2004 35th Annual IEEE Power Electronics Specialisls Conference
Thermal Analysis for a Coupled Inductor for 4-Channel Interleaved Automotive
Bi-directional DC/DC Convkrt'er based on Finite-Element Modeling
Seung-Yo Lee, Arthur G. Pfaelzer
lntronics, Inc.
Nonvood, MA 02062 U.S.A.
seungyolee@yahoo.com,
APfaelzer@intronicspower.com
Abstract-In this paper, thermal analyses for inductors with
integrated structure designed for an automotive hi-directional
DClDC converter are performed. An interleaved DCmC
converter system with 4-channelswas chosen for the automotive
converter topology with 42V/14V dual output voltages. The
coupled inductors were designed and used for the 4-channel
DClDC converter. A 3-dimensional thermal model based on
tinitrelement modeling (FEM) using I-DEAS is presented, and
the thermal behavior of the integrated inductors is simulated
and analyzed. The analyzed thermal result can help to design
inductors considering severe ambient temperature conditions.
1. INTRODUCTION
Thermal management is one of the most important design
considerations in an automotive bi-directional DCIDC
converter because the operational ambient temperature of the
converter system is relatively high (above 85OC). Also, a high
power density is required by the space restriction in
automotive applications [I], and hence this makes the design
of an automotive DCiDC Converter more difficult. The
inductor may be the most critical component in the converter
system, because it will directly affect the choice of other
components and the overall converter volume. Also the
inductance of the inductor determines both the steady-state
and transient response of the converter system. In addition,
the size as well as system performance should he considered
when designing the inductor. Especially, the size of the
inductors in automotive applications is strongly restricted by
the rise of temperature. Therefore the temperature rise of the
inductor should he estimated before mounting the inductor
into a converter system. On the other hand, the integrated
inductor design is a way to reduce the total volume of the
converter system and also possibly can reduce the power
losses of the inductor [2-31. However, in cases where an
integrated structure is used, this makes the estimations of the
power losses and also temperature distribution of the inductor
more complicated because the core power losses are not
evenly distributed through the core structure. A one
dimensional thermal analysis is thus not good enough to
estimate temperature distribution of the integrated inductor.
In this paper, thermal analyses for inductors using an
integrated structure which were designed for an automotive
bi-directional DCDC converter are performed. An
interleaved DCIDC converter system with 4-channels was
chosen for the bi-directional automotive converter topology
with 42V/14V voltages. A 3-dimensional thermal model for
the inductors with integrated structure was developed and is
0-7803-8399-0/04/$20.0002004 IEEE.
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Aackn, Germany, ZW4
J. D. van Wyk
Center for Power Electronics Systems
The Bradley Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, VA 24061 U.S.A., daan@vt.edu
presented based on finite-element modeling (FEM) using
I-DEAS software. The thermal behavior of the inductors
designed for the 4-channel DCDC converter is simulated and
analyzed using the developed thermal model.
11. DESCRIPTION
OF 4-CHANNEL INTERLEAVED
BI-DIRECTIONAL DCIDCCONVERTER WITH INTEGRATED
INDUCTORS
Fig. 1 shows the 42V/14V bi-directional DC/DC converter
with 4-channels for automotive applications. The inductors
for channel 1 and 3 are coupled, and the inductors for channel
2 and 4 are also combined to realize an integrated inductor
structure for the 4-channel DCIDC converter. Using the
topology shown in Fig. 1, bi-directional power flow for the
42V114V buck converter and the 14V/42V boost converter
are achieved. The integrated inductor structure is shown in
Fig. 2. The concept of the integrated inductor is to integrate
the two individual inductors of the two interleaving channels
(channel I , 3 or channel 2 , 4 as in Fig. 1) with a 180" phase
shift into a single pair of cores[2-31. Planar E-I cores were
chosen for the integrated inductor structure to improve
thermal behavior of the inductor. As shown in Fig. 2, the two
inductors' copper windings are realized with a pair of E4
cores on a printed circuit board (PCB). According to the
positions of the air gaps, the integrated inductor can be
classified into the uncoupled and the coupled inductors [3].
Fig. 2 (a) shows the cross sectional view of the structure for
the uncoupled inductor. There are air gaps in the two outer
legs of the core, and the air gap in the center leg is removed
from the core. In this case, all the fluxes generated by the two
windings in the two outer legs flow through the center leg
because the reluctance in the center leg is very low.
Accordingly, the interaction between the two flux loops does
not exist. On the other hand, the cross sectional view of the
structure for the coupled inductor is shown in Fig. 2 (b). An
air gap is introduced into the center leg of the E-I cores to
generate the coupling effect between the two inductors. Due
to the air gap in the center leg, the center leg is no longer a low
reluctance path for flux. The flux generated by each winding
is distributed through all the three legs of the core. These
explanations are treated thoroughly [3]. To get the coupling
effects for the coupling inductors for both of the buck and
boost modes of the hi-directional DCiDC converter, the
following equivalent inductances can be obtained from the
coupled inductor circuit analyses. Equations (1)-(3) represent
the equivalent inductances for the buck converter mode
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 2004 35th Annual IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference Aarhen, Germany. 2004

according to the switching combinations of the top and

bottom switches on each channel of the converter as shown in
Fig. 3, based on the circuit topology of Fig. 1.
Coupled Inductor

-
Buck Mode
(from 42V to 14Vl
VI1

(from 14V to 42V) as0lo.Q rscmn4

Fig. 3. Inductor voltage waveforms for the buck mode o f the converter
(Vin=V42 and Vo=V14 in Fig.1).

L2 - M'
L,, =- (3)
D).M
L t (D.1
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram ofthe 4shannel interleaved bidirectional
DCIDC converter with WOcoupled inductors. where L is self inductance and M mutual inductance of the
two windings on the channel 1 and 3, and these values can be
found by using a magnetic reluctance model of the core
'enite cwy air gap, copperwinding structure. D is the duty cycle ratio and D'=l-D . The
explanation for each switching section is as follows:

- Sectionl: The top switch is on and the bottom switch is off

for channel 1. The top switch is off and the bottom switch is
no air gap on for channel 3.
(a) Non-coupling shucture
- Section2 The top switch is off and the bottom switch is on
femite core copper winding for channel 1 and 3, respectively.

- Section3: The top switch is off and the bottom switch is on

for channel 1. The top !;witch is on and the bottom switch is
.air gap
c off for channel 3.

(b) Coupling structure - Section4: This case is the same as the case for section 2.
Similarly to the buck converter mode, the equivalent
inductances for the boost converter mode can be obtained as
(4)-(6)according to the switchingcombinations of the top and
bottom switches on each channel of the converter as shown in
Fig. 4, based on the circuit topology ofFig. I. In this case, the
input and output direction should be changed.

(c)3-DviewoftheintegratedinductorstructunwilhapairofplanarE-l
corn for channel I and 3 (or channel 2 and 4).

Fig. 2. Integrated inductor stmctures used for bidirectional DCIDC

converter (one pair of inductors is shown).

In this paper, we will use only a pair of inductors on channel 1 i. I. 1 .

and 3 for the analysis because the behavior of the other pair of ssclonl ssill0.Q .*ClDN SaT(lO"4

inductors on channel 2 and 4 is exactly the same as for Fig. 4. Inductor voltage waveforms for the boost mode ofthe converter
channel 1 and 3. (Vm=V 14 and Vo=V42 m Fig.1).

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2004 35th Annual IEEE Powcr Electronics Specialisis Conference Aochen. G e m m y , 2W4

where K = ~ D-' =Ll - D, .

D'

To show typical waveforms, the simulated waveforms

which were obtained from the 4-channel interleaved
hi-directional DC/DC converter are presented in Fig. 5 and
Fig. 6. Fig. 5 depicts each channel's inductor current and
output voltage waveforms for each case ofthe buck and boost
modes of the bi-directional converter with the uncoupled
inductors (in the case where the coupling coefficient is 0).
Also, Fig. 6 represents each channel's inductor current and
output voltage waveforms for the bi-directional converter
with the reverse coupled inductors (in the case where the
coupling coefficient is -0.5) for the buck and boost modes.

In addition, some experimental waveforms are shown in 42V

Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 by using the uncoupled inductor and the
coupled inductors. Fig. 7 represents inductor current and ---------
(b) Baast mode waveforms
drain-source voltages for the top and bottom switches in one Fig. 6. Simulated inductor currentS and ourput voltage waveforms using
channel of the 4-channel converter with the uncoupled the coupled inductor (coupling coefficient a=-0.5).
inductors (in the case where the coupling coefficient is 0). The
output voltage waveforms for each case ofthe buck and boost
modes of the bi-directional converter are also shown in Fig.7. 14V
Fig. 8 shows the experimental waveforms of the coupled
inductor (in the case where the coupling coefficient is -0.6)
for the buck and boost modes.

1 4 M Output Voltage

- - - - - - - - -
(a) Buck mode waveforms

5AJdiv

SOVldiv
4 2 M Output Voltage
L
.
I
-- ...- .*- .I_ .Am
"I
_I...

(b)Boost mode waveforms

.I_..A". ..,-.
Vds (Bottom Switch)
........
: ": ..: .....<."." " ! . . '.......^.r.i."......
..:.i....i.".^.i
Fig. 5. Simulated inductor currents and output voltage waveforms using (b) Bmst mode waveforms (channel I)
the uncoupled inductor (coupling coefficient a=O). Fig. 1. Experimental inductor currenu and output voltage wavefarms
using the uncoupled inductor
(light load condition, coupling coefficient a=O).

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 2004 35th A n n u l IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference Aachen. Germany, 2004

,,..., ~ ... .., . .. . . . . ..I_ ....i . . . . . :_ , ,.,.,.,.,. : ... ,

TABLE
II

14V 0up.t v&g

E. Thermo-physical Properties of the Integrated Inductor

Thermo-physical properties of the materials used for the
inductor have to be determined to develop an accurate thermal
model of the integrated inductor. Thermo-physical properties
of the copper, the fertite material for the core, the FR4
l : . i i ^ l . ..:I.::.,. .ji ....... .:. / h i ' .,
(a) Buck mode waveforms (channel I) material for the PCB, and the aluminum used for heatsink are
,
.
.~ , , , i . ~ l . I .... .i. i/.
.
.i
. . . .i i .~___, ,
available from literahne or websites [8-10]. The thermal
conductivity is an especially important property in thermal
analysis. Thermal conductivities used for the analysis are
given in table 111.
TABLE
Ill
THERMO-PHYSICAL P R O P E % N OF THE MATERIALS USED IN THERMAL

, . Vdr (Top Switch]

I
T ~ x ~ R.o D
. M V Owlr I CrnBf4
FiWe
. . 1 I
FRb ThrmulCmDwnd
AlUmi.
num
I

C. Estimation o f p o w e r Losses
An accurate estimation of power losses is also required for
a precise thermal modeling of the integrated inductor.
According to [4,5,6], the estimation of the power losses can
be approximated using I!qs. (7)-(11).

I ) Conductor Winding Loss

The conductor winding loss was calculated by using the
frequency dependent resistance of a multilayer inductor
winding represented by factor FQ as shown in Eq. (7).

(7)

where, Io: direct current, p-1 : DC resistance of the

R. =-
w.hc
conductor, pc:resistivity of the conductor(&), I: length of
the conductor (m), w: width of the conductor (m), h,: height or
thickness ofthe conducTor (m), 4: RMS value offh harmonic
current component (A), and FRi: Fn factor corresponding talJh
ax. current component:

(6.skin depth (m) ), 2 ~: the

, number of whole layers in a
=:
winding portion, N,: the number of layers, II the =e:
W"
CCw,"~ Tmd.* -+'..is rnitUI*.d
EICm Comci.r# (W~J-. kblP-. PCB layer or space copper factor, N. : the number of tuns per
Nm~wbd EMDmluII
mndu*or m ~ ~ ~ a v m i i p ,0 Z.ZIuH1 22IM] i.57mm layer, w " : the overall winding width (m).
covpl.4 MIIrnM
n-r PLT-(PMIIP.) 0.6 2.21uHl 52lM1 i.57hm

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2004 35th Annual IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference Aachen. German): 2W4

To estimate conductor winding losses more accurately, 2) Femte Core Loss

Fourier analyses were carried out hy using Saber simulation to Loss in the magnetic material is often predicted using the
obtain harmonic current components for the uncouplea and Steinmetz Equation (9).
the coupled inductor currents, respectively. The Fourier
analysis results for the inductor currents are represented in
Fig. 9 for the buck converter mode. Fig. 9 (a) shows the result
for the inductor current in the case of the uncoupled inductor
and Fig. 9 (b) shows the result for the case of the coupled where p,(t) is the time-average power loss per unit volume,
inductor current. It,is noticed that the ac current amplitude of
the uncoupled inductor current is much higher than the BO is the peak flux amplitude, f is the frequency of
coupled inductor current at the switching frequency of 100 sinusoidal excitation and the k, a, p are the empirical
kHz.We can expect that the ac losses of the conductors using parameters determined by the core material. However,
the reversed coupled inductor will he lower than those using
because the Steinmetz Equation, as well as the data provided
the uncoupled inductor from the results. In this paper, the ac by manufacturers of magnetic material, is based on sinusoidal
currents up to the SIh harmonic component were taken into
excitation, several efforts to calculate the core loss with
account for the conductor loss calculation (the 100 kHz non-sinusoidal waveforms have been carried out and reported
switching frequency was considered as a fundamental ac in the literature for the switching power converter
component). The estimated winding losses are shown in Fig.
applications [6]. Following the literature, the core loss can be
12.
calculated by using equation (10). In this paper, equation (IO)
was adopted for the core loss estimation to consider the
non-sinusoidal excitation of the windings.

sg 0.1

-20
. . . .
,,,.,I,
...............

IV1:x')

-1
r.ut
........................

E It is necessary to know the flux density waveforms in each

leg of the core to estimate core losses properly in the case of
using (IO). Accordingly, the flux density waveform in each
(a) Fouricr analysis rcsult for an uncoupled inductor current wavcform leg ofthe core was simulated by Saber software. Due to the ac
(inductance L=2.2", coupling coeficicnt (I= 0). flux cancellation effect in the center leg of the integrated
inductors, the core losses can he reduced compared to the
individual discrete cores. Fig. 10 shows the flux density
waveforms in each leg of the core for each case of the
uncoupled and coupled inductors, and those waveforms were
used to estimate core losses. Because the ac fluxes @, and
are only determined by the volt-second of the corresponding
windings as shown in (12) and (13), the ac fluxes in the three
legs for the uncoupled and the coupled inductors are the same
if the voltage-second and the windings are the same.

1
@, = - v, dt
q .+ _......
211
01
....................
1
1...................................
~ larnsmjimai
1.......
!
N,
1
@, = - vl dt
N,
oms a.om om=
~ .o ~
"I,
mm
. 001901

(b) Fourier analysis result for a coupled inductor currcnt waveform Though the flux waveforms are the same in the uncoupled
(inductance Lmrx2n2,4 =2.2pH, coupling coefficient a= -0.6). and coupled inductors, it is reported that the coupled inductor
has lower core loss in the center leg of the core than the
Fig. 9. Fouricr analysis msults for the buck modc inductor currents uncoupled inductor, because the flux distribution in the center
leg of the coupled inductor is more evenly distributed

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 ~

2004 35th Annual IEEE Power Electronics Specialists Conference Aachen, Germany, 2004

compared to the uncoupled inductor. However, in this paper, copper layer are due to the inductor current and the associated
this effect is not considered. Following the flux waveforms in skin and proximity effects. The core losses consist of
Fig. 10, the core structure was divided into 3 sections for the hysteresis losses (due to excitation) and eddy current losses.
finite element thermal model as shown in Fig. 11, because the Due to the effect of the integration, the flux of the center leg is

.
flux waveform is different in the center lee and outer lees.
~~
L
U,:"*,
IW,
I

.............
'VI
the sum of the fluxes in the left and right outer legs. As
mentioned above, the flux density waveform is different in the
center leg and the outer legs for both the uncoupled and
ms ~

5 coupled inductors, and hence the ferrite core was divided into
Y
three sections (as showm in Fig. 11) in order to apply power
losses separately depending on the applicable core excitation.

The effect ofconvection cooling is also to be considered in

the thermal model. It is also necessary to determine the heat
transfer between different materials and layers shown in Fig.
11. The TMG software of I-DEAS, which is a comprehensive
heat transfer simulation package, was used for the thermal
analysis. TMG software makes it easy to model heat transfer
processes, including conduction, radiation, free and forced
convection, etc [7]. In the finite-element (FE) model, the
.. following assumptions 'were made: 1) The copper layers on
. (a) Uncoupled inductor
-..........
,
,q*>
the top and the bottom side of the FR4 material had perfect
contact with the FR4 at the shared surface of the interface
- 8
................. layers. 2) The power loss was generated uniformly across
each copper layer, while each ferrite core division had a

.
Y
: : :
miw
different power loss density. 3) Each layer had a uniform
thickness and no curvafure. The estimated power losses for
the integrated inductors for both uncoupled and coupled
E structures are shown in Fig. 12. Also, boundary conditions
used for the thermal analysis are listed in table IV.

7Lo., Comp.d.0" I
E

(b) Coupled inductor

Fig. IO. Flux density waveforms in each leg of thc corn.

Alr gap m h a outer kgn 0 235mm

I \

Ivr gap in the canlsr Bg 0 7Wmm

Fig. 11. Division of fcrritc core according to flux dcnsity distribution
(cross sectional view).
m1
- CONOITICIN
BOUNDARY
TABLEIV
USEDIN TMG THERMAL
MODELING

CdmtantC~ciert FneCdwrdon

D.3-0Finite-Element Thermal Model of the Coupled
Inductor
Only one pair of the integrated inductors (on channel 1 and
3) shown in Fig. 1 was thermally analyzed because the other
pair of inductors (on channel 2 and 4) would have the same
thermal behavior as the one analyzed. In the thermal model,
heat in the inductor is generated by multiple sources within
the copper layer and ferrite core. The power losses in the
ANALYSIS RESULTS
IV. THERMAL
Thermal analyses wme performed for the uncoupled and
the coupled inductors, respectively. The same power rating
for the converter was :applied to estimate power losses for
each case. Also, the same copper winding structure and the
same thermal boundary conditions shown in Table IV were
used to compare the thermal results fairly for the 2 cases. The
differences between two cases of the inductors are the core
structures as shown in Fig. 2 and the values of power losses
estimated as presented in Fig. 12.

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 2004 35th Annual lEEE Power Electronics Speciolisrs Conference Aachen. Germany, 2W4

Temperature distribution results ofthe integrated inductors

are shown in Fig. 13-15 for each case. Fig. 13 represents the ........ Ioc0.L.". w T "eas h
temperature distribution of an uncoupled inductor wiilibut
heatsink. Thermal results for the coupled inductor are shown
in Fig. 14-15. Fig. 14 is a case for the inductor without
heatsink and Fig. 15 is the case for the inductor with heatsink.
A comparison of the temperature distribution for each case is
presented in Fig. 16. The maximum temperature was
generated at the copper windings in all cases of the inductor. It
is noticed that the temperature rise of the coupled inductor is
lower than that of the uncoupled inductor. This is a natural
result obtained from the lower power losses generated in the
Mearur-d Points
coupled inductor. As expected, the heatsink reduces the
temperature. All results show that all the designed inductors Fig. 16. Comparisons oftcmpmhlre results.
are suitable for use in automotive applications from the
viewpoint of temperature rise. Due to the lower power losses in the coupled inductor
compared to the uncoupled inductor, it is apparent that the
temperature rise of the coupled inductor is lower than that of
..... the uncoupled inductor. From the analysis results, it is noticed
that the temperature rise of all the designed inductors are in
reasonable range for automotive applications. The analyzed
thermal results can help in the thermal design ofthe inductors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
!...................................... . . .i..
................ .............................
( a p p vicw Bottom view This work made use of ERC Shared Facilities supported by
Fig. 13. Tcmpcrahlrc distribution result of an uneauplcd inductor without the National Science Foundation under Award Number
EEC-9731677.

REFERENCES
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packaging of the passive camponcnts in an automotive DCIDC
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[Z] W. Chen, F.C. Lee, X. Zhou, and P. Xu, "Integrated planar inductor
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DCIDC converter," in Prac. IEEE PESC'99 Cad., Jun. 1999, pp.
.... ~~ ....................... ........................ ...................... .............
759-762.
(a)Top vicw (b) Bottom vicw
Fig. 14. Tcmpcrature distribution result of a couplcd inductor without [3] Pit-Lcong Wong, Peng Xu,Bo Yang, and Fred C. h e , "Performance
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[6] M.Albaeh, l k Durbaum and A. Brockmeyer, "Calculating core losscs
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V. CONCLUSION [XI Alex Galdman, Hondbookof modemferromagnetic materials, Kluwer
Acadcmie Publishers.
In this paper, a thermal 3-D model for the integrated [9] J. Sergent. A. h m , Thermal management handbook, MeGraw-Hill,
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[IO] Frank P. Incropera, David P. Dewitt, Fundamenrols ofheof and m m
presented. The uncoupled and coupled inductors were transfer, John Wilcy & Sons, Inc.. 1990.
designed for a bidirectional converter, and the thermal results
for those cases were compared with the same operating and
thermal boundary conditions.

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