Ort Mass, E,lel'!IY, (t'll(l Ra(liatio11.

679
stlggested, bllt the balallce of illterllal evidellce ill the paper
points to fal1lty pUlllping as the callse. III fillillg 11l111pS 011 a
Toepler pUlllp, I al,vaJTs leave tIle lalll}) e\'aC11ated at tIle
pUlllp ill COllll8Xioll "Titll a large P 205 tI1be for at least
24 llours before rll1111ing ill tIle metal ill order to be sure (Jf
the rell1o,"al of ,vatel· Va!lOur. I also 11sllally cast tIle cadllliulll
illto sticks by su<~tiO)l into a heated gla.ss tIlbe fitted \,-itl1 a
tap ill order to be Sllre of tIle llbsellce of blo\v-Iloles. The
process of filtratioll, if proper])'" carriecl Ollt, is quite sufficielJt
to free tIle llloltell Illatal frolD solid extrnlleons Illattel' SllCh
as oxide, nl1d I ShOllld certailll)'" l1a,"e COllsidered tIle operatiol1
fal11tily llel·forllled if I IIQd evel- lloticed traces of oxide ill
the lalnp SllCh as lVIr. Bates l-eports lIe occasiollallv obger,res.
The peeling off of "thin sections of the quartz· frOln the
\valls," l-eported by Mr. Bl1tes, cert.ailll)T llOillts to tIle for-
mation of a cRcl111illl11-glass clue to oxide as tile result of ,,"ater
,,\r8pour, and 110t to tIle actiO)l of adlleril1g Illatal.
I RIll, Gel1tlelllel1,
The Sil- J Ohll Cass Tecl1nicnl Y Ollrs fllitllflllly,
Institute, London. HENRY J. S. SAND.
Mal'ch 20tJl, 1920.

LXX.....1£((88, ]~"Jle)I[lY, (tlltl Ifcllliatiolz .

.B..IJ J. J. TEIOl\180Y, ()•.i.l1., P.llIS.-
HE ol)ject of tllis pappr is to ellden,·ollr to
T RllPpl)" n
Inetllod of re!>reselltillg ill terllls of l)llJ~sical cOJlceI,tiollS
tIle processes occl1rring ill pllJrsiclll }lllellOllleJlfl. It is all
atteulpt to 1lell) tllose 'V]10 lilie to 8uppleJllellt a l)urel.y
allalytical treatlllellt of IJll)·sicul l)roblellls b)T 0116 wbicll
ellables thelll to ,"iSlllllize 11}IJysiclll llrocesses IlS tIle ,,·or]iillg
of a model; who like in ~hort to reason by means of i.mages
as well as L}9 SYIIlLols.
The ideas on which the method is based were snggest.eJ
by tIle COllsidel-atioll, frolll the electriclll l)oillt of Vie\\7, of
tIle origill of tIle lllLLSS of all elect-rOll. Frolll this }JOillt of
vie'v tllis JllaSS is distrilJlttOtl tllrollgllol1t tIle regioll Sllr-
rOl1ndill~ tIle electroll, allll for UIl electrol1 tit r~st tIle IllaSS
per unit Volullle at allY l)oillt ill tllis regioll is l)ro11ortiollal
to tIle square of tIle electric force at tlie }JOillt. TIle electro-
static potential allergy l)cr 1111it VOlll111e llt t.Ilis POillt is 11180
proportional to the S(juare of tlle elect.ric force llllU is tllllS
proportional to the 1111lSS. III £[lct (see 'Electricity and
Matter,' J. J. TIIOlllS011, Ohap. 2) tIle electrostlttic IJotelltiul
• Comnlunicated by tIle AutllOl'.
680 Sir J. ,J. TIlOlllSOll OIl

l'llergy i:-; eq lllll to tIle kilIetic ('llPrgy "1' llicll tIle 11111S8 "'OllId
I)O~SP~~ i f it IllO\~e~l ,vi,II tIle '·lilol~ity of ligllt.
Tllis r~slllt 8llgge.,;ts tll:lt tile IJotelltitll ellel·gy ill I he
electrosttltic fieltl is really tIlo liinetic ellerp;)!" llossessed bl'
tIle lllaS3 ,,·llicll is distribllt·ell tllrollgllout tIle fielll, tIle 1111lS!
being regarded ItS llll llggregllte of equal pllrticles each Olle
of \'T}licll Illo,"es \vitll tIle ,relocit.y of ligllt. In a stationary
electric field ,ye II1R}' suppose tllllt these particles revolve
,vitll tllis ,relocitJT rOll1ll1 tIle lilles of electric force, IDucll as
tIls elect.rolls frOll1 allot \,-ire call he )118Cle to re 'fOol \T~J thong11
at a slo\ver slleetl, rOll11d lilIes of' Illngl1etic force.
It seel11S nattlrnl to gelleralize tllis result 011d to suppose
tllat nIl 111ass, tlla·t of atolllS us 'Yell as tllat of electroll~, is
distribllteu tllrougll space \,-itll a de11sity deterlllilled b)' the
electric field at tile place ,vllere tIle Illass is SUIJposeu to exist;
ll11d that ell er g)" of e,·er)~ llilltl, ltilletic, IJotelltiul, tIlerlll~l ..
cIlelllical or rl\dillllt, is of Olle alltl tile SRllle t)~lle, beillg the
)<illetic ellerg}· llossessed bJ9" tIle pal-ticles \,·llicll are supposed
to cOIlstitute 111q,SS, tlle~e it is IlSsll111eu ul,vn)"s lllo,·e \vitll tile
velocit.y of ligllt.
On tllis vie,,- tllere is 110 SllCh thillg as tIle t}'(t}Z~fO""11ation
of ellel'g)", if by tllnt ,,-e lllellll (t llisCOlltillllOllS cllallge froll1
80111etllillG; of Olle liillll illtO SOl11etllil1g of :lllotller j ollOllr "ie\¥'
t.lle trllllsforll1atioll of ellerg)~ is Illt'rel)' tIle fIo,," of tIle lllass
l)llrticles frolll Olle place to allotller. Tllus for eXlllllple, 011
tllis \·ic\,~ ,vhall a bodJr gains }<illetic ellergJ'", it is llot llecRllse
llll)!" of its IllfiSS l)articlcs are 1110,·illg fllster; it iR because tIle
lnass of tIle hOllJr l1Rs beell illcreasel1 Rlld the illcrease ill
tIle lllRSS illlplies a proportiollal incrense ill the ellel-~Y.
It ,,·ill ller]lnlls Illuke it clearer if ,,·e foJlo\,~ Ollt ill detail
tllis 11rocess ill a Sl)ecial CllSe-,\~e ,,~ill taI\:e tllat of a nlo,\·illg
electrol1. "~11(:,11 tlll electroll is 11IO,"illg re]ati,re]y to tIle
bodies aroll11u it, tIle lil"les of electric force ,,']JiC}l start frolD
it are 110 lOlIp;er l111iforlllly distrilltlted ill all (lirectiollS,
those rllllllillg ill directiollS at rigllt ul1gles to tIle direction
of IllOtioll of the electroll get lllore cOllcelltratell, aJld those
l-Ul111illg ll:lrullel to tlJis directioll Illore diffllse. TIle total
lltl111ber of lilIes stllrtiJlg fronl tlle electron is 1111altel"ed by
tIle 1110tioll alltl lle11elIlls 0111)" 11})011 tIle cllarge 0]1 tIle electron.
SillCA tIle 1111lSS pe I" l111it ,·olullle at allY place ill tIle l1eigll-
bourllooc! of tIle electroll is proportiol1al to tIle sqllare of the
11lll111Jer of lilIes of force 11ussillg tlll·Ollg11 Ullit area at that
place, tIle 111110Ullt of Illnss })et,,"eell t,vo splleres ",.ith their
celltres llt tIle e]t~cf,rol1 DIll} \vllose rn<.iii differ by l111ity, will
be l1roportional to SN 2
dS, where LIS is nn element of the area
 .i.llass, EIle'1'gll, allllllLtdi(tt·ion. (,81
of sllrface of 011a of tIle sl).lleres, llllt! N tIlo Illllllber of lilles of
fo.'ce I)llSsillg t}lrougll 1111it urea of the spllere. Sillce the
cbarge is given, IN
liS is fixed, and wben this is so, .\N2(lS
,viII be Iel1st \VIlell N is l111iEorlllly distl'ibllted o,:rer S, lllld
for otller cases tIle excess o\'er tIle lnilli 1Ill11ll vu llle \vilI
il1crense ,vitll tIle alllODllt by ,,~llicll tIle lilIes of force lire
COIIC'el1trated ill uefillite directiollS. TIle greater tIle ,~elocity
of tI16 electroll tile greu,ter is tllis cOllcelltratioll lllld tllere-
fOI"e the gl"eater the value of SN
2 tlS, i. e. the greater the

value of tIle lllass ill tlle regioll close to the electroll. 1.'llllS
t.l18 IllO\Till~ electroll 118.S Jll01-e Illass in its illl111ellill.te 11eigh-
bOllrllood t-llal1 all electroll at rest, 1I11U as eaell tl11it of lllilSS
llossesses, sillce tile 111llSS is 1110"illP; ,vitIl tIle ,'elocit), of ligllt,
n defillite RIlIOllllt of ellergy, tIle allergy of' tile 111o,ril1g
electroll will be gren,ter t}lall tllttt of al) electroll lit rest.
Tllis illcrellse ill ellerg)" is \Vllnt is llSl1all}T clllled tIle !{illetic
Ellergy of tIle llloving electroll. It is 11eCCSSar)r to sa)' a few
','ords llbollt tile uefi lliti 011 alIli lllellSllrelllellt of ltilletic
ellergy. "rIlell, 11S ill ordillllr)· (])'11alllic8, tIle }{illetic ellel-gy
of n L)o,ly is defilltlU bJF tIle expressiOll t'J1l,2, it dAl1ellus
esselltiaIly 11POll tile axes ,vitll resllect to ,,'llicll tIle v~locity
i:) 1118J1SOreU, tIle kil1etic el1el'gJ' of tIle 8allle body lllRJT 1)8
illCl·easillg ",hell Illeasureu witl! l'efel-eJ1Ce to Olle set of 11xeH
a 11d clecreasillg \vlIen llleaSl.lred witll l-eferellce to 811otller.
Tile cllaJI.qes, ho\vever, of tIle total I,inetic eller~y ill n self-
COl1tnilled SJ"stelll, i. e. Ulle ,,~11ich is 110t acte(111J)OI1 1))T all.'"
(~xtel'llal forces, will, if llction nlld l-ellctioll llre eClllllllllld
0llposite, be illdepel1dellt of the axes us~d, '''Thllt 111;1)" lIe
cltlled tIle IOclllizatioll of ellerg~", ·i. 6. t.lle llssiglllllt'llt of a
certlLill nll10uIlt of ellerp:)r to ellch Jllellll>er of 11, dYl1alllical
~ystelll, is a l1rolllelll ,,"hieIl, as fltr as rigid tl}'lllllllics goes,
IlRs Ill1 llnlilllitf;lJ 11uIllllel' of SOlllt.ioJ1S j all)~ Oll~ of tllese
sollltions ,,~ill gi\re tlle ~allle cllRllges ill tl18 configllrlltioll of
tIle sy'stelll as (111)' ot.her, so tllat t)le locu.1izl1tion or ellergy
C()llld llot 1)6 uedllCe(1 'T'itlJollt allll)iguity frolll obSel'\'lltiollS
of tlle CCJllfigllratioll of tIle S)~8tel11.
OIl tht\ llletlloU COllsillel-eJ ill tllis IJar»er, tile (~Ilergy
:lssociatecl ,vitll 1lll electroll, fOI- eXILllll)le, COll]l1 JJe (l~terl)li]led
illdel)·el1dellt.ly of lllly tlXes of referellce it' ,,·e Illlfl tIle llo\vel-
of conlltin.~ tIle illlli,~iullul111a~s IJlll,ticl<.'s ill it~ ,·icillit)·. 'Ve
lillO\V, 110\Ve,~er, of ]}O llll.vsiclll I)llel10111P110ll ,,-llicll \viIl
ellable 118 to (10 tllis, 111] tllnt ,,~itll Ollr fJre8ellt. 1'llo,,-le.Jge of
l)}l)"sics ,ye lire able to (1<) is to COIIIJ'l\re tIle 11U III bel'
of 11111SK
Ila,·ticles ill Olle regioll \vitll tllllt in anotller, and tlJis ,viII
Pllil. 111a!J. S. (l. Vol. 3~'. So, 2i34. JLtlte J~)2(). 2 Y
G82 Sir J. J. TllolDson on
111ake tIle lllens1lrelllcIlt of tll8 lllass of all electroll, for
eXallll)!e, de!)Hl1(1 11}1011 the 110sitioll of our 111e:ls1lrillg illstru-
lllents. ,,:e 111l1)T illllstrate tlJis poillt ill tIle follo\ving "PIL)'".
Slll)~)08e ,'·e IIa,'e IL region A ill'" llicl. all the atolllS nne.!
electrol18 "-ere illitinll\~ at rest. rel~lti,·el,~ to e:lcll otller.
Now suppose that und;r electrostutic uttr~ction un electron
gets set ill 1110tioll. FrOlll 011r l)oillt of ",'ie,,' tllis llleallS that
S()llle of tIle 111~lSS }1l1rticlcs "., llicll illitiull)" ,,"elle relllote frolll
tIle t'lectroll lla,·e COllIe 11111C)1 closer to it j tl1is ""ill prodl1ce
nIl illC,lellse ill its 111888, Rllll £1'10)11 tIle e(lllatiolls of electro-
tl'''lllll11ics ,,-e call Cal(~11111te tIle ratio of tIle il1cre~18ed lllUS~
t~ the mass of the electron when it sturted from rest; we can
also, e,pell if e\rerJ?' COIlstitl1ellt atolll or electroJl of tll~
S)~stel)l gets set ill 1110lioll ulldel- t.Ile tllectrostntic Ilttl·actioll
~lllll tIle mas~ of eacll is ill conseql1ellce illCl·ensell, ('nlClllnt~
tIle ratio of the illcrellsed Innss of each COllstitllellt to its
origillal lllaS8.
Suppose, howeYer, that the wbole region A gets set in
lllotion as a l·igid bo(ly b)~ tJle actioll of 811 extel·llnl 8Jr stelll B .;
"rllile tll~ ,,"elocit),. of A is iJ1Creasillg tIle II1RSS Ilarticles ,,-ill
be streal11ill~ illtO it, Ulld ,,'Ilile tIlii is gOillg 011 it is possilJle
ill~lt tIle relnt.i,·e 111n~s(~s of tIle COllstitllellts of A lllay b(A
nffectell_ l311t ",Ilell tIle ,·elocit)· of A has becoll1e !1tead~·
RIll} tllere is 110 1011ger !lIlY illfltlX of 1113S8 })articles illto it-
frol11 tIle olltsiue. tIle ]1articles ,\~llicll 1111,-e COllIe illto it \,·Ililt'
tllis ~tllte ""88 beillg I-ellcIled \, ill tlistl·ibute t]lelllse],~es so
tllflt the 111111lbel· of llew l1art.icles ill all)" l·egion is }lroportifrlJal
to tIle 11tll11ber tIln.t ,"ere preSeJlt bufol·e tIle illflllX. ThtlS
tIle rel,.ti,,'e 111~lsse8 of t,,·o const.itllents of A, S8)" 011 eJectrOI}
Rlld (In atolll, ",.ill be 1111altel'E-ll. TI111S Itll o})ser,'er ill A ,viII
be l111al,le to detect allY effect dlle to a 11lliforl11 lllotion of
tr8118]atioll of tIlis regioll, for thOllgIl tIle ]11885 of Olle of tIle
constitllellts, liS lllenSllre,.l by tIle 1111Jllller of JllUSS particles
associated ,,"itll it, IJla)' be ultered, tlle 11lllSS of the 1111it b~'"
,,-11icll tllnt of tIle COllstitllellts is nl~aSllrp(l "Till lJe altered ill
tll~ Stlllle prOl)Ortioll, so tllnt tIle IJlterat.ioll ,,-ill 110t be
detectel1. The argument is the same ras tl18t wlJich opplips
to aur changes which the 1l10tioll maJ produce in the shape
or size of the COllstitllellt.s of the regioll A; tllese eSCa)1E'
detection 1>y un ObSel"Ver in A becal1~ his unib are altered
ill tIle :'fillle propol·tiol1 as tlle qUlllltities )11~nSllred. If, llo"r-
~ver, ,ye llad a.ll)" Jlletllod of COlllltilJg tIle Inns! I)81-tic]es
",.itllill the regioli A, all obserVAr ill this regioll ()llgllt to be
able to detect an effect due to changE'S in the velocitJ of
trallsla.tioll.
Again, if an obser,rer in a region U which did not
 jIt18S, E,le·I'UY I ll7ld Rtllliatioll. 683
pal1ticipate in the 1110tioll of A Il11l1 tIle lllellllS of compnrillg
the mass of all electl10n ill his l·egion ,vi tll tllat of Olle ill A,
he wOll1d find tllat the ratio dellellued on the velocity of
tl-alls]ation of A.
Follo\\·illp; tIle ideas Stlggestcd 1)y tllese illltstratiol1S ,ve
get ,vhat I tllill}( is It COllsistellt scIlellle for \l'isllalizillg
phJTsical processes, if ,ye aS8tlllle tIle existellce : -
1. Of particles all of tIle Sllllle }tilld RIl(l ,vitll tIle SllDIe
Inass. These 11articles llll 1110\'e ,,-it}l tIle ,-elocity of ]i~llt.
Since tIle 111RSS l)lll-ticIes are lllovillg "'itll tIle \?clocit)· of
ligllt tlley "·Ollld 011 tIle Lorellztian trallsforllllltioll 111\Ve tllis
,~elocit)~ ,vllute,per lI1igllt be t.Ile llxes to 'vIlicll tlleir Illotiol1
,"'as referrell. All)" force on a 1)3 rticle dlle ei t.llel- to ot.ller
pu.rtic]es or to tIle electric fielll is III \\'R)rs ~lt rigllt nllgle~ to
the direction of motion of the particle. Thus, though u
particle 111a}7" be cleflecte<.l its ,-elocity rel11aills un~lltered.
The Inas:; of Oll~ of tllese IJarticles 11111St, liS ,ye sllall see,
118 exceedillgl)" Slllall cOlllparecl ,vitll tllllt of all electroll.

All mass, wllether of electrons ato1ll8 or radiant eUE'rgy,

01'
arises £1'0111 tIle IJreSellce of tllese 11u,rticles, l\llJ. illaslllucII
as euch plll·t.icle pOS8eS8~S nIl il1,Tlll·iable UII10llllt of ellel-gy,
wherever there is mass there is Ull amount of energJ pro-
portional to it.
TIle (listribl1tiol1 of tIlese particles DIll] tlleir )llo,!'enlPilt
frOlll 011e place to aJ]otllel· is deterll1ille(] hJT tIle distriblltioll
of tIle lilles of electric {Ol-CC. For "ye aSSllllle tllut illllllditioll
to tIle lllass 11nrt.icles ,,·e Illlve ill tIle 1111i \'erse :
2. IJilles of eleC'tric force sIJreadillp: t.llrol1gl1 sllace. Tllcse
lin~s may be closed or tl1eJ~ lllay begill or elld at llefillite
POilltS. Tllese POillts are tIle sellts of \\"llllt ,"e call elect.rical
cbar~es, tIle electron bein~ at Olle end of a lille of fOI·ce l'IIU
a Ullit of positi,Te electricity ltt, tile otllE'r. EllCll electroll
and eacll unit. of positive electl it;it}T forllls tIle elld of all
1l

in,·al-iable 1111Dlber of liues of elect.ric force. TIle cOllllexifJl1

bet,,·eel1 tIle distriblltioll of tIle 111088 ]1urticles UI1U tlle lilles
of force is gi,-el) by tIle rll]e tllat tIle 111llSS per Ullit \-O]11111e
at allY POillt P is proportiollul to
{.fl+g + 7 + c; (a. + +"l)} ,
2
,,2
2 fJ2

,vhic]l is also pro!lortiollal to tIle energ)r per 1111it VOlll111e.

j, g, Tt nl·e the Illllllber of lines of force passillg tllrol1gl1 It
unit urea at P at l·ight angles to the axes of .'1:, y, z respecti vel)',
. , ~J 'Y are tIle COlllponellts of the lllagnetic fOl1celll (: is tIle

velocity of light through a vacuum.

~Y2
(j84 Sir J. J. TIIOlllSOll Olt

,V e regard Illnglletic force as due to tIle lllotioll of the

lilles of electric force 11ast tIle obser,rer ,\~llo is llleasllrillg
tIle lllllglletic force. ~'lle relatioll bet"reell tIle electric alld
l\laglletic force ,,·llel1 llll the lilles of electric force at Pare
}llOvillg lvith tIle sallle ,,-elocity is gi,,"ell bJr tIle equntiollS
a.=47r(!Jw-lw) ; fJ=47r(lm-flo) ; ry=4w(Jv-gu) ;
,vlIe 11 11, t', 'LV are tIle COml)Ollel1ts of the ,relocit).. of tIle lines
of electric force J-elati,,'"e to axes fixetl with reference to the
observer of the Inagl1etie force.
FrOlll tllis eq llntioll COll1billed ,,'"ith the expressiollS for
tIle cllerg~~ Iler Ullit '-Oll1111e, "re see that ]), Q.. R, tIle com-
llollellts of tIle lllolllelltlllll ller 1111it volll1ne at P are given
b)T tile equatiollS

Il=..!..(ZJ9-Yry); Q=J:.(Xry-Za.) ;
J~ 4~
R=..!..CY"-XfJ)·
4~ ,
'\'}lere X, Y, Z are the cOlnpollents of the electric force.
'Ve can also, by the prillciple of Vlllwyillg actioll, deduce
frolD tIle expression for the ,'aIne of the energy the
:alax\velliall eXllressiollS for tile stresses ill the electric and
nmgnetic fields which reproduce the mechanical forces
existillg ill those fields.
FrOIll the eX}lressioll f01" tIle ellergy in the electric field,
,'''e see tllltt tllC IllllSS l)Rrticles are cOllcelltrated in tIle l.lnces
,v]lere tIle electric field is strollgest. TIIUS ,vhen the electric
cllarges ltre electrollS or positively charged 1111its of exceed-
illgl)" slllaII (lilllensiol1s-,vhell, ill COJlseql1ellce, tIle electrio
f'orca is exceec.lil1gIy strollg close to tIle charge-by fllr the
greater part of: tile lllass ,,'ill be qtlite close to tIle charge.
'rlll1S, for exalDIl}e, if- tIle radills of an eIectlwoll is 10- 13 COl.,
0111y one thOllSl111dtll llart of its 1111188 \viII be at a distance
frOll) tIle electron greater tllRll 10- 10 C111. TIIUS, tllOUg-h the
111RSS particles llre JJreSellt ,,-ll·ere,,-er there is all elfctric field
=l11 el10rlllOllS Innjorit~.. of thel11 cluster close l·Olllld the
electrolls anlI positi,-e charges.
Tlle InllSS particles }lerforlll the fll1lctions botll of mthel-
nnd matter. They IJerform the function of matter byen-
dowing the electrons nnd positive charges found in the atoms
of the chemical elements with lnass, and when they are
moving through space and clLrrJing energ)' with thenl with
tht' '7elocity ot" light they n.-a performing functions usually
ascribed to the rether.
By tllelllsel,·e8 the llllrticlcs are llot tIle whole, eithel- at·
Inntt·er or of lt~tllelw, for lil1es of electric force are all integral
part 1)oth of rether anti matter. ".,.e onlJ' get matter when we
 1.11£"('S8, .Elze·)'g/J, (l11.tl Rltlliatiolz. 685
have lin.es of electric force ancllored 011 to electrolls or the
Ul1its of l)ositi \~e electricity; ,ye 0111y get 1·adi1ltioll ,vllen \ve
ha \re alollg ,vitll tIle 111ass particle8, closel] lilIes of electric
force. The tlistributioll and 111ovelllel1t of tIle lines of
electric force deterlllille tIle llistriblltion tllld 111ovel11ellt of
the mass particles.
COlllparing tIle pllJ'"sicnl lllliverse ,,-ith a livillg organislll
'ye Illn..y regl\rd tIle 11111SS particles as tIle Hasl), tIle lilles of
&lectl-ic force as the llervous S)'"stelll. l\luss al1tl t'llergJ" arc
contributed by the lllRSS particles, but tIle distrillutioll,
localization, alld Ino,relllent of botll lllass RIIU ellergy arc
ueterlllined by tIle lilIes of electric force.
~rhe mass particles in l\ steady electrostlltic flelll, tIlOllg11
lDo,'ing ,,'ith the ,'elocity of light, are cOIlstrailled to follo\v
closed patlls rOlll1d tlJe lilIes of electric t·orce. Tllis prodl1ces
IL tellsiol1 alollg tIle lilles of elt'ctric force, 11,110 tllese are only
prevellted frolll breal~ill~ a \\!R)r by beillg Rllcholwed to the
electrons lllld positiv~ Clllllwges, al1U so lleillg ollliged t.o drag
about \vitll tIlelll ,,"hcrever tlley 11)ny go tIle lllasses CO]1-·
densed abOtlt these cllllrges.
In It steady electrost~ltic fiell! 1\11 tlle lil16S of electric force
have tlleir ends eitller 011 electrol1S or positi,·e charges, llone
of these lil1es forlll close() Cllrves. "'11 ell, however, the
electric field is C}1811g"illg, eitller 1))'" tIle 1110tiol1 of tIle positi,·e
al1d 11egative cllltrges or otllerwise, the lilles of electric force
Illay get loolJed, alld SOllle of thelll may forn) closed Cl1r,"es.
These closed curves are 110t allcllored to electriclll cllnrp;~8,
tllere is Ilothillg to prevel1t tIle Illass }1articles t~rolll draggillg
tllelll a\vay ; thus tIle Innss Ilnrticles "~,ill tra,~el out tllrougll
Sllace witll the velocity of ligIlt tllrougll a Vl1CllUlll, drllggillg
after tIlelll tIle closed lilIes of electric force. Tlli~, Oil tl18
vie\v ,ye are COIlsidering, is tIle ,vay ill ,vllich radiation is
supposed to origillate. SilIca botll t11e el1erg)'" Itllllll1RSS al·e
d ne to tIle Illlt8S 11artic]es, \'~e sec tllll t, OIl tllis ,·ielv, l-adiatioll
illvol,res a trallsferel1ce of lllLlSS prol)ortiol1al to ihe traIlS..
farence of energy. 'I.'he speed ,vitll ,vIIi ell tIle rlldiation
travels is tIle speed ()f tIle 111as~ pl\rticles, tllis sr)eed is il1-
variable and equal to tIle velocit), of ligllt tllrol1gll a ,'aCllUlll :
it is i ndependellt of tIle lllediulll tllrollgll "'llicIl tIle particles
are travellillg; tIle velocity of light, 11o,,~e·vel·, uepellds tlPOll
the nlediulD, anu ,ve 111L,re to sllo\v tllllli all il1,\7ariu,ble velocity
of the lllnss ]lllrticles cal-rJ illg- tIle ellerg)" is COllsi~tellt
7

witll the vl\riation ill tIle velocit:y· of light \vitIl t118 lllediulll
through which it is tra,-elling. 'Vhell n wave of li~ht P0!lSCS
through a refracting luediulll th~ electrons in the medium
are set in vibleation alld gi,·e out secolldary ,va,"es ; tIle effect
686 Sir J. J. Tllolllson on
of tllese secolldary waves is to lllake tIle apllarellt velocity
ot' the light througb t.he mediulll depend upon the number of
electrons ill that mediulu, though all the constituents which
lllaI{o 111) tIle restlIt.allt \va,,·e travel "rith the velocit}.. of light
throug)} a vaClll11)).
A detailed analytical inyestigation of this effect will be
given in another puper, but the general principles on which
the results depend nIay be illustrated by considering the
special case of a pulse of electric force travelling throu~h a
slab of refl'acting matter boundeal by planes at right angles
to the direction of propagation of the pulse. Let us suppose
tllut the electric force ill the pul~e is l)arllllel to the axis of &~
and that the pulse is tra vellil1~ parallel to z and bounded by
two parallel planes at right angles to z. Let the thickness
of tIle IJulse be 2 ll, let tIle electric force ill the pulse before
it stril~es tIle slab be COllstallt ill tIle frollt 110,1£ ,l and equal
to X, \vhile ill tIle rear lllLlf it is also constant but equal
to -X. Let us consider the effect prodllced by this pulse
,vhell it stril{es tIle slab of electrons. When tile force X
strikes tIle electrolls it ,,·iII accelerate thel11, and ill COllse-
quellce they will emit secondary waves in which the electric
force is in tIle opposite clirectioll to X.
Fig. 1.

c
A B. p

Let A B be tIle slab COlltaillillP; tIle electrollS Rlld suppose

tIle frollt of tIle pll1~e llRS reaclled P; the Oll]Y secondary
radiation \vhicll llas llac} tillle to l-eu,c:h P is tllat cominp: from
the eJectrollS tlt B, tIle part of tile :slab 11enre:-;t to P. WlleD
a little later a part of tIle pll1se n little in tIle l·ear of the
frollt reaclles P, tile seconclary radiation carrying a 11egative
X \\'ill have llad tillle to COllIe IIp froln olltlying places lili8
C alld D, alld will dil11ini~h the electric field ill this part of
the pulse. No,v consider ,vhat ,viII ha!ll1611 \vhen the
 ~lla.-rs, 1-;;lle·J !J!J,
9
("'Ill Radiatio·ll. 687
llositi,·e llalf of the pulse illlS jllSt, plls~ed P alld t,lle ne~ative
]lalf is just arriviilg. _-\.t· first tIle seCOlldaries \vllich arrive
at P \viII be those excited l)Jr tIle frollt ILlld positive Ilalf of
the plllse, allu tIle force all tlltllll will be in the 11egative
clirectioll, i. t. ill tIle 811))]6 llirectioll ItS tllat ill tIle Illll-t of
the l'rhnary pulse which is now urriving at P, and tin1S the
~econdaries ,,·iII il1crellse tIle Illagl1ittlde of tile electl·ic force
in the pulse. After a tillle tIle secol1dn1 Jr rlldiation excited
9

1))'" the negative llart of tIle 1llllse ,,~ill hegill to ('OIDe IIp; tIle
force 011 this will be ill tIle llositi,·e tlirectioll, 1\11U ,viI]
dilninisll tIle illtell8itJ~ of tIle force ill tIle !Jrill]nry 1111]se.
The ~eco11dal·Y rl1diu,tioll frOlll outI)rillg regiolls \viII COlltil108
to arri ,'e at P tlfter the prilllllry }lu]se Ilns 11asse(), so thlLt tIle
prilllary pll]se \viII lla,·e de,,·eIopeu a tlliI. Before passillg
throngll tile slab tIle llistributioll of electric force ill tile
pulse would he represented by a gloaph Iik-e a (fip;. 2), while
after passing through the slab it will be represented by ~.
- 'l
F11g•••

,V e see tllat the result of passillg tllroltgll tIle slab has

bean to ditnil1ish tIle 8llergy ill tIle front half of the pulse,
t~ increase it ill tIle l-ear half, ltlld to cle,rc}op a positive
tail 7. Now let this Inodified pulse go through a second
slab; the energy in the front half will be still further dimin-
ished, the energy in tbe rear hulf and in the tail ry will be
il1creased, and allotller tail of 11ep;ati,-e force 8 \viII be
developed. This process will go 011 as the pulse passes
through other slabs until the energy in the front pal"t is
reduced to insignificance and the second half of the pulse
will bf:' tl18 active frol1t; this ,viII ill its tllrll l)e 'VOI-ll ({OWll
by the same process and the tail ry will take its place, this
will be succeeded by the tltil 8, and so OIl. III this W:'lY tIle
virtual fI-ont of the })11]se is contilltlall.r fallil1p; behill(l tile
place which the pulse ,vol1ld have reached if it had not been
passing through the slabs or electrons, and the amount by
which it lags behind will depend on the densit J of the electrons
688 Sir J. J. Tll0111S0n (Jll
ill tIle Slllb. Tllus tIle velocit)~ of tIle pul8~ tllrollgb the
lllediulll COlltaillillg tlle electrolls \,·ill differ frolll that tllrough
elll)lty ~pllce l\llU '\9ill uellelld 11POll tIle llature of tIle Illeditll11,
ill sllite of the fact tllllt ll11 tile radiatiollS \Vllich 111ake IIp tIle
llul:;e trayel with the velocity of light tlll'ough It \'acuum.
Hel1ce 'vc see illl\t tIle COllstJal1cy of tIle ,"elocitJ~ of the lllass
!)article8 ,vIlich carry the ellerg)' llnll 111ass of light is C011-
sistellt \\"itll li~llt tra,'elling ,,'itll llllite a diffel·ellt velocit)'"
,,·11ell passill~ tllrollgh a refrl'lctillg Illedil1111.
011 tIle vie,v ,,"e l\re disCllS8ill~ the radiatioll ItS it were
carl-ies its rether alollg ,vitll it.. 'fIle llledill111 ,,·llicll cllrries
tIle rillliatioll is llot SOllletllillg tll1iforlnly distribl~ted thl·Ollgh
Sllace bllt fraglllel1ts torll frolll Inatter, clll·rying alollg ,,"ith
tllelll lines of electric force as all illtegral part of tIle
ra.diatioll.
Though this tbeorJ of radiation maJ be described ns an
elllissioll Olle, )Tet sillce the ,'elocit)'" of tIle lnass particles is
ill,rnriable the velocit}.,. of ligllt ,viII 110t l)e tlffected bJ' tIle
lllotioll of tile SOllrce, or ,vhen tIle ligIlt is reflected, bJ'I" the
speed of rotatioll of the lllirrOl". Experill1ellts recelltIJT lllade
b)· ~Iujoralla are ill llcCOrtlllllC8 ""itIl tllis l"eslllt.
Since on tlle view we are disc118sing energy is made up of
a 1111111ber of eql1al llnits, tIle tr8nsferel1C(~ of ellel"gy f.-OlD
011e bod}" to allother Illtlst take place bJ'" definite steps, and
110 trllllsferellce is I)O~sil)le 1111less tIle filllount to be t.-ans-
ferred exce~ds n. fillite alllOullt. Tllis il'lvolves tllat the
d)·llRlllics of pl·ocesses illvol,~in~ ,,·er}'" 8111811 tl·ansferellces of
ellergJ'" 11lUSt diffel" fll11dalllelltllllJ9" fer 0III ordinarJp" dJ~llalllics.
"".e ltre 110t J~et in tIle positron to calcll1ata thfJ InaFlS of
0118 of these Dlass particles, bllt it is cel·taill that it 11111St be
all exceedillgl)'" 81111111 fractioll of tllat of an electroll. For
tIle el1ergy ot all electrol1 is about 10- 7 erg, ,vhiC}l call be
1"epresel1ted by tIle fl1.11 of tIle atolllic cllarJl;e of electricity
tllrO\lgh llbout 6 x 10' ,'olts. N O\V tll8 a\!eruge ellergJ" of a
lnolecll1e of a gas at 0° C. cOrreS}lOllds to tIle fall of the
atomic charge th1"ou~h a potelltiul difference of ahout -to of
a volt. Hellce if tile Innss of n lllass particle is Q) tilDes the
11lnss of all electroll, tIle Sl11ullest alnOll11t of energy ,,'hich
could be trllllS~erre(l frolll 0118 bod)'" to &llothel· "90111d he
about 1-8 x 106 )( CA) tillles tIle 111eRll enel·gJ· of a gas 1110lecuIe
at tbe temperature of 0° C. Now suppose a gas is raised
frol11 Ilbsolllte zero to a lligher telll!le.-lltllre, if eacll 111olecll1e
of tIle gas receives tIle Illillillltllll alJ10ll1lt of enel"gy pos~ible,
the tel11perature of the gas \VOll1d be l"aised to
1·8 X 106 X QI x 273 Ilbsolute;
 1Jlass, E1zel'gy, allll Ralliatioll. 689
'VllAll t,he tenlpel~llture is less tllal1 tllis 0111)~ a frnctioll of
the molecules will acquire any additional energy from the
l·ise ill telllperature. 'VIle11 11 large 111111l1ler of Jll0leC111As
have acquired no udditiollal energv ut all, it would seem
improbable that any larp;e number should ha,"e acquired the
extlwa el1er~y correspolluing to additiollnl Jegret'& of freedolll,
fOl· exalllple, for It diatolnic Illolecule to Ila,re llcqui.-ell tIle
energ}~ uue to its rotatioll rOlllld tIle celltre of lunS8 us ,,'ell
as tllllt correspolll1illg to ellerg)" of trllllslatioll, hllt ltl1less it
did this tIle specific Ileats of dintolllic g~\8eS at telllllPrlltores
less tIlan 1-8 x 106 X m X 273 nbsol11te, ,voltld 1l11proxilllat.e to
tllose of IDonatolllic gases; tllis COllsilleratioll sI10"·8 tllat Cd
most be less tlltlll 10- 8 • Agaill, ,ye 1{IIO\V frolll l\IicI1elsoll's
experilllel1ts 011 tIle greell lille of lllercury t.}lllt tIle ~Ollrce of
this lille CllD gi,"e 0Ilt lllora tllnl1 400,OO() vibrlltiollS \vitllOllt
abrupt cllallge of pllllse; frOlll l)lnllclt's rll1e, tile ellerg}1' ill
this leauiatioll is tllllt dtle to tll(' fIlII of tIle atolllic cll11rge
throl1gb It potelltilLI differellce of 2-5 ,'olts, i_ e_ is llbout
1/(2-4 x 10-1.) of tIle ellerg}: of all alectroll_ If tllere is anI)"
one Innss particle ller ",vn"re-lengtll of tIle rucliatioll, tllere
\viII be 1110re tllall 4: x IOu lllfiSS ptl.rticles ill tlli~ fllllOllnt of
energ)r, 80 tllat tIle ellerg)T of Olle of tllese )ulrticles \viII be
less thal1 1/(2-4 x 10' x -:I: X 105 ) of tllll.t of l\ll)~ electrol1.
Since tIle l·atio of the 111asses is the sallle as t Illtt of tIle
allergies we COllclude tllat ltt least 1010 llnd probalJ1J" IlIaD}"
Illore IllRSS partieles al-e required to Sll])111Jr t.he 111ass of all
electroll.
If ellergy is illdi visible IJe)"ollu a certnill lilllit, tIlel1 tIle
illverse sql1are la\v oE eIectricl\l attrllctioll Cl\11110t 110ld at
all dista.nces. For ,vllell this la\v llold~, tIle eller~Jr olltside
a slJhere of radius ·1- \vith its celltre at 811 electron, bellrs to thl'
ener~y of tIle electrol1 tIle rlltio a/1 \Vllere a is tIle rlluillS of
1
,

the electroll; Ilellce if (t/·,· is less tllall ti) t118 ellerg)· outside
the spllere ,viII be less tllan the ellerp;Jr !lossessetl b.,r one
mass pu,rticle_ Thus since tIle particles l\re illclivisilJle t.Ilere
would be no ])articles RIlll 110 fOl·ce wll~n '1 i~ greater 1

tllall a/m, so thllt tIle la,," of elecLric force CRllllot lle

tIle invelwse square law over Illora tllall a certnill fillite
distallce.