• the process of systematically applying statistical and/or

logical techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap,

and evaluate data (Shamoo & Resnik (2003) as cited by US Health
and Human Services, n.d.)
Alpha (α) or Significance Level
• the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis
when the null hypothesis is true (Minitab, 2012)

• decided by the researcher and is based on the

confidence level of the data (Qualitygurus, 2023)

• common significance levels include 0.05 and

0.01
Confidence Level
• usually expressed as a percentage and is typically chosen by the
researcher based on the desired precision level and the study's
requirements (Qualitygurus, 2023)

• common confidence levels include 90%, 95%, and 99%.

In hypothesis tests, two errors are possible:
Type I error • Supporting the alternative hypothesis when the
null hypothesis is true or rejecting the null
hypothesis when it is true

Type II error • Not supporting the alternative hypothesis when

the alternative hypothesis is true or simply saying
not rejecting the null when it’s supposed to be
rejected (Gonick, 1993)
To understand it better:
• In an example of a courtroom, let’s say that the null hypothesis
is that a man is innocent and the alternative hypothesis is that
he is guilty. If you convict an innocent man (Type I error), you
support the alternative hypothesis (that he is guilty). A type II
error would be letting a guilty man go free (Gonick, 1993)
Why is an alpha level of 0.05 commonly used?
• Scientists have found that an alpha level of 5% (0.05) is a good
balance between a very large percentage like 10% (0.1) and a
very small percentage 1% (0.01) (Gonick, 1993).
P-value
• the evidence against a null hypothesis (Gonick, 1993)
• the smaller the p-value, the stronger the evidence that you
should reject the null hypothesis (Glen, n.d.)
• p- value < alpha, there is a sig diff so reject the null hypothesis
• p - value > alpha, there is no sig diff so do not reject the null
hypothesis