Optical Fibre Bundles and Applications

Module: 5
Optical Fibre bundles and

Applications
Sumana Chatterjee
Department of Biomedical Engineering
Netaji Subhash Engineering College
Introduction and Construction detail of
Optical Fibre
• An optical fibre is a flexible and transparent fibre made by drawing
glass (silica) or a plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of
human hair.
• Let’s understand everything about optical fibres including the
definition, design, their working principle, types, and their advantages
over traditional wires.
• Optical fiber is the technology associated with data transmission
using light pulses traveling along a long fiber which is usually made of
plastic or glass.
04-01-2023 Sumana Chatterjee, Asst. Professor, BME 2

Optical Fibre
• The communication using optical fiber cable can be a technique of
transmitting data from one location to another by transmitting light pulses.
• At present, these cables are used for communication like sending images,
voice messages, etc.
• The designing of these cables can be done with plastic or glass so that the
data can be transmitted effectively and quickly than copper cables.
• These cables changed the telecom industry by playing a key role in data
transmission.
• So these cables replaced the copper cables. Nowadays, the world is
connected to the internet.
• So by using a light beam of a fiber optic cable, it is possible to make a
phone call, video download and website checking, etc.

Optical Fibre
• A cable which is used to transmit the data through fibers (threads) or plastic (glass) is known as
optical fiber cable.
• This cable includes a pack of glass threads which transmits modulated messages over light waves.
• There are many advantages by using these cables over other types of communication cables like
bandwidth of these cables is high, less vulnerable than metal cables to interference, less thin,
lighter, and the data can be transmitted in the form of digitally.
• The main disadvantages of these cables are installation is expensive, more delicate and difficult to
fix together.
• These cables are essential for LANs.
• So, telecommunication companies are replacing the telephone lines by these cables.
• One day, all communications will use fiber optics.
• The design considerations of these cables mainly include appearance, ruggedness, durability,
tensile strength, flammability, size, range of temperature, and its flexibility.

Working of Optical Fiber
• The working principle of optical fiber is the transmission of the information in the form
of light atoms otherwise photons.
• The cores of the fiberglass & the cladding have a special refractive index to twist inward
light at a particular angle.
• Whenever light gestures are transmitted through the optical cable, then they do not
reflect the cladding & core within a sequence of zigzag bounces, sticking to a method is
named as total internal reflection.
• An optical fiber is a lengthy, thin thread of plain material. The shape of this cable is
similar to a cylinder.
• The core of this cable is located in the center, and the outside of the core is named as
cladding.
• Here cladding works like a protective layer.
• These two are made with different types of plastic otherwise glass.
• So the traveling of light in the core can be very slow then transmits into the cladding.

Working of Optical Fiber
• When the light within the core strikes the border of the cladding in a less than
90oangle, then it bounces off.
• No light run away until it approaches the fiber end if not, the fiber is twisted
sharply or extended.
• The cladding of the cable can be damaged once it gets scratch.
• So, a plastic coating like buffer protects the cladding.
• This buffered fiber can be located in a tough layer, which is known as the jacket.
• So the fiber can be used easily without damaging it.

Design of an Optical Fibre
• Optical fiber is made of a thin glass core (diameter 10 to 100µm)
surrounded by a glass coating called cladding, protected by a jacket of
plastic.
• A Fibre Optic Relay System consists of the following components:
• The Transmitter – It produces the light signals and encodes them to fit to
transmit.
• The Optical Fibre – The medium for transmitting the light pulse (signal).
• The Optical Receiver – It receives the transmitted light pulse (signal) and
decodes them to be fit to use.
• The Optical Regenerator – Necessary for long-distance data transmission.

Optical Fibre Working Principle
• Optical fiber works on the principle of total internal reflection.
• When light traveling in an optically dense medium hits a boundary at
a steep angle (larger than the critical angle for the boundary), the
light is completely reflected.
• This is called total internal reflection.

Optical Fibre Working Principle
• This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core.
• Light travels through the fiber core, bouncing back and forth off the boundary
between the core and cladding.
• Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical
angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel
down the fiber without leaking out.
• This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber.
• The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference
between the fiber’s core and cladding.

Key Terms used in Optic Fibre
• The definition and understanding of an optical fibre is incomplete without
the key terms that are used to describe its design and working.
• All the important terms used in an optical fibre are described below:



Types of Optical Fibre
• Optical fibres are classified on different parameters such as refractive
index , materials used and mode of propagation of light.
Based on Refractive Index
1. Mono Mode Optical Fibre: It has a very narrow core of diameter
about 5𝜇m or less, cladding is relatively big.

2. Multi-mode Optical Fibre: It is again of two types:(i) Step Index Multi
Mode Fibre: The diameter of the core is about 50𝜇m. The core has a
constant R. The refractive index then changes to a lower value of 𝜇
which remains constant through the cladding.

• (ii) Graded Index Multi Mode Fibre: Refractive index decreases
smoothly from its center to the outer surface of the fibre (cladding).
There is no noticeable boundary between core and cladding.

Based on Materials Used
The classification based on the materials used is as follows:
Plastic Optical Fibers: Polymethylmethacrylate is used as a core material for
the transmission of light.
Glass Fibers: It consists of extremely fine glass fibers.
Based on Mode of Propagation of Light
The classification based on the mode of propagation of light is as follows:
Single-Mode Fibers: These fibers are used for the long-distance transmission
of signals.
Multimode Fibers: These fibers are used for the short-distance transmission
of signals.

Advantages Of Optical Fibres Over Wires
There are many advantages of using optical fibers over traditional wires. Some of the
advantages are listed below:
• Lower cost in the long run
• Lower loss of signal, typically less than 0.3 db/km). So, repeater-less transmission over a
long distance is possible
• Large data-carrying capacity (thousands of times greater, reaching a speed of up to 1.6
Tb/s in the field-deployed system and up to 10 Tb/s in lab systems)
• No electromagnetic radiation; difficult to eavesdrop
• High electrical resistance. So, safe to use near high-voltage equipment or between areas
with different earth potentials
• Low weight
• Signals contain very little power
• No cross-talk between cables
• No sparks (e.g. in automobile applications)
• Difficult to place a tap or listening device on the line, providing better physical network
security

Disadvantages Of Optical Fibres Over Wires
• The disadvantages of optical fiber include the following
• The optical fiber cables are very difficult to merge & there will be a
loss of the beam within the cable while scattering.
• The Installation of these cables is cost-effective. They are not as
robust as the wires. Special test equipment is often required to the
optical fiber.
• Fiber optic cables are compact and highly vulnerable while fitting
• These cables are more delicate than copper wires.
• Special devices are needed to check the transmission of fiber cable.

Fibre Optic Imaging
• Fiber optic imaging is used for a myriad of applications across several
different industries.
• The concept of fiber optic imaging uses the optical transmission properties
of fiber to transmit an image from end to end.
• To accomplish this, most imaging applications use an image guide or
coherent bundle to collect an image of the target or subject area, then
relays that information to the view end for interpretation.
• Timbercon imaging products are designed and fabricated to very strict
tolerance, ensuring each image guide will meet or exceed your
requirements.
• If your application requires a customized, or custom designed image guide,
Timbercon can assist you with every aspect from initial concept through
manufacturing and implementation.

Fibre Optic Imaging
• Imaging applications require individual fibers to be aligned, fused, and
bundled to function correctly as an image guide.
• Bundling is necessary as a single fiber optic cable is only capable of
reproducing a single color of varying intensity, based on what it received
from the source or subject area.
• By bundling several, in some cases thousands of identical individual fibers,
an image guide or coherent bundle relies on each fiber to focus on
reproducing a single color, but collectively the bundle reproduces the
target subject exactly.
• Fiber optic imaging is used in a wide variety of industries including
the semiconductor and medical industries.
• Imaging is also used for measurement and has enabled advancements in
science and manufacturing previously not possible with older technologies.

Fibre Optic Imaging

Fibreoptics
• In the majority of CCD applications, light reaches the CCD through a
lens- or mirror-based optical system.
• However, in some situations it is advantageous to use an image-
preserving fiberoptic bundle in place of conventional imaging optics.
• Significant gains in the amount of light collected can be achieved by
directly coupling the light source to the CCD using fiberoptics.
• Depending on the amount of demagnification, the gain in light
collected can exceed 10x that of a f/1.2 lens.
• Fibers can be bonded to most front-illuminated CCDs as well as to
some back-illuminated devices.

The Coherent Fiber Bundle
• A coherent fiber bundle is a collection of single fiberoptic strands
assembled together so that the relative orientation of the individual
fibers is maintained throughout the length of the bundle.
• The result is that any pattern of illumination incident at the input end
of the bundle reemerges from the output end with the image
preserved.
• Imaging fiber bundles can be made in a variety of shapes and sizes,
with the most common having a circular cross section.
• Magnification can be achieved by the use of tapered fibers in the
bundle.
Teledyne Photometrics’ Fiber-Bonding Process
• In order to successfully couple light from an imaging fiber bundle to the CCD, the CCD
and fiber bundle must be in very close proximity.
• Light emerges from the individual fibers at large angles, and a gap between fiber and
CCD will lead to a loss in resolution.
• Teledyne Photometrics uses a proprietary bonding process to minimize the distance
without sacrificing CCD performance.
• This process directly bonds the fiber to the CCD without oil layers or the use of
intermediate fiber stubs that introduce losses in spatial resolution and transmission
efficiency.
• In addition, the bond is stable and will survive the repeated thermal cycling that occurs in
high-performance CCD cameras.
• Teledyne Photometrics’ continuous innovation in fiber bonding has extended available
fiber tapers to over 145 mm in diameter, coupled fibers to the largest commercially
available scientific sensors, and even mated fiber bundles to high-efficiency, back-
illuminated sensors.

Efficiency vs. Magnification
• Besides the transmission losses through a large piece of glass, fiberoptic bundles
have a transmission loss due to changes in the fiber diameter as light traverses
the bundle.
• When light travels down a tapered fiber, a decreasing reflectance angle results in
some of the light paths exiting the fiber. This appears as a loss in “effective”
numerical aperture (NA).
• The relative loss between fibers with different magnifications can be estimated as
the ratio of their magnifications squared.
• The larger the fiber bundle’s magnification, the greater the reduction in effective
NA.
• Fiber bundles with a 1:1 magnification, known as “stubs”, provide the highest
throughput.
• Applications requiring the highest possible light-collection efficiency benefit most
by using large CCDs to reduce the amount of demagnification required.
Limitations of Imaging with Fiberoptics
• A disadvantage of fiber imaging systems is that field of view is limited by the size of available fiber
bundles. Currently, the largest available fiberoptic tapered bundle is 160 mm in diameter at the
large end.
• However, to enable imaging of even larger areas, Teledyne Photometrics can create a mosaic of
fiber bundles that are connected to multiple CCDs.
• This assembly can either be packaged in a single camera head, or into multiple camera heads,
depending upon the number of bundles in the mosaic and whether or not the bundles are
tapered.
• A second limitation of fiberoptics is the introduction of distortion and nonuniformity of response.
• These defects are introduced during the fiber-manufacturing process. Because these defects are
static, they can be corrected through image processing.
• For example, response nonuniformity can be handled in most cases by flat-field correction.
• Gross distortion can be corrected by appropriate scaling and warping of the image data.
• Shear distortion, sudden dislocation in the alignment of adjacent fibers, is more difficult to
correct for, due to its discontinuous nature.
• Fiber defect specifications are available for customers requiring detailed information.

Teledyne Photometrics’ Fiberoptic Options
• Many Teledyne Photometrics products are available with imaging
fiberoptics.
• Fiber bundles range in magnification from 1:1 fiber stubs to large 6:1
fiber tapers, and in diameters up to 160 mm.
• Supported CCD arrays vary from 512 x 512 pixels to 2k x 2k pixels.
• Fiber bundles are available with extramural absorption (EMA) fibers
to improve contrast, and low-thorium glass to reduce background
from radioisotopes.
• At a customer’s request, Teledyne Photometrics will also attach
scintillating fiberoptic faceplates to the front of fiberoptic tapers.

Optical Fiber Communications
• The communication system of fiber optics is well understood by studying
the parts and sections of it.
• The major elements of an optical fiber communication system are shown in
the following figure.

Optical Fiber Communications
• The basic components are light signal transmitter, the optical fiber,
and the photo detecting receiver.
• The additional elements such as fiber and cable splicers and
connectors, regenerators, beam splitters, and optical amplifiers are
employed to improve the performance of the communication system.

Fibre optic transmission system
• Any fibre optic data transmission system will comprise a number of different elements.
• There are three major elements (marked in bold), and a further one that is vital for practical systems:
• Transmitter (light source)
• Fibre optic cable
• Optical repeater
• Receiver (Detector)
• The different elements of the system will vary according to the application.
• Systems used for lower capacity links, possibly for local area networks will employ somewhat different techniques and
components to those used by network providers that provide extremely high data rates over long distances.
• Nevertheless the basic principles are the same whatever the system.
• In the system the transmitter of light source generates a light stream modulated to enable it to carry the data.
• Conventionally a pulse of light indicates a "1" and the absence of light indicates "0".
• This light is transmitted down a very thin fibre of glass or other suitable material to be presented at the receiver or detector.
• The detector converts the pulses of light into equivalent electrical pulses.
• In this way the data can be transmitted as light over great distances.

Fibre optic transmitter
• Although the original telecommunications fibre optic systems would have used large lasers, today
a variety of semiconductor devices can be used.
• The most commonly used devices are light emitting diodes, LEDs, and semiconductor laser
diodes.
• The simplest transmitter device is the LED.
• Its main advantage is that it is cheap, and this makes it ideal for low cost applications where only
short runs are needed.
• However they have a number of drawbacks.
• The first is that they offer a very low level of efficiency.
• Only about 1% of the input power enters the optical fibre, and this means that high power drivers
would be needed to provide sufficient light to enable long distance transmissions to be made.
• The other disadvantage of LEDs is that they produce what is termed incoherent light that covers a
relatively wide spectrum.
• Typically the spectral width is between 30 and 60 nm. This means that any chromatic dispersion
in the fibre will limit the bandwidth of the system.
• In view of their performance, LEDs are used mainly in local-area-network applications where the
data rates are typically in the range 10-100 Mb/s and transmission distances are a few kilometres.

Fibre optic transmitter
• Where higher levels of performance are required, i.e. it is necessary that the fibre optic link can operate over greater distances and
with higher data rates, then lasers are used.
• Although more costly, they offer some significant advantages.
• In the first instance they are able to provide a higher output level, and in addition to this the light output is directional and this
enables a much higher level of efficiency in the transfer of the light into the fibre optic cable.
• Typically the coupling efficiency into a single mode fibre may be as high as 50%.
• A further advantage is that lasers have a very narrow spectral bandwidth as a result of the fact that they produce coherent light.
• This narrow spectral width enables the lasers to transmit data at much higher rates because modal dispersion is less apparent.
• Another advantage is that semiconductor lasers can be modulated directly at high frequencies because of short recombination
time for the carriers within the semiconductor material.
• Laser diodes are often directly modulated.
• This provides a very simple and effective method of transferring the data onto the optical signal.
• This is achieved by controlling current applied directly to the device.
• This in turn varies the light output from the laser.
• However for very high data rates or very long distance links, it is more effective to run the laser at a constant output level
(continuous wave).
• The light is then modulated using an external device.
• The advantage of using an external means of modulation is that it increases the maximum link distance because an effect known
as laser chirp is eliminated.
• This chirp broadens the spectrum of the light signal and this increases the chromatic dispersion in the fibre optic cable.

Fibre optic cable
• The full details and description of fibre optic cabling are found in a
separate article / tutorial on this area of the website.
• In essence a fibre optic cable consists of core, around which is
another layer referred to as the cladding.
• Outside of this there is a protective outer coating.
• The fibre optic cables operate because their cladding has a refractive
index that is slightly lower than that of the core.
• This means that light passing down the core undergoes total internal
reflection when it reaches the core / cladding boundary, and it is
thereby contained within the core of the optical fibre.

Repeaters and amplifiers
• There is a maximum distance over which signals may be transmitted over fibre optic cabling.
• This is limited not only by the attenuation of the cable, but also the distortion of the light signal along the
cable.
• In order to overcome these effects and transmit the signals over longer distances, repeaters and amplifiers
are used.
• Opto-electric repeaters may be used.
• These devices convert the optical signal into an electrical format where it can be processed to ensure that
the signal is not distorted and then converted back into the optical format.
• It may then be transmitted along the next state of the fibre optic cable.
• An alternative approach is to use an optical amplifier.
• These amplifiers directly amplify the optical signal without the need to convert the signal back into an
electrical format.
• The amplifiers consist of a length of fibre optic cable that is doped with a rare earth mineral named Erbium.
• The treated fibre cable is then illuminated or pumped with light of a shorter wavelength from another laser
and this serves to amplify the signal that is being carried.
• In view of the much reduced cost of fibre optic amplifiers over repeaters, amplifiers are far more widely
used. Most repeaters have been replaced, and amplifiers are used in virtually all new installations these
days.

Receivers
• Light travelling along a fibre optic cable needs to be converted into an electrical signal so that it
can be processed and the data that is carried can be extracted.
• The component that is at the heart of the receiver is a photo-detector.
• This is normally a semiconductor device and may be a p-n junction, a p-i-n photo-diode or an
avalanche photo-diode.
• Photo-transistors are not used because they do not have sufficient speed.
• Once the optical signal from the fibre optic cable has been applied to the photo-detector and
converted into an electrical format it can be processed to recover the data which can then be
passed to its final destination.
• Fibre optic transmission of data is generally used for long distance telecommunications network
links and for high speed local area networks.
• Currently fibre optics is not used for the delivery of services to homes, although this is a long term
aim for many telcos.
• By using optical fibre cabling here, the available bandwidth for new services would be
considerably higher and the possibility of greater revenues would increase.
• Currently the cost oft his is not viable, although it is likely to happen in the medium term.

Functional Advantages
The functional advantages of optical fibers are −

• The transmission bandwidth of the fiber optic cables is higher than the
metal cables.
• The amount of data transmission is higher in fiber optic cables.
• The power loss is very low and hence helpful in long-distance
transmissions.
• Fiber optic cables provide high security and cannot be tapped.
• Fiber optic cables are the most secure way for data transmission.
• Fiber optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference.
• These are not affected by electrical noise.

Physical Advantages
The physical advantages of fiber optic cables are −

• The capacity of these cables is much higher than copper wire cables.
• Though the capacity is higher, the size of the cable doesn’t increase like it does in
copper wire cabling system.
• The space occupied by these cables is much less.
• The weight of these FOC cables is much lighter than the copper ones.
• Since these cables are di-electric, no spark hazards are present.
• These cables are more corrosion resistant than copper cables, as they are bent
easily and are flexible.
• The raw material for the manufacture of fiber optic cables is glass, which is
cheaper than copper.
• Fiber optic cables last longer than copper cables.

Disadvantages
Although fiber optics offer many advantages, they have the following
drawbacks −
• Though fiber optic cables last longer, the installation cost is high.
• The number of repeaters are to be increased with distance.
• They are fragile if not enclosed in a plastic sheath. Hence, more
protection is needed than copper ones.

Applications of Fiber Optics
The optical fibers have many applications. Some of them are as follows −
• Used in telephone systems
• Used in sub-marine cable networks
• Used in data link for computer networks, CATV Systems
• Used in CCTV surveillance cameras
• Used for connecting fire, police, and other emergency services.
• Used in hospitals, schools, and traffic management systems.
• They have many industrial uses and also used for in heavy duty
constructions.

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Module: 5

Optical Fibre bundles and

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The functional advantages of optical fibers are −

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The physical advantages of fiber optic cables are −

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