Bioenergetics

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122
CHAPTER 4
BIOENERGETICS
Major Concepts: Number of allotted

teaching periods: 14
4.1 Photosynthesis (8 Periods)
4.1.1 Role of Light
4.1.2 Role of Photosynthetic Pigments Absorption Spectrum
and Action Spectrum
4.1.3 Role of Carbon dioxide in Photosynthesis
4.1.4 Role of Water in Photosynthesis
4.1.5 Mechanism of Photosynthesis
4.2 Cellular Respiration (5 Periods)
4.2.1 Aerobic and Anaerobic Respiration
4.2.2 Mechanism of Respiration
4.2.3 Synthesis of ATP Chemiosmosis and Substrate-level
Phosphorylation
4.3 Photorespirtion (1 Period)
Living things cannot grow, reproduce, or exhibit any of the characteristics

of life without a ready supply of energy. Energy, which is the capacity to do work
occurs in many forms as light energy, electrical energy, heat energy, etc. Most of
the actions of an organism involve a complex series of energy transformations.
For example potential energy derived from the chemical energy of food
molecules is converted to kinetic energy in the muscles at work. The total energy
of the universe does not change. An organism is an open system, it can exchange
matter with its surroundings. All metabolic reactions involve energy
transformations. So the quantitative study of energy relationships in biological
system is called bioenergetics. Biological energy transformations obey the laws
of thermodynamics.
96 BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 4, BIOENERGETICS
4.1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy to chemical energy.
Photosynthesis comes from two Latin words photo means light and synthesis
means to put together, or building up. Through photosynthesis plants and
algae produce food for themselves and for all other living things. The sun is
the ultimate source of almost all the energy that powers life. Plants and other
photosynthetic organisms capture a tiny portion of the suns energy, and in the
process of photosynthesis convert it into chemical energy of organic molecule
i.e. sugar. When photosynthesis occurs, oxygen is released and carbon dioxide
is absorbed. All the life forms exist and maintained on this planet the Earth by
the process of photosynthesis. Light, photosynthetic pigments, carbon dioxide
and water play important role in the process of photosynthesis. The overall
reaction of photosynthesis can be summarized as follows:
4.1.1 ROLE OF LIGHT

Sun is the only source of
energy on Earth. Sunlight is a form
of energy known as electromagnetic
energy also called radiation.
Electromagnetic energy travels as
waves. The array of electromagnetic
waves coming from the sun varies in Fig: 4.1 Photons
length. These wave lengths are
measured from the crest of one wave to the crest of the next and are measured
in nanometers. The full range of electromagnetic radiation in the universe is
called electromagnetic spectrum. Visible light is only a small part of the
spectrum. It is called visible light because it is the part of the spectrum that
the eye can see. Visible light can be resolved into six spectral regions: violet
(390-430 nm), blue (430-470 nm), green (470-560 nm), yellow (560-590 nm),
orange (590-620 nm), red (620-780 nm). Although electromagnetic energy
travels as waves, it also behaves like individual particles discrete packets of
energy called photons.
Shorter wavelength radiation has photons of a high-energy content
than long wave length radiation. Photons of visible light have just the right
amount of energy to promote electrons to a higher electron shell in atoms.
Only about 42% of solar radiation passes through the Earths atmosphere and
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BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 4, BIOENERGETICS 97
reaches its surface. Not all the visible

light falling on the leaves is absorbed.
Only one percent is absorbed and the
rest of the light is reflected or
transmitted. During photosysthesis
plants make sugar using carbon dioxide
and hydrogen from water. This requires
energy. This energy (ATP and NADPH)
and hydrogen are supplied by the
reactions, which take place in light. ATP
is made when energy is used to bind
another phosphate to ADP, a process called
phosphorylation.
energy is supplied by light, and the
process is therefore called
photophosphorylation. NADPH is
made from NADP in a process called Fig: 4.2 The Interaction of Light with
Chloroplast
reduction. The hydrogen comes from
water. This also required energy
(photolysis), which is provided by light. When light shines on leaf, high-
Fig: 4.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum
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energy electrons are released by the chlorophyll molecules. It is the energy

from these electrons that is used in making of ATP and NADPH.
4.1.2 ROLE OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENTS
Pigment is any substance that absorbs light energy. All the pigments
that take part in photosynthesis are present in the chloroplasts. The pigments
are carotenoids, chlorophyll and phycobilins.
Carotenoids
Carotenoids are lipid compounds, which are yellow, orange, red or
brown pigments. They absorb light strongly in the blue-violet range. They are
seen in leaves before leaf fall, present in some flowers and fruits e.g. red skin
of tomato is due to carotene. There are two types of carotenoids: carotenes
and xanthophylls.
The most widespread and important carotene is (beta) carotene,
which is familiar as the orange pigment of carrot. Xanthophylls are yellow in
colour and contain oxygen along with carbon and hydrogen (C40H56O2). Lutein
is a widely distributed xanthophylls which is responsible for yellow colour of
foliage in autumn.
The function of carotenoids are: (a) act as accessory pigment as they
transfer light energy to chlorophyll a (b) protect chlorophyll from excess of light
(c) protect chlorophyll from oxidation by oxygen produced in photosynthesis
(d) attract insects, birds and other animals for pollination and dispersal.
Chlorophyll
There are several types of chlorophyll e.g. a,b,c,d,e,f. They differ in
their molecular structure from one another. Chlorophylls absorb mainly
violet, blue, orange and red wavelengths. Green and yellow are least absorbed
and are transmitted or reflected, so plants appear green in colour, unless
masked by other pigments. Chlorophyll a occurs in all photosynthetic
organisms except pigment containing bacteria. Chlorophyll b occurs in all
autotrophic organisms except brown, red and blue green algae. Chlorophyll
c, d are found only in algae and in combination with chlorophyll a.
Chlorophyll e and f are restricted to photosynthetic bacteria and are known as
bacteriochlorophylls. Molecular formula of chlorophyll a and b:
Chlorophyll a = C55 H72 O5 N4Mg
Chlorophyll b = C55 H70 O6 N4Mg
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Science Titbits
Phycobilins are mainly found in blue green algae (cyanobacteria) and red
algae. These are protein linked pigments and get destroyed by heat. These
are water soluble. The red phycobilins are called phycoerythrin, found in
red algae. The blue one is called phycocyanin found in photosynthetic bac
teria. The pigment part is called phycobilins. They are also accessory pig
ments i.e. transfer the absorbed light to chlorophyll.
Basic Knowledge of Chemistry Related to Chlorophyll
Benzene is an aromatic com

pound, C6H6 having alternate
single and double bonds. One
or more carbon atoms in ben
zene can be replaced by a
heteroatom (i.e. other than C
and H) e.g. Pyridine, where a
carbon atom has been re
placed by nitrogen. Pyrrole is
a five sided unsaturated ni
trogen containing compound.
Porphin consists of four pyr
role (tetrapyrrole) like rings
linked by four CH group
(methene bridge CH =) in an
alternating double and single
bonds. Porphyrins are the de Pyrrole Rings In Porphin
rivatives of Porphin. The por
phyrins that are found in nature are compounds in which side chains are
substituted for the eight hydrogen atoms, numbered in the pyrrole rings in
porphin. The porphin structure contains 16 membered ring formed of 12
carbon and four nitrogen atoms contributed by four pyrrole rings. Mg or Fe
may be added to porphin. Mg porphyrin e.g. chlorophyll. Fe porphyrin e.g.
haeme, cytochrome.
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Chemical Structure of Chlorophyll

It consists of four pyrrole
rings having Mg in the centre. The
chlorophyll is a magnesium
porphyrin. There are two side chains
in the chlorophyll molecule.
Acid chain is a methyl (CH3) ester:
Hydrocarbon chain is a long

chain of alcohol phytol i.e. C20H39 (is
an ester linkage with propionic acid.
Phytol consists of four isoprene
units). Phytol is insoluble and serves
to anchor the molecule in the
membrane of the granum.
Science Titbits
Prokaryotes have no chromoplasts.
The photosynthetic prokaryotes
have unstacked photosynthetic
membrane which works like thyla
koid.
Fig 4.4 Structure of Chlorophyll
Role of Photosynthetic Pigments in the Absorption and Conversion of

Light Energy
When a molecule of chlorophyll or other photosynthetic pigment
absorbs light it is said to become excited. The energy from the light is used to
boost electrons to a higher energy level. The energy of the light is now
trapped in the chlorophyll and has been transferred to chemical energy. This
excited state is unstable and the moelcule will tend to return to its unexcited
state.
During photosynthesis energy is released. In the living plant the
energy that is released can be passed to another chlorophyll molecule.
Alternatively, the excited electron itself may pass from the chlorophyll
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molecule to another molecule called an electron acceptor. As electrons have

a negative charge, this will leave a positively charged hole in the
chlorophyll molecule.
Loss of electrons is known as oxidation and gaining electrons is

reduction. Chlorophyll is therefore oxidized and the electron acceptor is
reduced. Chlorophyll replaces its electrons by removing low energy electrons
from another molecule described as an electron donor. The wavelengths of
light appear in different colours when passed through a prism .You must have
seen a rainbow. It shows the colours of visible light. Spectrophotometer (fig.
1.4) is an instrument, which is used to measure relative abilities of different
pigments to absorb different wavelength of light.
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Different pigments absorb different wavelengths of light and these

wavelengths are not absorbed at the same rate. A curve obtained by plotting
the amount of absorption of different wavelengths of light by a particular
Fig: 4.5 Absorption Spectrum

pigment is called absorption spectrum of that pigment. The main

photoreceptors are chlorophyll a and b and both absorb blue violet (430nm)
and orange-red (670 nm), region of the visible spectrum. Chlorophyll a shows
two minor peaks at about 680 and 700 nm. The peak is more for chlorophyll b
near 450 475nm.
Q. How does the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a differ from that of
chlorophyll b?
Action Spectrum
It is a graph showing the
measure of effectiveness of light
of various wavelengths in
photosynthesis. How to obtain an
action spectrum? First the plant is
illuminated with light of different
wavelength. Because photo-
synthesis gives off oxygen, we use
the production rate of oxygen as a
means to measure the rate of
photosynthesis at each wavelength
of light or consumption relation of
carbon dioxide can also be used. Fig: 4.6 Action Spectrum
The first action spectrum was

obtained by German biologist T.W.
Engelmann in 1883. He passed light
through a prism. This light illuminated a
filament of Spirogyra. Aerobic bacteria
moved toward the blue and red portion of
the spectrum, as the cells of this region
produced most of the oxygen.
Arrangement of Photosynthetic Pigments in the form of Photosystems

Photosynthetic pigments are organized into clusters, called
photosystems. Each photosystem has a pigment complex composed of
chlorophyll a and b molecules and accessory pigments such as carotenoid
pigment. The closely packed pigment molecules in the photosystem serve as
an antenna for gathering solar energy. Solar energy is passed from one
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Fig: 4.7 Light Harvesting Photosystem
pigment to the other until it is concentrated into one of two particular

chlorophyll a molecules the reaction centre chlorophylls. Electrons in
the reaction centre chlorophyll molecules, become so excited that they escape
and move to a nearby primary electron acceptor molecule. Reaction centre
has one or more molecules of chlorophyll, primary electron acceptor, and
associated electron carriers of electron transport system. Electron transport
system plays a role in generation of ATP by chemiosmosis. Light energy
absorbed by the pigment molecules of antenna complex is transferred
ultimately to the reaction centre. There, the light energy is converted into
chemical energy. The light dependent reactions that occur in the thylakoid
membranes require the participation of two light gathering units called
photosystem I (PSI) and photosystem II (PSII).
The photosystems are named for the order in which they were
discovered and not for the order in which they occur in the thylakoid
membrane. Both the systems contain an antenna complex or light
harvesting complex. The light harvesting complex contains 200 to 300
pigment molecules and collect light energy as shown in fig. 4.7.
Different pigments collect light of different wavelengths, making the
photosystem more efficient. All the energy is transferred from molecule to
molecule and finally to reaction centre of a specialized form of chlorophyll
a known as P700 in PSI and P680 in PSII. P stands for pigment, their
absorption peaks are at wavelengths of 700nm and 680nm respectively. Both
the wavelengths are of red light.
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4.1.3 ROLE OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Organisms that have an inorganic source of carbon namely carbon
dioxide are called autotrophic organisms (autos, self). Air contains about 0.03
to 0.04 percent of carbon dioxide. Land plants use this atmospheric carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis. Dissolved carbon dioxide, bicarbonates, and
soluble carbonates are present in water, which are used by aquatic
photosynthetic organisms as carbon source.
Carbon dioxide from the environment is accepted by the 5C sugar
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). The 6C product is unstable. It breaks into two
3C structure. At the end of the reaction it becomes PGAL
(phosphoglycereldehyde). PGAL is used to reform RuBP so that absorption of
carbon dioxide continues. The PGAL is used to make glucose and other
organic compound. The role of carbon dioxide is that carbon provided by
carbon dioxide becomes part of glucose.
4.1.4 ROLE OF WATER IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
In 1930, Van Niel hypothesized that plants split water as a source of
hydrogen, releasing oxygen as a byproduct. This observation was based on
investigations on photosynthesis in bacteria that make carbohydrates, from
carbon dioxide, but do not release oxygen.
Neil's hypothesis was confirmed in 1940, when for the first time O18 in
biological research was used. In first experiment water was made of O18. The
water tagged O18 was added to an alga suspension. The oxygen, evolved
during photosynthesis, was found to be radioactive. It was separated and
identified. In another experiment carbon dioxide with tagged O18 was added.
The oxygen evolved contained none of the isotopes. Thus the source of
evolved oxygen was proved to be water.
Importance of Water in Photosynthesis

1. Water is one of the raw materials for photosynthesis. Water replaces the
electron lost by the P680 during photolysis. Water broken by light gives
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H+ and the ultimate end of H+ is phosphorylation of ADP to ATP and

NADP to NADPH.
2. Carbon dioxide is absorbed due to film of water over mesophyll.
3. Oxygen is produced by photolysis of water.
4.1.5 MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The study of biochemistry of photosynthesis shows that it is a process
that provides a link between the two worlds, the living and nonliving. The
nonliving world provides water, carbon dioxide and energy from the sunlight.
Photosynthesis is a redox process. It takes place according to the chemical
reaction shown in fig. 4.8.
Fig. 4.8 Redox Process of Photosynthesis
Fig: 4.9 An Overview of Photosynthesis

This is a complex chemical process, completed by a series of simple

steps or reactions. The process of photosynthesis has been divided into two
sets of reactions. The first set of photosynthetic reactions is called light
dependent reactions (light reactions) because they can take place only in the
presence of light. The light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid
membrane where the pigment chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are located.
These pigments absorb violet, blue and red light better than the light of other
colours.
The light dependent reactions are the energy capturing reactions. The
light dependent reactions capture solar energy. The second set of reactions is
called the light independent reactions (dark reactions) because these can
take place whether light is present or not provided NADPH and ATP of the
light reactions are available.
Light Dependent Reactions (Light Reactions)
It occurs in the grana of a chloroplast. ATP production during
photosynthesis is sometimes called photophosphorylation because light is
involved.
Photosystem II: When light strikes the chlorophyll molecules, its
energy causes an electron in the reaction centre chlorophyll P680 to be
boosted. The electron is said to be excited because it possesses greater
energy than the normal one. This excited electron is captured by the primary
electron acceptor of PSII.
Photolysis: The activated P680 is an oxidizing agent so strong that it is
capable of oxidizing an oxygen atom that is part of a water molecule. In a
reaction catalyzed by a unique enzyme water is split by a process called
photolysis (breaking by light) into its components; two electrons, two protons
+
(H ) and oxygen. Each electron is donated to a P680 molecule and protons are
released into the thylakoid interior space. Because oxygen does not exist in
atomic form the oxygen produced by splitting one water molecule is ½ O2.
Two water molecules must be split to yield one molecule of oxygen, which is
released into the atmosphere. The name photolysis is somewhat misleading
because it implies that water is broken by light. Actually, light breaks water
indirectly by activating P680 molecules.
1st Electron Transport Chain (ETC): The absorbed light energy

causes the chlorophyll molecule P680 to give up a pair of electrons. Each of
the photo excited electrons passes from primary electron acceptor of PSII to
PSI via an electron transport chain. This chain consists of (i) an electron
acceptor molecule plastoquinone (PQ) (ii) two cytochromes: cytochrome b
(cyt b) and cytochrome f (cyt f) (iii) a copper containing protein called
plastocyanin (PC).
Production of ATP: As electrons pass through the chain their energy
goes on decreasing and is used by the thylakoid membrane to produce ATP
from phosphate and ADP. This ATP generated by light reactions will provide
chemical energy for the synthesis of sugar during Calvin cycle.
Photosystem I: When P700 molecule absorbs a photon of light,
electrons are boosted to a higher energy level. P700 molecule passes the
electron to a primary acceptor, creating a hole. The hole of P700 is filled by
the pair of electrons received from the P680 (photosystem II) via electron
transport chain of PSII.
2nd Electron Transport Chain: The primary electron acceptor of
photosystem I passes the photoexcited electrons to a second electron transport
chain. The electrons are accepted by ferredoxin (Fd). It is an iron containing
protein. An enzyme called NADP reductase (flavoprotein enzyme) transfers
Fig: 4.10 Z Scheme

the electrons from Fd to NADP. This is a redox reaction. NADP combines

with electrons and hydrogen ions to form NADPH (reduced). The NADPH
will provide reducing power for the synthesis of sugar in the Calvin cycle.
Z Scheme: The path of electron transport through the two systems
during non-cyclic photophosphorylation is known as Z-Scheme due to its
shape. It takes place in the granum of the chloroplast.
Light Independent Reactions (Dark Reactions)
The light independent reactions are the second stage of photosynthesis.
They take their name from the fact that light is not directly required for these
reactions to proceed. These reactions occur when CO2 has entered the leaf and
ATP and NADPH have been produced during the light dependent reactions. In
this stage of photosynthesis, NADPH and ATP are used to reduce carbon
dioxide. CO2 becomes CH2O within a carbohydrate molecule. Electrons and
energy needed for this reduction synthesis are supplied by NADPH and ATP.
The reduction of carbon dioxide occurs in the stroma of a chloroplast by a
series of reactions known as the Calvin cycle.
Calvin Cycle
Carbon fixation has been explored by Melvin Calvin and co-workers
at the University of California. Melvin Calvin, won the Nobel Prize in 1961
for this work. The Calvin cycle can be divided into three phases, carbon
fixation, reduction, regeneration of carbon dioxide acceptor RuBP.
Carbon Fixation: One of the key substance in this process is a five
carbon phosphorylating sugar called ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). It is
capable of combining with carbon dioxide with the help of RuBP carboxylase
(an enzyme) also known as rubisco. Six carbon intermediate molecules are
formed during the incorporation process. It is unstable and exists for such a
short time that, it has not been possible to isolate it. It breaks down to form two
molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate i.e., phosphoglyceric acid (PGA), a
phosphorous containing compound with three carbon atoms. The initial reaction
sequence, in which carbon dioxide combines with organic molecule i.e. RuBP is
called carbon fixation. Because the initial carbon fixation reaction is three
carbons compound that Calvin cycle is also known as C3 pathway.
Reduction: Each molecule of 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA) is converted
to 1, 3-bisphosphoglycerate (PGAP). These are then transferred to
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (PGAL) and in the process a phosphate group is
given off. The reducing agent is NADPH. Water of light reaction is also
formed in the reaction.
The NADP and ADP are available again for the light reaction to
accept hydrogen electrons or high energy bonds. Since combining each
molecule of CO2 with RuBP gives rise to two molecules of PGA. This
sequence of reactions requires two ATP and two NADPH units for each
molecule of CO2 that is incorporated into carbohydrate.
Fig 4.11 Calvin Cycle Fig 4.12 Fate of the Atoms in Photosynthesis
For the CO2 incorporation process to continue, the majority of the

PGAL molecules produced are used to regenerate the supply of RuBP
molecules. The return to original point means that the process is cyclic.
RuBP Regeneration: Starting with three molecules of RuBP, six
molecules of PGAL are formed. Out of these five are ultimately used to
reform a molecule of RuBP i.e. five three-carbon molecules (5 PGAL, C3) are
transformed to three five carbon molecules (RuBP, C5). This process involved
a complex cycle, containing 3,4,5,6 and 7 sugar phosphates. It is here that
remaining ATP is used converting 5C sugar phosphate to RuBP. Nine ATP and
six NADPH coming from the light reactions must be used in dark reactions to
produce a net gain of one PGAL, which can be used to form glucose.
Skills: Analysing, Interpreting and Communication
Draw the molecular structure of chlorophyll, showing the porphyrin

head and phytol tail.
Develop the graphical interpretation of the wavelengths of light along
with the percentage absorption by chlorophyll a and b.
Develop a flow chart for explaining the events of light independent re
actions.
4.2 CELLULAR RESPIRATION

When an atom or molecule loses an electron, it is oxidized and the
process by which it occurs is called oxidation. When an atom or molecule
gains an electron, it is reduced and the process is called reduction.
Energy stored in chemical bonds can be transferred to new bonds, with
electrons shifting from one energy level to another. Oxidation-reduction
reaction plays a key role in energy flow through biological system, because
electrons that pass from one atom to another carry their potential energy
position, i.e. they maintain their distance from the nucleus.
In biological systems electrons do not travel alone from one atom to
another but rather in the company of a proton. A proton and an electron
together make-up a hydrogen atom. Thus oxidation-reduction is a chemical
reaction usually involves the removal of hydrogen atom from one molecule
and the gain of hydrogen atom by another molecule.
Respiration is a series of complex oxidation-reduction reactions by which
living cells obtain energy through the breakdown of organic matter. There are two
kinds of respirations: aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration.
4.2.1 AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence of abundant gaseous
oxygen. The overall reaction may be indicated as follows:
Fig. 4.13 Anaerobic Respiration
It involves many steps. The energy stored in a glucose molecule is

released. The glucose is oxidized. Hydrogen atoms are lost by the glucose and
gained by oxygen to produce water.
Anaerobic respiration takes place in many microorganisms (bacteria,
yeast), muscle cells of vertebrates and in the cells of higher plants. Anaerobic
respiration is incomplete oxidation-reduction reaction. It is also known as
fermentation. It consists of glycolysis followed by the reduction of pyruvate
by NADH to either lactic acid or alcohol and carbon dioxide. NADH is
oxidized to NAD. The pathway operates anaerobically because after NADH
transfers its electron to the pyruvate, it is free to return and pick up more
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Ethyl alcohol and CO2 is produced by anaerobic respiration in the

yeast cells. In bacteria and animal tissue only lactic acid is produced. 1/5th of
lactic acid is oxidized to CO2 and water with the release of energy. While
4/5th is converted to pyruvic acid and water in the presence of oxygen.
Pyruvic acid is used to resynthesize glucose which is stored as glycogen (the
animal starch).
4.2.2 MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION

It takes place in four stages: Glycolysis, Oxidation of Pyruvic Acid,
Krebs Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis (glyco , glucose, lysis , to breakdown) is the breakdown of
glucose to pyruvic acid. It takes place in cytoplasm. It does not need oxygen.
Glycolysis can be divided into two phases, preparatory phase and oxidative
phase.
Preparatory Phase: In this phase breakdown of glucose occurs and
energy is expended. First glucose is converted to glucose 6 phosphate during
which a phosphate group from ATP is transferred to glucose. Glucose 6
phosphate is converted to its isomer fructose 6 phosphate with the help of an
enzyme. Another ATP molecule transfers a second phosphate group forming
fructose 1, 6 bisphosphate. Then enzymatic splitting of fructose 1, 6
bisphosphate into two fragments takes place. Each of these molecules
contains three carbon atoms. One is called 3 phosphoglyceraldehyde
(PGAL) or glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate (G3P) while the other is dihydroxy
acetone phosphate. These two molecules are isomers and in fact, readily
interconverted by yet another enzyme of glycolysis.
Oxidative Phase: Two electrons or two hydrogen atoms are removed
from the molecule of 3 phosphoglyceraldehyde (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate)
(PGAL), which is oxidized and electron/H+ is transferred to a molecule of
NAD which is reduced. Inorganic phosphate is present in the cell. From
which a second phosphate is donated to the molecule forming 1,3
bisphosphaglycerate (PGAP). PGAP is converted to 3 phosphoglycerate (3-
PGA). During which a phosphate bond is transferred from PGAP to ADP
forming ATP. 3 PGA is converted to 2-phosphoglycerate (2PGA). From 2
PGA a molecule of water is removed and phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) is
formed. PEP then gives up its high energy phosphate which converts ADP
to ATP. The product is pyruvate (or pyruvic acid C3H4O3). It is equivalent to
half glucose molecule that has been oxidized to the extent of losing two
electrons as hydrogen atoms.
Oxidation of Pyruvic Acid
The oxidation of pyruvic acid takes place in two stages: Oxidation of
pyruvic acid to form acetyl Coenzyme A and oxidation of the acetyl CoA.
PGAL
PGAP
PGA
PEP
Fig 4.14 Glycolysis
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Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A

A carbon atom is split off, and is removed as carbon dioxide. Pair of
electrons and their associated hydrogen is released which reduce NAD to
NADH. A 2C fragment acetyl is produced. The 2C fragment is added to a
cofactor, a carrier molecule called Coenzyme A (CoA), forming a compound
called Acetyl CoA.
Acetyle Coenzyme A
Pyruvic acid
Oxidation of Acetyl Coenzyme A

It begins with the binding of Acetyl CoA to 4C compound. The
resulting 6C then passes through a series of electron yielding oxidation
reactions. Two CO2 molecules are split off regenerating the 4C compound
which is free to bind another acetyl group. The process is a continuous cyclic
flow of carbon. In each turn of the cycle a new acetyl group comes into
replace the two CO2 molecules, that are lost and more electrons are extracted.
This cycle is called Citric acid cycle or Krebs cycle. It was discovered by
British scientist Sir Hans Kreb.
A complex oxidation-reduction involves NAD or NADP. NAD and

NADP act as intermediate in cellular reactions involving electron transfer.
Many of the electrons removed from reduced carbon compounds in various
enzyme-catalyzed reactions are transferred to NAD to produce NADH.
When a molecule of NAD or NADP gains electrons and becomes re
duced, a hydrogen ion combines with it as well. Thus the reduced form is
symbolized as NADH or NADPH. In actuality, another hydrogen ion be
comes closely associated with each reduced molecule. Technically it is
+
more accurate to represent the reduced form as NADH + H or NADPH +
+
H . For convenience the simpler form NADH or NADH2 or NADPH or
NADPH2 is generally used.
Krebs Cycle
The cycle, which oxidizes acetyl CoA, consists of nine reactions. It
begins and ends with an oxaloacetate. At every turn of the cycle, an acetyl
CoA enters and is oxidized to CO2 and H2O. The extracted electrons are
temporarily housed within NADH molecules. In one reaction a different
coenzyme called reduced Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FADH2) is used to
carry the electrons.
Steps of Krebs Cycle
1. The first step is the combination of acetyl CoA with oxaloacetate (4C)
forming citrate (6C) or Citric Acid.
2. Citrate is converted to Isocitrate (6C).
1
8 2
3
7
4
6
5
Figure: 4.15 Krebs Cycle

3. Isocitrate is oxidized by NAD to (alpha) Ketoglutarate (5C). NAD is

converted to NADH and CO2 is released.
4. Oxidation of Ketoglutarate by NAD forms Succinyl CoA (4C), NADH
is produced and CO2 is released. The coenzyme NADH carries electrons to
the electron transport system.
5. Succinyl CoA is oxidized to Succinate (4C). GTP (Guanine triphosphate)
is formed. GTP reacts with ADP to form ATP.
6. Succinate is oxidized to Fumarate (4C). FAD (Flavin Adenine
Dinucleotide) is converted to FADH2.This coenzyeme also carries
electrons to the electron transport system.
7. Fumarate combines with water to form Malate (4C).
8. Malate is oxidized by NAD to oxaloacetate which is the starting material
of Krebs cycle and NADH is formed. This coenzyme NADH also carries
electrons to the electron transport system.
Electron Transport Chain
Electrons from reduced coenzymes are passed to oxygen through
series of electron carriers. It is called electron transport chain or system.
Whenever hydrogen is removed from a substrate there are seven intermediate
hydrogen acceptors to catch the atom. They are NAD, FAD, Ubiquinone also
called coenzyme Q and four cytochromes i.e. b, c, a and a3.
The electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed to coenzyme Q. At this
step an electron is split off the hydrogen atom. The proton which is released is
free while the electron is passed successively from coenzyme Q to cyt. b, c, a and
a 3.
The steps in the hydrogen-electrons transfer can be summarized as
follows:
1. The substance in the chain event is alternately oxidized and reduced.
Oxidation is accomplished by the loss of hydrogen in the case of NAD,
FAD and the coenzyme oxidation is accomplished by the loss of electrons
in case of cytochrome b, c, a and a3.
2. Since two H atoms are released at a time and cytochrome b through a3 can
accept only one electron at a time, so there is two cytochrome system to
capture the electrons.
3. An electron and a proton are brought together after the final transfer from
BIOLOGY XI: 117
cyt a3. It produces hydrogen.

4. Molecular O2 is the hydrogen
acceptor, and water is the final
product. Four of the electrons are
used to reduce a molecule of O2
gas and form water.
5. Energy is released at three

places, NAD-CoQ, Cyt. b-c, a-
a3. The released energy is
captured by ADP to form ATP,
by chemiosmosis.
b
6. Electron transport chain is the
main producer of ATP. For
every pair of electrons that
enters by way of NADH, three
ATP results. For every pair of
electrons that enters by way of c
FADH2, 2 ATP results.
Oxidative phosphorylation
is the synthesis of ATP in presence
of oxygen as a result of energy
released by the electron transport
system.
Science Titbits
Ubiquinone is not a pro
tein, but a small molecule solu
ble in lipids and insoluble in
water Cytochromes literally
means cell colour. The re
duced cytochromes are pink in
colour. They are protein plus
pigment molecules containing
iron. They can gain or lose an
electron. Fig. 4.16 Electron Transport System
4.2.3 SYNTHESIS OF ATP, CHEMIOSMOSIS AND

SUBSTRATE LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION
Virtually every cell in every organism relies on energy from ATP
molecules. Cells generate ATP by phosphorylation. A cell has two ways to do
this: chemiosmosis and substrate level phosphorylation.
Chemiosmosis
The flow of electron in electron transport is usually tightly coupled to
the production of ATP and does not occur unless the phosphorylation of ADP
can also proceed. For a long time just how ATP synthesis is related to electron
transport remained a mystery. In 1961 Peter Mitchell, a British biochemist
proposed the chemiosmotic model.
Because the respiratory electron transport chain is located in the
plasma membrane of anaerobic bacterial cell, the bacterial plasma membrane
can be considered comparable to the inner mitochondrial membrane. Mitchell
was able to show that if bacterial cell were placed in an acidic environment
(i.e. an environment with high hydrogen ion, or proton, concentration), the
cell would synthesize ATP even if no electron transport were taking place. On
the basis of these and other experiments Mitchell proposed that electron
transport and ATP synthesis are coupled by means of a proton gradient across
the inner mitochondrial membrane in eukaryotes (or across the plasma
membrane in bacteria). Chemiosmosis is the production of ATP due to
hydrogen ion gradient across a membrane; according to chemiosmotic model
(fig. 4.17) the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial model
+
includes the proton pums. Protons are actually hydrogen ions (H ).
The electron transport system consists of three protein complexes and
two mobile carriers. The complexes are NADH dehydrogenase complex,
cytochrome b-c complex and cytochrome oxidase complex. The two mobile
carriers transport electrons between the complexes. As redox occurs the
protein complexes use energy released from the electrons to actively transport
+
H ions from matrix into the intermembrane space of the mitochondrion. This
established a strong electrochemical gradient; there are about ten times as
many hydrogen ions in the intermembrane space than there are in the matrix.
+
The result is H gradient in the intermembrane space. This is a form of
potential energy. In accordance with the general principle of diffusion the
highly concentrated protons are expected to diffuse out. However they are
prevented from doing so because the inner mitochondrial membrane is
impermeable to H+ except through certain channels formed by an enzyme
called ATP synthase. The cristae contain ATP synthase.
Fig. 4.17 The electron transport system is located in the cristae. As electrons move from one
complex to the other, hydrogen ions (H+) are pumped from the matrix into the intermembrane
space. As hydrogen ions flow down their concentration gradient from the intermembrane space
into the matrix, ATP is synthesized by the enzyme ATP synthase, which is a part of the ATP
synthase complex. ATP leaves the matrix by way of a channel protein.
The potential energy of the H+ gradient is the source of energy needed

to synthesize ATP. ATP synthase also contains the enzyme that catalyses the
phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP. As the H+ ion move through the ATP
synthase, driven inward by diffusion, their passage induces the formation of
ATP. Thus by chemiosmosis, a cell couples the exergonic reactions by
electron transport to the endergonic synthesis of ATP. Once formed ATP

molecules diffuses out of the mitrochondrial matrix by the way of channel
protein.
Because the chemical formation of ATP is driven by a diffusion force
similar to osmosis, so this process is called chemiosmosis. Peter Mitchell,
received a Nobel Prize in 1978 for his chemiosmosis theory of ATP
production in mitochondria and chloroplast.
Substrate Level Phosphorylation
The addition of inorganic phosphate to any organic molecule is called
phosphorylation. When phosphate is enzymatically transferred from an organic
substrate molecule it is called substrate level phosphoralytion. (Gk. phos, light
and phoreus, carrier). The substrate is one of several substances produced as
cellular respiration converts glucose to carbon dioxide. The reaction occurs
because the bond holding the phosphate molecule in the substrate molecule is less
stable than the new bond holding it in ATP. The reaction products are a new
organic molecule and a molecule of ATP. Substrate level phosphorylation
accounts for only a small percentage of the ATP that a cell generate. The coupled
reactions link exergonic with endergonic reactions (fig.4.18b).
Cells control energy flow by coupling reactions, so that energy
released by exergonic reactions is used to drive endergonic reactions. Most
energy in living cells involve pairs of coupled reactions linked by ATP. In the
first coupled reaction, energy released by an exergonic reaction drives ATP
synthesis, in the second, ATP hydrolysis drives an energy requiring reaction.
Coupled reactions catalyzed by enzymes provide the energy and the
specificity necessary to construct the different types of molecules needed by
the cell (fig.4.18b).
Importance of PGAL
Glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate is an important step of glycolysis. Its

oxidation produces 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (PGAP) and 2NADH molecules,
which leads to the formation of pyruvate. In the Krebs cycle of
photosynthesis, one PGAL molecule is converted to glucose phosphate within
the chloroplast. Glucose phosphate is then converted to starch. Fixed carbons
leave the chloroplast in the form of dihydroxyacetone phosphate. It is formed
from PGAL. In cytoplasm the chloroplast, dihydroxyacetone phosphate can
be used to make the six-carbon sugars, glucose and fructose, which are then
joined to form sucrose. It is transported to other parts of the plants.
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig:4.18 (a)Substrate level Phosphorylation. (b) Because ATP is responsible for coupling
many endergonic and exergonic reactions it is an important link between anabolism and
catabolism in living cells. (c) ATP Production
Amino acid
Fig: 4.19 The Matabolic Pool Concept: When they are used as energy sources carbohydrates,
fats and proteins enter degradative pathways at specific points. Degradation produces
metabolites that can be used for synthesis of other compounds.
Skills: Analyzing, Interpreting and Communication
Draw the flow charts showing the events of glycolysis and Krebs cycle.
Illustrate the net energy output during glycolysis, oxidation of pyruvate
and Krebs cycle.
Respiration of Fats and Proteins
Fats: We already know that glucose is broken down during aerobic

cellular respiration. However, other molecules can also undergo catabolism.
When a fat is used as an energy source, it breaks down to glycerol and three fatty
acids. As figure 4.19 indicates, glycerol is converted to PGAL, a metabolite in
glycolysis. The fatty acids are converted to acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs
cycle. An 18-carbon fatty acid results in nine acetyl-CoA molecules. In the human
body, oxidation of these acetyl-CoA molecules can produce a total of 109 ATP
molecules. For this reason, fats are an efficient form of stored energythere are,
after all, three long fatty acid chains per fat molecule. When they are used as
energy sources, carbohydrates, fats and proteins enter degradative pathways at
specific points. Degradation produces metabolites that can also be used for
synthesis of other compounds.
Proteins: The carbon skeleton of amino acids can also be broken

down. The hydrolysis of proteins results in amino acids whose R-group size
determines whether the carbon chain is oxidized in glycolysis or the Krebs
cycle. The carbon chain is produced in the liver when an amino acid
undergoes deamination, i.e. the removal of the amino group. The amino group
becomes ammonia (NH3), which enters the urea cycle and becomes part of
urea, the primary excretory product of humans. Just where the carbon
skeleton begins degradation is dependent on the length of the R group, since
this determines the number of carbon left after deamination.
4.3 PHOTORESPIRATION
Decker (1959) observed that rate of respiration in the leaves of the
green plants was much more in light than that in the dark. Thus respiration
that occurs in green cells in the presence of light resulting in excess of carbon
dioxide is termed as photorespiration. It needs oxygen and produce CO2 and
H2O like aerobic respiration. However ATP is not produced during
photorespiration.
Rubisco
Photorespiration is related to the functioning of the enzyme ribulose
bisphosphate carboxylase. It is often called rubisco because it can have an
oxygenase activity in addition to carboxylase activity. When more oxygen is
present it acts as oxygenase and photorespiration starts. If carbon dioxide is
more it acts as carboxylase and adds CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate to start the
Calvin cycle.
RuBP Reacts with Oxygen

When rubisco acts as oxygenase it adds oxygen to ribulose 1,5
bisphosphate (RuBP). When RuBP reacts with oxygen, the reaction does not
produce two molecules of phosphoglycerate but one molecule of
phosphoglycerate and one molecule of phosphoglycolate. Phosphoglycolate loses
its phosphate group to become glycolate. These reactions take place within the
chlorplast.
In peroxisomes glycolate is converted to glycine. Glycine is the simplest
amino acid. Soon after its formation glycine diffuses into mitochondria. In
mitochondria two glycine molecules
are converted into serine and a
molecule of carbon dioxide is
formed. The pathway in which
RuBP is converted into serine is
called photorespiration. This
pathway is named photorespiration
because in the presence of sunlight
(photo) oxygen is taken up and CO2
is produced. The process of
photorespiration uses ATP and
NADPH produced in the light
reaction just like Calvin cycle.
Photorespiration is reverse to Calvin
cycle.
Disadvantage of Photorespiration
1. It reduces the photosynthetic process. In most plants, photorespiration
reduces the amount of carbon fixed into carbohydrate by 25 percent.
2. Photorespiration is not essential for plant.
Why Photorespiration Exists?
The answer is that the active site of rubisco is evolved to bind both
CO2 and O2 together. Originally it was not a problem as there was little
oxygen in the atmosphere and the CO2 binding activity was the only one used.
When the quantity of oxygen became more, the photorespiration started.
Effect of Temperature on the Oxidative Activity of Rubisco
A characteristic of RuBP carboxylase is that with increase in
temperature and oxygen concentration, its affinity for carbon dioxide
Glycolate Glycolate Glyoxalate
Fig: 4.20 Schematic representation of pathway involved in photorespiration in chloroplast,

peroxisomes and mitochondria
Science, Technology and Society Connections

Analyze the impact of photorespiration on the agriculture yield in the tropic
climates.
Photorespiration decreases net photosynthesis because a portion of CO2

fixed in photosynthesis escapes from the leave after it is fixed. Under cer
tain conditions, up to 5% of the photosynthetic potential is lost in photores
piratory metabolism. Thus photorespiration reduces dry mater production
and agricultural yield in tropical climate.
decreases and for oxygen increases. Thus with the increase in temperature
more photosynthetically fixed carbon is lost by photorespiration.
An Outline of C4 Photosynthesis
Some plants use the enzyme pep-carboxylase instead of RuBP to fix
CO2 to PEP (phosphoenolpyruvate- a C3 molecule), and the result is oxylate,
a C4 molecule. It takes place in cytoplasm of mesophyll cells.
In temperate regions C3 crops such as wheat, potato, tobacco, sugar

beat and soya bean grow more efficiently than C4 crops. The examples of C4
monocot plants are maize, sugar cane, sorghum and dicot plants are
oxaloacetate
Fig. 4.21 In C4 plants with Kranz anatomy, CO2 is initialiy fixed in mesophyll cells by the
enzyme PEP-carboxylase, 4-carbon compound, malic acid, transfers CO2 to bundle sheath
cells where it is further transferred to the Calvin cycle. Bundle sheath cells transfer the
sugar they make to phloem tube transported through the body.
Amaranthus, Atriplex, paddy etc. grow better in tropical climate. As the first
product of CO2 fixation is a 4-carbon compound oxaloacetate, so that plants
are called C4 plants.Oxaloacetate is then transported to the chloroplasts of
mesophyll cells. It is then converted to another 4-C compound, the malic acid
(malate), with the help of NADH, produced in the photochemical phase. This
reaction is catalysed by malic dehydrogenase.
The malic acid is then transported to the chloroplasts of bundle sheath
cells. Here malic acid (C4) is converted to pyruvic acid (C3) pyruvate with the
release of CO2. Thus concentration of CO2 increases in the bundle sheath
cells. These cells contain enzymes of Calvin cycle. Because of high
concentration of CO2, RuBP carboxylase participates in Calvin cycle and not
in photorespiration. Sugar formed in Calvin cycle is transported into the
phloem. Pyruvic acid generated in the bundle sheath cells re-enters mesophyll
cells and regenerates phosphoenol pyruvic acid (PEP) by consuming one ATP.
Skills: Analyzing, Interpreting and Communication
Justify why photorespiration is interference in the successful perfor

mance of the Calvin cycle.
SECTION I : MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
Select the correct answer

1. Removal of the source of carbon dioxide from photosynthesizing
chloroplasts results in rapid changes in the concentration of certain
chemicals. Which one of the following represents the correct combination
of concentration changes?
2. What are the products of the light reactions in photosynthesis?

A) ATP and NADP
B) ATP, NADPH2 and oxygen
C) ATP, PGA (phosphoglyceric acid) and NADH2
D) ATP, PGA and oxygen
Which of the following identifies the four graphs?
3. During the light stage of photosynthesis, the photoactivated pigment
removes an electron from the hydroxylation derived from the water
molecule. The fate of the free hydroxyl radical is that it
A) is broken down into oxygen and a free radical of hydrogen
B) is used to raise the activation level of chlorophyll by donating a
positive charge
C) is used to produce adenosine triphosphate from adenosine

diphosphate
D) reduces carbon dioxide to sugar
4. Carbon dioxide labeled with 14C has been used to identify the
intermediate compounds in the Calvin cycle, the light-independent stage
in photosynthesis. Which compound would be the first to contain the 14C?
A) glucose B) PGA
C) RuBP D) starch
5. The rate of photosynthesis of a freshwater plant is measured using five
spectral colours. Which sequence of colours would give an increasing
photosynthetic response?
6. During dark reactions the three carbon atoms of 3-PGA are derived from
A) RuBP only B) CO2 only
C) RuBP + CO2 D) RuBP + CO2 + PEP
7. Chlorophyll is soluble in
A) water B) organic solvent
C) water and organic solvent D) not in any solvent
8. Photorespiration takes place only in
A) root B) mitochondria
C) green parts of the plant D) all cells of the plant
9. In C4 plants, fixation of CO2 occurs in
A) palisade tissue B) cortex of stem
C) spongy mesophyll and bundle of sheath
D) phloem tissue
10. ATP synthesis during light reactions is
A) oxidative B) photolysis
www.learningall.com
C) substrate phosphorylation D) photophosphoryation

11. In C3 plants first stable product of photosynthesis during dark reaction is
A) PGA B) PGAL
C) RuBP D) oxaloacetate
12. The diagram shows the Krebs cycle. At which numbered stages does
decarboxylation take place?
A) 1 and 2 B) 1, 2 and 3
C) 1, 3 and 4 D) 1, 2, 3 and 4
SECTION II : SHORT QUESTIONS

1. Why does someones blue shirt looks blue?
2. In what part of photosynthesis sugar is produced?
3. Compare CO2 fixation in C3 and C4 plants.
4. What will happen if plants are exposed to green lights?
5. Define: (a) Photophosphorylation, (b) substrate phosphorylation,
(c) chemiosmosis.
6. Name two carbon compound formed during photorespiration.
7. Distinguish between: (a) action spectrum and absorption spectrum,
(b) photosystem I and II (c) photophospshorylation and oxidative
phosphorylation (d) chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b.
8. Name the four main steps of oxidation of cellular respiration.
9. The cellular cycle of ATP-ADP + Pi + energy = ATP is occurring

continuously in all of our cells. Why is the input of food energy needed to
run this cycle?
10. The roots of plants are not expose to sunlight they are under the ground.
How do they manufacture ATP?
SECTION III : EXTENSIVE QUESTIONS

1. Describe the role of light in photosynthesis.
2. Explain the role of photosynthetic pigments.
3. Explain the role of carbon dioxide and water in photosynthesis.
4. Describe glycolysis.
5. Describe Krebs cycle.
6. Explain electron transport chain.
7. Give an account of photorespiration.
8. Write a note on C4 photosynthesis.
9. Describe the mechanism of photosynthesis.
10. ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. Explain what this means?
ANSWER MCQS
1. C 2. B 3. A 4. B 5. B 6. C 7. C 8. C 9. C 10. C
11. A 12. B
SUPPLEMENTARY READING MATERIAL
3. Madar, S.S. Biology, 6ht edition, WCB, McGraw-Hill, USA, 1998.

4. Taylor, D.J., Green, N.P.O. and Stout, G.W. Biological science 3rd Ed.
Cambridge university press, reprint, 2004.
USEFUL WEBSITES
1. www.trueorigin.org/atp.asp
2. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/77/4/1783
www.learningall.com

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Major Concepts: Number of allotted

Living things cannot grow, reproduce, or exhibit any of the characteristics

4.1.1 ROLE OF LIGHT

BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 4, BIOENERGETICS 97

reaches its surface. Not all the visible

Fig: 4.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum

energy electrons are released by the chlorophyll molecules. It is the energy

Basic Knowledge of Chemistry Related to Chlorophyll

Benzene is an aromatic com­

Chemical Structure of Chlorophyll

Hydrocarbon chain is a long

Role of Photosynthetic Pigments in the Absorption and Conversion of

molecule to another molecule called an electron acceptor. As electrons have

Loss of electrons is known as oxidation and gaining electrons is

Different pigments absorb different wavelengths of light and these

Fig: 4.5 Absorption Spectrum

pigment is called absorption spectrum of that pigment. The main

The first action spectrum was

Arrangement of Photosynthetic Pigments in the form of Photosystems

BIOLOGY XI: Chapter 4, BIOENERGETICS 103

Fig: 4.7 Light Harvesting Photosystem

pigment to the other until it is concentrated into one of two particular

4.1.3 ROLE OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Importance of Water in Photosynthesis

H+ and the ultimate end of H+ is phosphorylation of ADP to ATP and

Fig. 4.8 Redox Process of Photosynthesis

Fig: 4.9 An Overview of Photosynthesis

This is a complex chemical process, completed by a series of simple

1st Electron Transport Chain (ETC): The absorbed light energy

Fig: 4.10 Z Scheme

the electrons from Fd to NADP. This is a redox reaction. NADP combines

For the CO2 incorporation process to continue, the majority of the

Skills: Analysing, Interpreting and Communication

Draw the molecular structure of chlorophyll, showing the porphyrin

4.2 CELLULAR RESPIRATION

4.2.1 AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION

Fig. 4.13 Anaerobic Respiration

It involves many steps. The energy stored in a glucose molecule is

Ethyl alcohol and CO2 is produced by anaerobic respiration in the

4.2.2 MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION

Fig 4.14 Glycolysis

Formation of Acetyl Coenzyme A

Oxidation of Acetyl Coenzyme A

A complex oxidation-reduction involves NAD or NADP. NAD and

Figure: 4.15 Krebs Cycle

3. Isocitrate is oxidized by NAD to (alpha) Ketoglutarate (5C). NAD is

cyt a3. It produces hydrogen.

5. Energy is released at three

4.2.3 SYNTHESIS OF ATP, CHEMIOSMOSIS AND

The potential energy of the H+ gradient is the source of energy needed

electron transport to the endergonic synthesis of ATP. Once formed ATP

Glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate is an important step of glycolysis. Its

Skills: Analyzing, Interpreting and Communication

Respiration of Fats and Proteins

Fats: We already know that glucose is broken down during aerobic

Proteins: The carbon skeleton of amino acids can also be broken

RuBP Reacts with Oxygen

Glycolate Glycolate Glyoxalate

Fig: 4.20 Schematic representation of pathway involved in photorespiration in chloroplast,

Science, Technology and Society Connections

Photorespiration decreases net photosynthesis because a portion of CO2

Benzene is an aromatic com

Justify why photorespiration is interference in the successful perfor