CHAPTER ONE

RESEARCH METHODS: AN INTRODUCTION

1.1 MEANING & DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

The term ‘Research’ consists of two words: Research = Re + Search. ‘Re’ means again and
again and ‘Search’ means to find out something. Research in simplest terms refers to search for
knowledge. In formal sense it is a systematic study of a problem attacked by a deliberately
chosen strategy which starts with choosing an approach to preparing blue print (design) acting
upon it in terms of designing research hypotheses, choosing methods and techniques, selecting or
developing data collection tools, processing the data, interpretation and ends with presenting
solution/s of the problem.
Definitions of Research
- Research is essentially an investigation, a recording and analysis of evidences for the
purpose of gaining knowledge. (Robert Ross).
- Research is an organized enquiry designed and carried out to provide information for
solving a problem, (Fred kerlinger).
- Research is a careful inquiry or Examination to discover new information or relationship
and to expand to and to verify the existing knowledge. (Francis Rummel).
- Research is a Process of collecting/gathering data and information by a scientific or
logical procedure that aims to solve a particular scientific problem.
- It is an honest, scientific investigation undertaken for the purpose of discovering new
facts or establishing new relationships among facts already known which will contribute
to the present body of knowledge and can lead to an effective solution of existing
problems.
These Definitions Emphasis the following characteristics of research
 Research must follow a systematic / scientific procedure and well drawn research plan.
 It is a controlled, empirical and critical investigation.
 An original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge.
 The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solutions
to a problem.
 Its purpose is to provide information for decision making and solving problems. Further
to establish relationship between the variables.

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  It is an organized and careful investigation /inquiry, recording, analyzing the available
evidence to gain knowledge.
Definitions of business research
Business research is defined as the systematic and objective process of generating information
for aid in making business decisions. Business research can be described as a systematic and
organized effort to investigate a specific problem encountered in the work setting, which needs a
solution. The managers encounter big and small problems on a daily basis, which they have to
solve by making the right decisions.
In business, research is usually conducted to resolve problematic issues in the areas of
accounting, finance, management, and marketing.
1.2 TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
A. Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive research: The major purpose of descriptive research is to describe the
characteristics of a population or phenomenon. It attempts to summarize answers to questions
like who, what, when, where, how. The answer to questions to why is not given by descriptive
research. Descriptive research classifies, describes and measures data. In social science and
business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for descriptive research
studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Descriptive studies are
based on some previous understanding of the nature of the problem. Its purpose is to describe the
state of affairs, as it exists at present. Examples of descriptive researches include:
 Frequency of shopping
 Preferences of people
Analytical research: the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation, comparison, and possible conclusions of the material. It
addresses the questions of "why?", "so what?", and "what next?”
B. Applied vs. Fundamental
Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure) research.
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization. It is driven by the need to provide answers to specific questions
in order to solve a problem. Where as

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Fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalizations and with the formulation of a
theory. It is driven by curiosity and the need to explore new areas of knowledge in different
fields. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge.
Research on pure mathematics; Research concerning human behavior carried on with a view to
make generalizations about human behavior are some examples of basic researches. E.g. what
are the symptoms of workplace anxiety? On the other hand Research to identify social,
economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or research to find out
whether certain communications will be read and understood or the marketing research or
evaluation research are examples of applied research. E.g. what are the treatment options for
workplace anxiety?

C. Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity (numbers and graphs). It is used to test or
confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable
facts about a topic. Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as
numbers, and surveys with closed-ended questions.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. Qualitative research is expressed in words. It
is used to understand concepts, thoughts or experiences. This type of research enables you to
gather in-depth insights on topics that are not well understood. Common qualitative methods
include interviews with open-ended questions, observations described in words, and literature.
Qualitative research is especially important in the behavioral sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behavior. Through such research we can analyze the
various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people
like or dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in
practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one should seek
guidance from experimental psychologists.

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D. Conceptual vs. Empirical
Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. It relies on
literature.
Empirical research is a research where conclusion is drawn from evidence verifiable by
experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory.
 Relies on experience or observation alone, i.e., data based research
 Capable of being verified by observation or experiment
 Experimenter has control over variables
E. Case study
Case study refers to the collection and presentation of detailed information about a particular
participant or small group, frequently including the accounts of subjects themselves. A form of
qualitative descriptive research, the case study looks intensely at an individual or small
participant pool, drawing conclusions only about that participant or group and only in that
specific context. Researchers do not focus on the discovery of a universal, generalizable truth,
nor do they typically look for cause-effect relationships; instead, emphasis is placed on
exploration and description. It studies typically examine the interplay of all variables in order to
provide as complete understanding of an event or situation as possible.
F. Some other types of research
All other types of variations of one or more of the type of research stated here under are based on
either the purpose research, the time required to accomplish research, and the environment in
which research is done.
Longitudinal and one- time research: in for more case data are collected at multiple time points
and comparisons are made across time. In other word research is carried on over several time
periods. Whereas, one time research is the research that is confined to a single time period. In
one time research data are collected at a single point in time and it is also known as cross
sectional research
Conclusion oriented and Decision oriented: a research can be also conclusion oriented and
decision oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a
problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.
Decision oriented research is always for the need of decision makers and the researcher in this
case is not free to embark up on research according to his inclinations. Operation research is an

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example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executives with
a quantitative base for decision regarding operation under their control.
Historical Research: is a research that utilizes historical survey like documents remains, etc, to
study event or ideas of the past including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote
point of time. In other word, it is a research about events in the past; the process of
systematically examining past events or events to arrive at any account of what happened in the
past.

Research Approaches
In brief when you start to think about your research methodology/Approach, you need to think
about the difference between the two basic approaches to research. Those are: Quantitative
approach and Qualitative approach.
The Quantitative research is a research that relies primarily on the collection of quantitative data.
It involve the generation of data in quantitative from which can be subjected to rigorous
Quantitative analysis in formal and rigid fashion.
Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions
and behavior. Research in such situation is a function of researcher’s insight and impressions.
Such an approach generates result either in non-quantitative form or in the form which are not
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. It is generally a research relaying primarily on the
collection of qualitative data.
Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Quantitative and Qualitative research methods/approaches differ primarily in their analytical
objective, type of Question they pose, type of data collection instrument they use, forms of data
they produce and in the degree of flexibility built in to the study design.
Comparison of Quantitative and Qualitative research approaches

Quantitative Qualitative
- seek to confirm hypotheses - seek to explore
about phenomenon phenomenon
- instruments used more - instruments used more
General frame work rigid style of eliciting and flexible ,interactive style
categorizing response to of eliciting &
question categorizing response to
- use highly structured Questions

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 methods such as - use semi-structured
questionnaire, structured methods like in depth –
interview & observation interview , focus groups
and participant
observation
Analytical objective - to quantify variations - to describe variations
- to predict casual - to describe and
relationship relationship
- to describe characteristic of - to describe individuals
a population and group experience and
norms
Questionnaire format “close-ended” “open-ended”

Data format Numerical Textual

- study design is stable from - some aspect the study is

beginning to end flexible (adding &
- participant response do not omitting questions)
Flexibility in study influence/determine how - Participant response
Design and which question affects how and which
researcher which question question researcher ask
researcher ask next next.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answer to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings.
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insight into it. studies with this
object in view are known as Exploratory Research
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group –
studies with this object in view are known as Descriptive Research.
3. To Determine the frequency with which something occurs / or with which it is associated
with something else – studies with this object in view are known as Diagnostic Research
studies.
4. To test the hypotheses of a casual relationship between variables – such studies are
known as Hypothesis Testing Research.

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Generally the objective of any research study is either to explore a phenomenon or to describe
the characteristics of a particular event /object/ individual or groups or to diagnose or to test the
relationship between variables.
MOTIVATION FOR RESEARCH
What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about
new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like
may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.
1.4 RESEARCH METHOD VS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research Method: - research method is all about those methods / techniques / procedures for
conducting of research. Research method, thus, refers to the methods the researchers use in
performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which are used by the
researcher during the course of studying his research are termed as research methods.
In short, research methods can be put into the following three groups:
a. Those methods which are concerned with the collection of Date (i.e. methods of data
collection)
b. Those methods / statistical techniques which are used for establishing relationship
between the data and the unknowns (i.e., methods of analysis)
c. Those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of the result obtained.
Research Methodology: Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research
problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it
we study the various steps that are generally adopted by the researcher in studying his research
problem along with the logic behind them. It is necessary to the researcher to know not only the
research methods / techniques but also the methodology. Researcher not only need to know how

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to develop certain questionnaires, indices or tests, how to calculate, how to apply particular
research techniques, but they also need to know which of these method or technique are relevant
and which are not and what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to
understand the assumption underlying various methods and they need to know the criteria by
which they can decide that certain methods / procedures will be applicable to certain problems
and others will not.
The scope of research methodology is wider than that of research method. Thus, when we talk
about research methodology we are not only talk of research methods but also consider the
LOGIC behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are
using a particular method and why we are not using others so that research result are capable of
being evaluated.
 Why research study has been undertaken?
 How the research problem has been defined?
 Why the hypotheses has been formulated and in what way?
 What data have been collected and what particular method has been adopted? And why
not others?
 Why particular method of analysis has been used?, and
A host of other similar questions are usually answered when we talk of research methodology
concerning a research study.
1.5 RESEARCH AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD
For clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific method.
The two terms, research and scientific method are closely related. Scientific method in research
is a way of obtaining knowledge based on objective observations. It is a step-by-step description
of an apparent logical and/or chronological progression in research activities. Science deals with
phenomena that are observable. Scientific experiments are empirical and constantly explore new
body of knowledge and discover new concepts and ideas. It is progressive in nature.
George Lundbery defines scientific research as “one consisting of systematic observation,
classification and interpretation of data.” Observation, hypothesis, and verification are the three
important components of scientific enquiry.
The following are the steps in scientific research;
1. Observation: Observe some aspects of the universe. what to be studied

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 2. Construct a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is
an attempt to answer your question with an explanation that can be tested.
3. Make predictions using the hypothesis: Predictions must be easy to measure. A good
hypothesis allows you to then make a prediction:
"If _____ [I do this] _____, then _____ [this] _____ will happen."
4. Test prediction by doing an Experiment: Test those predictions by experiments or further
observations and thus your hypothesis is supported or not.
5. Repeat step 3 and 4 until there are no discrepancies between theory and experiment and /
or observation.

THEORY

Consistent

Observation Hypotheses Prediction

Not
Consistent
(Modify
Hypotheses)

Test

1.5.1 RESEARCH PROCESS

Achieving objective of research study requires the knowledge of the overall research process.
Research process consist a series of steps / actions necessary to effectively carryout research and
the desired sequencing of these steps.
As shown in the chart below the research process consist of a number of closely related
activities. But such activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed
sequence. At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be undertaken. If
subsequent procedures have not been taken in to account in the early stages, serious difficulties
may arise which may even prevent the completion of the study. One should remember that the
various steps involved in a research process are not mutually exclusive nor they are separate and
distinct. They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the research has to

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be constantly anticipating at each step in the research process the requirement of the subsequent
steps. However, as portray in the chart, the following order concerning various step provides a
useful procedural guideline regarding the research process; (1) Formulating the research
objective, (2) Extensive literature survey, (3) Developing Goals / objectives and Hypotheses, (4)
Preparing the research Design, (5) Determining sample Design, (6) Collecting the Data, (7)
Execution of the project, (8) Analysis of Data, (9) Hypotheses testing, (10) Interpretation &
Generalization, and (11) Report writing.

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 F

FF
Review concepts
and theories

Define Designing Data

Research Analysis Interpretation and
Research Formulate Data
Review of literature (including (hypotheses report writing
Problem Hypotheses Collection
sample design) testing)

Review previous
research findings

Research process in flow chart

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Step 1: Formulating research problem: To do a research, a topic or a research problem must
be identified. So, the first step in the research process is the choice of suitable problem for
investigation. Research takes place when there is a problematic situation and a need to solve the
problem. The identification of a research problem is a difficult phase of the entire research
process. You can observe people or things, visit places, read print materials, or consult experts to
find the research problem that is right for you.
Only when the problem is carefully and precisely defined can research be designed to provide
pertinent information. Part of the process of problem identification includes specifying the
objectives of the specific research that might be undertaken.
Step 2: Extensive Literature Survey: It is also called document review or literature survey. It
has to be directly related to the problem to be investigated. The materials to be reviewed may
include academic journals, conference proceedings, dissertations, and government report, and
policy report, publications of international organizations, books, and newsletters. The best place
for the survey is library. In general, literature survey is used to familiarize oneself with the issue
and establish credibility and to learn from other and stimulate new ideas.

Step 3: Developing Objectives and working Hypotheses: Defining the objective of a research
is one of the most important steps going along with formulation of research problems in the
research process. The processes of objective definition begin by writing down broad and general
goals of the study. Statement of objective is of basic importance because it determine the data
which are to be collected, the characteristics of the data which are relevant, relation which are to
be explored, the choice of methods / techniques to be used in these explorations.
After extensive literature survey, developing of research hypothesis or research questions will
take place. Hypothesis is a tentative intelligent guess postulating from the purpose of directing
the researcher towards the solution of problem. Or it is a statement which predicts the
relationship between two or more variables. It is necessary link between theory and
investigation, usually stated after an extensive survey of the literature.
Usually it is derived from the deductive logic of the objectives under investigation. A one-to-one
correlation might exist between the objectives and their corresponding hypothesis. Thus there
could be as many research hypotheses as there are objectives. There are also objectives that do
not need formulation of hypothesis.

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Step 4: Preparing a research Design (creating research Design): Defining research problem
provides a format for further investigation. A well defined problem points to a method of
investigation. There is no one best method of research for all situations. Rather, there are a wider
variety of methods for the researcher to choose from. The sources of information for a study and
the research design go hand in hand. They both depend upon how much is known about the
problem. If little is known about the phenomenon to be investigated, exploratory research is
feasible. If the problem is precisely and unambiguously formulated, descriptive or causal
research is needed.

Step 5: Determining Sample Design: All the times under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the
target population. There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and
judgment. The population is defined in keeping with the objective of the study.
Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the
entire population in the study. This type of research is called census study, because data is
gathered on every member of the population.
Usually the population is too large for the researcher to attempt all of its members. A small, but
carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The researcher must decide on
the size and the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known as the sample design. In
other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected
for obtaining a sample from a given population.
Sampling methods are classified as either probability or Non-probability. In probability
sampling, each members of the population has a known probability of being selected and it
includes random, systematic, stratified and cluster / multistage sampling. In Non-probability
sampling members are selected from a population in some nonrandom manner, which includes
convenient, purposive, quota, snowball sampling.
Step 6: Collecting the Data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that the data
at hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. Each
research project use a data collection method / techniques appropriate to a particular research
methodology. The two primary goals for both quantitative and qualitative studies are to
maximize response and accuracy. There are different methods of data collection in both
approaches, like collecting data through experiment, survey, observation, interview, group

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discussion, schedule and so forth. At this stage the researcher should select one of these methods
of collecting the data taking in to consideration the nature, objective and scope of investigation,
financial resource, availability of time and the desire degree of accuracy.
Step 7: Analysis of Data: After the data have been collected the researcher turn to the task of
analyzing them. The analysis of data require a number of closely related operation such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding and
tabulation and then drawing statistical inference. There are different methods of data analysis in
both approaches, like descriptive, bivariate, multivariate, content, comparative, and thematic and
so forth. The researcher should select the method of analysis based upon the purpose and the
availability of skill.
Step 8: Interpretation and reporting the results: After analyzing data the next step in the
research process as interpretation and reporting of the final results. Interpretation is nothing but
the explanation of findings on the basis of some theory. With regard to report writing, the most
important consideration in preparing any research report is the nature of the audience. The
purpose is to communicate information, and therefore, the report should be prepared specifically
for the readers of the report.
Qualities of a good research:
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to be
taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject the
use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning
and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out research.
Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas deduction is the process
of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact,
logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects
of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to
research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.

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