunting has two limit cycles: an unstable mono-
contact limit cycle and a locally stable bi-contact limit
cycle. This limit cycle is characterized by high
accelerations and shocks. The local alignment defects may
lead to transitory unstable bogie hunting. Thus, the top
speed has to be limited in order to avoid unstable vehicle
hunting. The bogie hunting, the limit cycles and random
regime as well, may be studied using the presented model.
The numeric simulation revealed the same hunting
characteristics as in experimental tests [10].
References
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