!

EU OPS PROCEDURES!
!
OCH (A):!
OCH is the lowest hight or altitude to be used for precision or non precision approaches at which a go-around must
be initiated to maintain the required separation from the obstacles.!
Obstacle clearance altitude is referenced to mean sea level and obstacle clearance height is referenced to the
threshold elevation or in the case of non-precision approaches to the airport elevation or the threshold elevation if
that is more than 2 m (7 ft) below the airport elevation. An obstacle clearance height for a circling approach is
referenced to the airport elevation. !
!
Minimum height/altitude rule:!
An aircraft should not fly at a height of less than a 1000 ft above the highest obstacle within a distance of 5 nautical
miles of the aircraft. Above mountainous terrain this height should be 2000 ft.!
!
Obstacles lighting:!
- greater than 492 ft (150 m) are lit by high-intensity flashing white lights day and night. NOTAM-ed when they fail!
- less than 492 ft (150 m) but higher than 300 ft are lit only when the obstacle is significant with medium-intensity
flashing red lights only at night. NOT NOTAM-ed when they fail.!
!
MSA:!
Minimum sector altitudes. Published on instrument approach charts: they provide at least 1000 ft vertical clearance
within 25 NM of the homing facility. !
!
MORAs:

Minimum Off Route Altitude. !
- Enroute MORA: provided an obstacle clearance within 10 nautical miles on both sides of the airways and within
a 10 NM radius around the ends of the airways.

Jeppesen charts: 2600a below the airway line!
- Grid MORA: Provides obstacle clearance within a section outlined by latitude and longitude lines. When
determining your current GRID MORA altitude from an en route chart, you should take the most restrictive
altitude of all the adjacent grid MORAs to your present position. Grid MORA gives 1000 feet obstacle clearance
in areas where the highest elevations are 5000 feet MSL or lower. MORA values clear all terrain by 2000 feet in
areas where the highest elevations are 5001 feet MSL or higher.!
!
MEA:!
Minimum en route altitude (MEA) is the safe altitude within the airway, i.e., 5 nautical miles either side of the airway
centerline, and a minimum altitude at which the navigation al aid reception, the two way communication with the
ATC and the obstacle clearance is guaranteed.!
Jeppesen charts: FL90 or 6000 below the airway line!
Navtech charts: 200 (black or blue on LL charts) below the airway line and below the MOCA!
!
MOCA:!
The lowest published altitude in effect between radio fixes on VOR airways, off-airway routes or route segments
which meets obstacle clearance requirements for the entire route segment. !
Vertical separation when the terrain elevation is between:!
0 - 3000 ft: 1000ft !
3000 - 5000 ft: 1500 ft!
5000 - : 2000 ft!
Jeppesen charts: 2300T below the airway line!
Navtech charts: 35 below the airway line !
!
IFR flight levels:!
The instrument flight rule (IFR) flight levels are based on the quadrantal and semicircle rule whenever an aircraft is
more than 3000 ft above mean sea level or above the appropriate transition level, whichever is the higher, and the
aircraft is in level flight. The levels are based on the aircraft's magnetic track:!
Flights at levels below 24,500 ft (quadrantal rule):!
!
Magnetic Track, degrees! Cruising Level, ft!
0 - 89! Odd thousand!
90 - 179! Odd thousand plus 500!
180 - 269! Even thousand!
270 - 359! Even thousand plus 500!
!
Therefore, vertical separation is only 500 ft. However, usually only thousand-feet levels are used.!
Flights at levels above 24,500 ft (semicircular rule):!
!
Magnetic Track, degrees! Cruising Level! RVSM Levels!
0 - 179! 250!
! 270! !
! 290! 290 310!
! 330! 330 350!
! 370! 370 390!
! 410! 410 430!
180-359! 260!
! 280! 300!
! 310! 320 340!
! 350! 360 380!
! 390! 400 420!
!
Therefore, vertical separation is only 1000 ft up to FL290 and 2000 ft above FL290 in non-RVSM airspace and only
1000 ft in RVSM airspace at all levels. !
- Vertical separation is increased to 2000 ft above FL290 in non-RVSM airspace because of increased altimeter
errors due to the lower air density experienced at these higher levels.!
- Reduced vertical separation minimum (RSVM) to 1000 ft separation above FL290 is granted to aircraft with
advanced and more accurate altimeters.!
- The lowest en route flight level must be at least 500 ft above the absolute minimum altitude. Minimum altitude on
an airway is at least 1000 ft above the highest obstacle within 15 nautical miles of the airway centerline.
Therefore, terrain/obstacle clearance is at least 1500 ft at the lowest usable flight level.!
!
RVSM requirements:

1. Two primary altimeter systems (agree within ± 200 feet); !
2. One automatic altitude control system; !
3. One altitude alerting system; !
4. A transponder that can be connected to the altitude measurement system in use for maintaining altitude. !
!
Weather Minima:!
- Decision Height (DH) or Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA)!
- Runway Visual Range (RVR) or visibility!
!
DH:!
Used for precision instrument approaches. DH is the height above the runway elevation at which a go-around must
be initiated if no adequate visual reference has established. It is the height above the ground so measured by the
Radio Altimeter (or with the local QFE on the barometric altimeter).!
Calculated by taking the higher of:!
- obstacle clearance height (OCH) for the aid and aircraft category!
- precision approach system minimum, i.e., ILS (CAT 1) 200ft, CAT 2 100 ft!
!
MDA:!
Used for non-precision instrument approaches. MDA is the altitude measured using the local QNH pressure
setting; it is the height above sea level, or MDA = airport elevation + height above the ground.!
Calculated by taking the higher of:!
- obstacle clearance height (OCH) for the aid and aircraft category !
- non-precision approach system minimums: localizer only 250 ft; VOR/DME 250 ft, VOR 300 ft; and NDB 300 ft.!
(Many operators add a further 50 ft, to the MDA, especially for large aircraft)!
!
RVR:!
It is an instrument based visibility measurement system which measures the range at which the runway high-
intensity lights can be seen in the direction of landing along the runway. The readings transmitted to the ATC who
informs the pilot. The RVR measured at 3 points along the runway:!
- touchdown point (touchdown zone)!
- midpoint!
- endpoint (stop end)!
… if the value less than 1500 m.!
Midpoint and stop-end values are only reported if they are less than the touchdown zone and less than 800 m or if
they are less 400 m. When all three values are given, the names are omitted. RVR is measured in steps of 25 m
up to 200 m, in steps of 50 m up to 800 m, and thereafter in steps of 100m.!
!
Visibility:!
- the greatest distance at which a black object can be seen against a bright background!
- the greatest distance at which lights of 1000 candelas can be seen against an unlit background!
!
Wind gust corrections applied to the approach speed:!
1/2 x stable wind (minimum of 5 knots) + full gust value up to a predetermined, type-specific limit of approximately
20 to 25 knots. !
Example, basic approach speed of 120 knots, headwind component 20 knots gusting to 28 knots:!
120 + 10 (1/2 stable wind) + 8 (gust value) = 138 knots (correct approach speed)!
!
For determining the MTOW for takeoff and landing calculations:!
50% headwind!
150% tailwind!
!
Approach Ban (EU OPS 1 page 46):!
During all approaches the airplane‘s descent path must be carefully monitored. 



Except in an emergency or when there has been a significant change in reported weather conditions, no more than
two successive approaches to an aerodrome may be carried out where both approaches have resulted in a go-
around.!
!
1. The commander may commence an instrument approach regardless of the reported RVR/Visibility but the
approach shall not be continued beyond the outer marker, or equivalent position, if the reported RVR/visibility is
less than the applicable minima.!


2. Where RVR is not available, RVR values may be derived by converting the reported visibility to RVR. 

Converted meteorological visibility (CMV))!

!
!
3. If, after passing the outer marker or equivalent position in accordance with (a) above, the reported RVR/visibility
falls below the applicable minimum, the approach may be continued to DA/H or MDA/H.!


4. Where no outer marker or equivalent position exists, the commander shall make the decision to continue or
abandon the approach before descending below 1.000 ft above the aerodrome on the final approach segment.!
If the MDA/H is at or above 1.000 ft above the aerodrome, commander shall make the decision to continue or
abandon the approach before descending below 500 ft above MDA/H.!


5. The approach may be continued below DA/H or MDA/H and the landing may be completed provided that the
required visual reference is established at the DA/H or MDA/H and is maintained.!


6. The touch-down zone RVR is always controlling. If reported and relevant, the midpoint and stop end RVR are
also controlling. The minimum RVR value for the mid-point is 125 m or the RVR required for the touch-down zone if
less, and 75 m for the stop-end. For airplanes equipped with a roll-out guidance or control system, the minimum
RVR value for the mid-point is 75 m!
!
Approach types (ICAO doc 8168 Pans OPS page 73):!
- Straight in: Wherever possible, a straight-in approach will be specified which is aligned with the runway centre
line. In the case of non-precision approaches, a straight-in approach is considered acceptable if the angle
between the final approach track and the runway centre line is 30° or less.!
- Circling: A circling approach will be specified in those cases where terrain or other constraints cause the final
approach track alignment or descent gradient to fall outside the criteria for a straight-in approach. The final
approach track of a circling approach procedure is in most cases aligned to pass over some portion of the
usable landing surface of the aerodrome.!
!
Aircraft approach categories (ICAO doc 8168 Pans OPS page 73):!
The criterion taken into consideration for the classification of airplanes by categories is the indicated airspeed at
threshold (Vat ), which is equal to the stall speed Vs0 (Stall speed in landing configuration) multiplied by 1.3, or stall
speed Vs1g (One-G stall speed: which the airplane can develop a lift force equal to its weight) multiplied by 1.23 in
the landing configuration at the maximum certificated landing mass. If both Vso and Vs1g are available, the higher
resulting Vat shall be applied.!
The landing configuration that is to be taken into consideration shall be defined by the operator or by the airplane
manufacturer. !
!
Aircraft categories will be referred to throughout this document by their letter designations as follows:!
- Category A: up to 90 kt indicated airspeed (IAS)!
- Category B: 91 kt - 120 kt IAS!
- Category C: 121 kt - 140 kt IAS (Airbus A320)!
- Category D: 141 kt -165 kt IAS!
- Category E: 166 kt - 210 kt IAS!
- Category H: Helicopters!
!
Aircraft wake turbulence categories:!
Wake turbulence is turbulence that forms behind an aircraft as it passes through the air. This turbulence includes
various components, the most important of which are wingtip vortices and jetwash. Jetwash refers simply to the
rapidly moving gases expelled from a jet engine; it is extremely turbulent, but of short duration. Wingtip vortices, on
the other hand, are much more stable and can remain in the air for up to three minutes after the passage of an
aircraft. Wingtip vortices occur when a wing is generating lift. Air from below the wing is drawn around the wingtip
into the region above the wing by the lower pressure above the wing, causing a vortex to trail from each wingtip.
Wake turbulence exists in the vortex flow behind the wing. The strength of wingtip vortices is determined primarily
by the weight and airspeed of the aircraft.

- Light – MTOW of 7,000 kg or less;!
- Medium – MTOW of greater than 7,000 kg, but less than 136,000 kg;!
- Heavy – MTOW of 136,000 kg or greater.

!
Approach separation minima:!
Based on the aircrafts wake turbulence categories.!
Leading Aircraft ! Following Aircraft! Nautical Miles! Minutes!
Heavy ! Heavy! 4!
Heavy ! Medium! 5! 2!
Heavy ! Light! 6! 3!
Medium ! Heavy! 3! !
Medium ! Medium! 3!
Medium ! Light! 5! 3!
Light ! Heavy! 3!
Light ! Medium! 3!
Light ! Light! 3!
!
Departure separation minima:!
Departing from the same position:!
Leading Aircraft ! Following Aircraft! Minutes!
Heavy ! Medium! 2!
Heavy or Medium ! Light! 3! !
!
Departing from an intermediate position:!
Leading Aircraft ! Following Aircraft! Minutes!
Heavy ! Medium or Light! 3!
Medium ! Light! 3!
!
Take-off minimums:!
- If no lighting (day only) the takeoff minima is 500m (the touchdown zone RVR replaced by pilot assessment)!
- If there are REDL and/or RCLM (for night REL and Runway End Lights required), but no LVP in force, the
minima is 400m (the touchdown zone RVR replaced by pilot assessment)!
- If there are REDL and/or RCLM (for night REL and Runway End Lights required), and LVP in force, the minima
is 250m (the touchdown zone RVR replaced by pilot assessment)!
- If there are REDL and RCLL and LVP in force, the minima is 200m (the touchdown zone RVR replaced by pilot
assessment)!
- If there are REDL, RCLL, and multiple RVR information, and LVP in force, the minima is 150m (the touchdown
zone RVR replaced by pilot assessment)!
- If there are REDL spaced 60m or less, RCLL spaced 15m or less, LVP in force, multiple RVR 125m all 3 point,
crew has LVTO training, 90m visual segment available from the cockpit, operator has approval from the authority!
!
MET VIS to RVR conversion is NOT used for calculating take-off minima. When both are given, RVR has priority.!
!
Airport operating minima: !
The operator shall specify.!
The minima for a specified approach and landing procedure is applicable if:!
- the ground equipment is operative!
- the airplane systems required for the approach are operative!
- the required airplane performance criteria are met!
- the crew is qualified (for example for a CAT III. approach)!
!
What is your and your aircraft approach minima?!
- My: CAT I. !
- C152, AT3: CAT I. -» not less than DH 200 ft, RVR not less than 550 m!
- A320: CAT III/B!
!
Approach Descent gradients (ICAO doc 8168 Pans OPS page 76):!
- The minimum/optimum descent gradient or angle in the final approach of a procedure with FAF is 5.2% or 3.0° !
- The maximum permissible is 6.5 per cent or 3.7° for Category A and B aircraft, 6.1 per cent or 3.5° for Category
C, D and E aircraft, and 10 per cent (5.7°) for Category H!
!
Approach Segments (ICAO doc 8168 Pans OPS page 72):!

!
5 segments:!
- Arrival segment: The route followed from the en route phase of the flight to the initial approach fix. It usually
starts at an en route fix and ends at the initial approach fix, generally the first navigational facility associated with
the procedure. (= STAR)!
- Initial approach segment: That segment of an instrument approach procedure between the initial approach fix
and the intermediate approach fix or, where applicable, the final approach fix or point.!
- Intermediate approach segment: That segment between either the intermediate fix and the final approach fix.
This segment may contains procedure turns.!
- Final approach segment: The segment in which the alignment and descent for landing are accomplished.!
- Missed approach procedure. The procedure to be followed if the approach cannot be continued for any reason.!
!
Missed approach segments:!
Normally missed approach procedures are based on a minimum missed approach climb gradient of 2.5 per cent.!
!
1. INITIAL PHASE!
The initial phase begins at the MAPt and ends at the start of climb (SOC). This phase requires the concentrated
attention of the pilot on establishing the climb and the changes in aeroplane configuration. It is assumed that
guidance equipment is not extensively utilized during these manoeuvres, and for this reason, no turns are specified
in this phase.!
!
2. INTERMEDIATE PHASE!
The intermediate phase begins at the Start Of Climb and ends at the point where 50 m (164 ft) obstacle clearance
is obtained. The climb is continued, normally straight ahead, but the track may be changed by a maximum of 15°.
During this phase, it is assumed that the aircraft begins track corrections.!
!
3. FINAL PHASE!
The final phase begins at the point where 50 m (164 ft) obstacle clearance is first obtained and can be maintained.
It extends to the point where a new approach, holding or a return to en-route flight is initiated. Turns may be
prescribed in this phase.!
!
Takeoff segments:!

!
5 segments (NET FLIGHT PATH):!
- Ground roll: from 0 to Vlo speed until the end of TORA!
- 1st segment: from Vlo to V2 at 35 ft at the end of TODA!
- 2nd segment: from 35 ft to 400 ft at V2 speed with one engine operative, takeoff thrust (TOGA), flaps in takeoff
conf. (CONF 1+F) The minimum climb gradient must be 2.4 percent for two engine aircraft. (3: 2,7 and 4: 3.0)!
- 3rd segment: the acceleration segment. The aircraft has to maintain 400 ft and has to accelerate with takeoff
power (TOGA) from V2 to clean speed (green dot speed) while retracting the flaps. !
- 4th segment: from 400 ft to 1.500 ft with MCT thrust setting. The required climb gradient is 1.2 percent for two
engine aircraft. (1.55 for 3, and 1.7 for 4 engine aircrafts)!
!
Gross Flight Path:!
Takeoff flight path actually flown by the aircraft!
!
Net Flight Path: !
Gross takeoff flight path minus 0,8 % (per cent) reduction for 2 engine aircrafts and 1.0 % for 4 engine.!
!
Screen height:

The screen height is the minimum height that the aircraft must be achieved above the runway at the end of the
take-off distance (TODA). The screen height is related to engine failure scenarios and changes with runway
conditions. For jet aircrafts in dry conditions the screen height is 35 ft, in wet conditions is 15 ft. !
!
Clearway: The clearway is an area beyond the runway, which is used for initial climb of the departing aircrafts. It
should have the following characteristics: It must:!
• Be centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway, and under the control of the airport authorities.!
• Be expressed in terms of a clearway plane, extending from the end of the runway with an upward slope not
exceeding 1.25%.!
• Have a minimum width not less than 152 m (500 feet) wide.!
• Have no protruding objects or terrain. Threshold lights may protrude above the plane, if their height above the
end of the runway is 0.66 m (26 in) or less, and if they are located on each side of the runway.!
!
Stopway: !
The runway may be extended by an area called the stopway. The stopway is an area beyond the runway, which
should have the following characteristics. It must be:!
• At least as wide as the runway, and centered upon the extended centerline of the runway.!
• Able to support the airplane during an aborted takeoff, without causing structural damage to the airplane.!
• Designated by the airport authorities for use in decelerating the airplane during an aborted takeoff.!
!
Take Off Run Available (TORA): (perf. page 56)!
The length of runway which is available and suitable for the ground run of an airplane taking off.!
The TORR must be equal or less than the TORA!!
!
To calculate the TORR dry you should take the greater of the TORN-1 dry and 115% TORN dry:!
• TORN-1 dry = Distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant between the point at which VLOF is
reached and the point at which the aircraft is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming failure of the critical
engine at VEF and recognized at V1,!
• 1.15 TORN dry = 115 % of the distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant between the point at
which VLOF is reached and the point at which the aircraft is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming all
engines operating.!
!
To calculate the TORR wet you should take the greater of the TORN-1 wet and the 115% TORN wet:!
• TORN-1 wet = Distance covered from the brake release to a point at which the aircraft is at 15ft above the takeoff
surface, ensuring the V2 speed to be achieved before the airplane is 35 feet above the takeoff!
surface, assuming the failure of the critical engine at VEF and recognized at V1. It is equal to TODN-1 wet .!
• 1.15 TORN wet = 115 % of the distance covered from brake release to a point equidistant between the point at
which VLOF is reached and the point at which the aircraft is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming all
engines operating.!
!
Takeoff Distance Available (TODA): !
TODA = TORA + Clearway!
The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the clearway available.!
Takeoff Distance Available (TODA) corresponds to the Takeoff Run Available (TORA) plus the clearway (CWY), if
any. The Takeoff distance Available must not exceed the takeoff run available, plus a clearway distance not
exceeding half of the takeoff run available. !
If the TORA is 2000m and the measured clearway is 1300m, what is the TODA?!
Solution: TODA is the lesser of:!
- TORA + clearway (2000m + 1300m) = 3300m, and!
- 1.5 x TORA (1.5 x 2000m) = 3000m.!
Which means that the TODA is 3000m!
!
Takeoff Distance Required (TODR):!
The TODR must be equal or less than the TODA!!
!
To calculate the TODR dry you should take the greater of the TODN-1 dry and 115% TODN dry:!
• TODN-1 dry = Distance covered from the brake release to a point at which the aircraft is at 35 feet above the
takeoff surface, assuming the failure of the critical engine at VEF and recognized at V1,!
• 1.15 TODN dry = 115% of the distance covered from brake release to a point at which the aircraft is at 35 feet
above the takeoff surface, assuming all engines operating!
!
To calculate the TODR wet runway you should take the greater of the TODR dry and TODN-1 wet:!
• TODR dry = Takeoff distance on a dry runway (see above),!
• TODN-1 wet = Distance covered from brake release to a point at which the aircraft is at 15 feet above the takeoff
surface, ensuring the V2 speed to be achieved before the airplane is 35 feet above the takeoff surface, assuming
failure of the critical engine at VEF and recognized at V1.!
!
Runway without Clearway!
The takeoff run is equal to the takeoff distance, whatever the takeoff surface (dry or wet).!
!
Accelerate-Stop Distance Available (ASDA) = Emergency Distance Available (EMDA): !
ASDA = TORA + Stopway!
The length of the takeoff run available plus the length of the stopway, if such stopway is declared available by the
appropriate Authority and is capable of bearing the mass of the aeroplane under the prevailing operating
conditions. The accelerate-stop distance must not exceed the accelerate-stop distance available.!
!
Accelerate-Stop Distance Required (ASDR):!
The ASDR must be equal or less than the ASDA!!
!
To calculate the ASDR dry you should take the greater of the ASDN-1 dry and the ASDN dry:!
• ASDN-1 dry = Sum of the distances necessary to:!
! - Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to VEF,!
! - Accelerate from VEF to V1 assuming the critical engine fails at VEF and the pilot takes the first action to !
! reject the takeoff at V1!
! - Come to a full stop!
! - Plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed

• ASDN dry = Sum of the distances necessary to:

! - Accelerate the airplane with all engines operating to V1, assuming the pilot takes the first action to reject!
! the takeoff at V1!
! - With all engines still operating come to a full stop!
! - Plus a distance equivalent to 2 seconds at constant V1 speed!
!
How can a stopway extend beyond the clearway?!
A stopway sometimes may extend beyond the clearway if the length of the clearway is limited because of an
obstruction within 75 m of the runway/stopway centerline. However, this obstruction does not limit the stopway,
which only needs to be as wide as the runway.

!
Landing Distance Available (LDA):!
LDA is the runway length which is available and suitable for the ground run of a landing aircraft. Starts from 50 ft
above the threshold and ends when the aircraft is come to the full stop. The stopway cannot be used for landing.!
!
Landing Distance Required (LDR):!
The LDR must be equal or less than the LDA!!
The thrust reverser should not take into account when calculation the required landing distance.!
Operators must take into account the runway slope, when its value is greater than ± 2%. Otherwise, it is
considered to be null.!
!
LDR Dry Runways: 

If the surface is dry, the LDR must be equal or less than the 60% of the LDA at both the destination and any
alternate airport.!
!
LDR Wet Runways:!
If the surface is wet, the LDR must be at least 115% of the LDR for a dry surface. Shorter than that above but no
less than that required on a dry runway, may be used if the Airplane Flight Manual includes specific additional
information about landing distances on wet runways.!
!
LDR Contaminated Runways: !
If the surface is contaminated, the LDR must be at least the greater of:

- the LDR on a wet runway!
- 115% of the LDR in accordance with approved contaminated landing distance data.!
!
For contaminated runways, the manufacturer must provide landing performance for speed Vat 50 feet above the
airport, such that:!
1.23 VS1g Í V Í 1.23 VS1g + 10 kt!
In certain contaminated runway cases, the manufacturer can provide detailed instructions such as antiskid,
reverse, airbrakes, or spoiler. And, in the most critical cases, landing can be prohibited.!
!
Balanced Field Length:!
A balanced field exists when TODA = ASDA or, in other words, when the end of the clearway is the end of the
stopway, and the aircraft achieves the screen height over the end of the runway in all cases.!
Balanced field length is determined by establishing failure speed so that runway distance from that point to
continue takeoff on the remaining engine or to decelerate and stop is the same.!
A balanced field length determines the maximum takeoff weight (MTOW).!
!
Separate runways definition:!
Runways at the same aerodrome that are separate landing surfaces. These runways may overlay or cross in such
a way that if one of the runways is blocked, it will not prevent the planned type of operations on the other runway.
Each runway shall have a separate approach procedure based on a separate navigation aid.!
!
Contaminated runway:

A runway is considered to be contaminated when more than 25% of the runway surface is covered by:!
- surface water more than 3 mm deep, or by slush, or loose snow, equivalent to more than 3 mm of water;!
- compacted snow snow (which has been compressed into a solid mass which resists further compression and will
hold together or break into lumps if picked up);!
- ice, including wet ice.!
!
Damp runway:!
A runway is considered damp when the surface is not dry, but when the moisture on it does not give it a shiny
appearance. Considered to be DRY for takeoff calculations!!
!
Wet runway: !
A runway is considered to wet when the surface has shiny appearance and has less than 3mm depth water on it.!
!
Braking actions:!
- Poor = a mu value of 0.25 and below; measured snowtam decode is 91!
- Medium to Poor = a mu value of 0.26 to 0.29; measured snowtam decode is 92!
- Medium = a mu value of 0.30 to 0.35; measured snowtam decode is 93!
- Medium to Good = a mu value of 0.36 to 0.39; measured snowtam decode is 94!
- Good = a mu value of 0.4 and above; measured snowtam decode is 95!
!
- UNRELIABLE = reading unreliable; not measurable; measured snowtam decode is 99!
!
The approach light systems (ALS):!

!
FALS (full approach light system):!
- Precision approach CAT I lightning system: for CAT I. approaches: consist of white centerline lights on the
extended centerline up to 900m. For the first 300m a single row, the 2nd 300m 2 rows, the 3rd 300m triple rows.
Crossbar lights are also provided every 150m from the threshold (5 crossbar: 150-300-450-600-750m)!
- Precision approach CAT II and III lighting system: for CAT II and III approaches: consist of white centerline lights
on the extended centerline up to 900m. For the first 300m a 4m wide barrette, the 2nd 300m 2 rows, the 3rd
300m triple rows. Also consist of 2 barrettes of red side row lights up to 300m. White crossbar lights are also
provided every 150m from the threshold (5 crossbar: 150-300-450-600-750m)!
!
IALS (intermediate approach light system) or Simple approach lightning system: for non-precision approaches,
provides a single row of white lights length 420-720m and a row of crossbar lights 300m from the threshold. !
!
BALS (basic approach light system) any other approach lightning system (HIALS, MIALS or ALS 210 – 420 m). !
!
NALS (no approach light system) any other lightning system (HIALS, MIALS or ALS< 210 m) or no approach
lights. !
!
Runway markings:!
Runway markings are white.!
- Runway Designator Markings: contains a 9m height 2 digit number indicating the magnetic heading of the
runway to the nearest 10 degrees. For airports with parallel runways the designator includes a letter L for left, C
for center and R for right.!
- Threshold markings: consist of minimum 30m long longitudinal stripes both side parallel of the rwy centerline
and from 6m from the threshold.!

!
- Centerline markings: consist of min. 30m long and from 0.3-0.9m wide stripes along the runway centerline, 20m
long gaps between them!
- Touchdown zone markings: identifies the touchdown zone of the runway. Consist of pairs of stripes which are
22.5m long and 1.5 wide spacing 150m between them. The numbers of pairs related to the LDA of the runway
as follows:!

!
- Aiming point markings: provides visual aiming point for landing aircrafts. Consist of two 4-10m wide and 30-60m
long stripes both side of the rwy centerline located from 150-400m from the threshold.!

!
!
Taxiway markings:!
Taxiway centerline and edge markings are continuous yellow lines.!
!
Taxiway holding position lightings:!
1: 2 solid and 2 broken yellow lines indicating the last holding position before the runway.!
2: a ladder mark of yellow lights indication a holding point where there’s also a closer holding point.!
3: a broken yellow line across the taxiway indicates an intermediate holding point for intersecting taxiways.!

!
!
LVO runway Lighting: !
Runways approved for LVO are equipped with high intensity edge light, threshold lights, runway end lights,
centerline and touchdown zone Lighting. !
!
Runway Edge Lighting: !
Maximum longitudinal interval is 60m. Runway Edge Lighting is white except in the following instances: !
- Caution Zone Lighting: on ILS equipped runways without centerline lighting (might be used for CAT I and OTS
CAT II approaches), yellow edge lighting is installed on the upwind 600 m or one third of the lighted runway
length available, whichever is the less. The yellow 'caution zone' so formed gives a visual warning of the
approaching runway end. !

!
!
Pre-Threshold Lighting: 

Where a landing threshold is displaced, but the pre-threshold area is available for the take-off run, the lights
between the beginning of the runway pavement and the displaced threshold show red from the approach. Pilots
taking off in such a situation would see red edge lights up to the green threshold then edge lights beyond. 


!
Runway Exit Lighting: 

One or two omni-directional blue lights may replace or supplement the edge lights in order to indicate an exit
taxiway. !
!
Runway threshold lighting:!
Composed of a lateral row of unidirectional green lights (maximum interval 3m) and indicates the start of the
available landing distance. !

!
!
Runway end lighting:!
Composed of a lateral row of unidirectional red lights (maximum interval 6m, minimum 6 lights) and marks the
extremity of the runway that is available for maneuvering. !
 !
Runway Centerline Lighting: !
High intensity centerline lighting is provided on runways equipped for LVO (longitudinal interval 7.5 or 15 or 30m
for CAT II and 7.5 or 15m for CAT III). The centerline lighting is color coded in order to warn a pilot of the
approaching end of the runway:!
! - White lighting extends from the threshold to 900 m from the runway end, !
! - The following 600 m is lit with alternate white and red lights, !
! - The final 300 m lit by red centerline lighting. !
!
Note: if runway length is less than 1800m, the alternate red/white lights are extended from the mid-point of the
runway to 300m from runway end. !
!
Touchdown Zone Lighting:!
Formed of two rows of barrettes extending from the threshold to 900 m or to the mid-point for runway length below
1800m; The longitudinal spacing between pairs of barrettes is 60m or 30m (30m recommended). !
Barrettes have a length of 3 to 4.5m and contain minimum 3 unidirectional lights – variable white.!

!
Stop bars and lead-on lights:!
Stop bar lights and Lead-on lights are installed together and provides at airports for LVO. 

Stop bar lights consists of a row of red lights across the taxiway indicating that the aircraft must stop in front of it.

Lead-on lights are green centerline lights beyond the stop bar lights. They are on when the stop-bar lights are off
and vice versa. !

!
!
Runway Guard lights:!
Runway Guard Lights are pairs of alternately flashing yellow lights, one pair located on each side of the taxiway
and provide a warning of the close proximity of the runway.!

!
!
SID:!
Standard instrument departures (SIDs). A SID details a specific initial route or track from a particular aerodrome
runway, often with altitude and, occasionally, speed constraints at specific points along the track.!
!
STAR:!
Standard instrument arrivals (STARs). A STAR details a specific final route or track onto a particular runway
approach, often with altitude and, occasionally, speed constraints at specific points along the track.!
!
Holding procedures:!
A holding procedure is a predetermined maneuver that keeps an aircraft within a specified airspace while awaiting
further clearance. A holding procedure/pattern generally is a racetrack shape.

!
Buffer area: the area extending 9.3 km (5.0 NM) beyond the boundary of the holding area.!
 !
Holding speeds:[4]!
▪ Up to 14.000 ft: 230kts (in turbulent conditions 280 kts)!
▪ 14.000 ft to 20.000 ft: 240kts (in turbulent conditions 280 kts or M0.80)!
▪ 20.000 ft to 34.000 ft: 265kts (in turbulent conditions 280 kts or M0.80)!
▪ Above 34.000 ft: M0.83 (also in turbulent conditions)!
!
Holding times:!
▪ Up to 14.000 ft: 1 minutes!
▪ Above 14.000 ft: 1,5 minutes!
!
Holding entries:!
▪ A direct entry is performed exactly as it sounds: the aircraft flies directly to the holding fix, and immediately
begins the first turn outbound. 




Timing: for a turn of 170 degrees, hold your heading for 5 seconds; for a turn of 70 degrees, hold your
heading for 15 seconds.

!
▪ In a parallel entry, the aircraft flies to the holding fix, parallels the inbound course for one minute outbound,
and then turns back, flies directly to the fix, and continues in the hold from there.

!
▪ In an offset or teardrop entry, the aircraft flies to the holding fix, turns into the protected area, flies for one
minute, and then turns back inbound, proceeds to the fix and continues from there.!

!
!
Holding entries:!
Standard holding RIGHT TURNS, non-standard left turns.!
The aircraft HEADING determines the entry procedure!

The holding fix is the start of the first turn! !
4 minutes required to complete a standard holding.!
Timing corrections:!
For an initial gauge, add the headwind or subtract the tailwind component speed in knots.!
! •! i.e. Initial outbound with a tailwind component of 7 knots. Initial outbound 0:53.!
! •! i.e. Initial outbound with a headwind component of 20 knots. Initial outbound 1:20.!
Fly the holding:!

!
NDB approaches:!
When can you descend?!
! When cleared by the ATC and:!
- at the defined descent point!
- within +- 5 degrees of the ADF final approach track (obstacle clearance)!
!
What is MAP:!
The Missed Approach Point is the point defined on the procedure where the missed approach procedure shall
be executed if the aren’t any visual references visible such as the runway or any light from the approach
lighting system. !
!
Marker Beacons:!
Outer Marker! Blue light! Low-pitch dashes, the letter O in morse code !
Middle Marker! Amber light! Medium-pitch dots and dashes, the letter C in morse code!
Inner Marker! White light! High-pitch dots, the letter I in morse code!
!
ILS approaches:!
Minimums:!
- CAT I: DH is not less than 200 ft and the RVR is not less than 550 m (or visibility not less than 800 m)

If all 3 RVR available, the midpoint and stopend RVR shall be above 250m or 150m if RCLL is available

The pilot may continue the approach below the minima if ONE of these visual references are visible:

- Elements of the approach light system

- The threshold

- The threshold markings

- The threshold lights

- The threshold identification lights

- The visual glide slope indicator

- The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings

- The touchdown zone lights

- Runway edge lights

- Other visual references accepted by the Authority!
!-
CAT II: DH is lower than 200 ft but not lower than 100 ft, and RVR not less then 300 m! 

If all 3 RVR available, the midpoint and stopend RVR shall be above 125m or 75m in case of Autoland and
CAT3 DUAL on the FMA

Manual landing may be planned but autoland is recommended

The pilot may continue the approach below the minima if THREE consecutive lights of these visual references
are visible:

- The centre line of the approach lights, or 

- Touchdown zone lights, or 

- Runway centre line lights, or 

- Runway edge lights, or 

- A combination of these is attained and can be maintained.

Including a lateral element (APP crossbar or threshold)!
!-
CAT III/A: DH is lower than 100 but not lower than ft 50 ft, and RVR not less than 200 m

The pilot may continue the approach below the minima if THREE consecutive lights of these visual references
are visible:

 - The centre line of the approach lights, or 

- Touchdown zone lights, or 

- Runway centre line lights, or 

- Runway edge lights, or 

- A combination of these is attained and can be maintained.

!
- CAT III/B: DH lower than 50 ft or NO DH, RVR lower than 200m, but not less 75 m! ! 

With DH: the pilot may continue the approach below the minima if ONE centerline light is visible

NO DH: no visual reference requirement!
!
Requirements for CAT II or III approach:!
1. The aircraft's CAT II or III systems are certified and operational.!
2. The runway's ground CAT II or III equipment is certified, operational, and low-visibility procedures in force.!
3. The crew is qualified and current.!
4. Weather minima are above the approach ban prior to commencing the final approach.!
5. Alternate airfield weather is above CAT I minimum.!
!
Calculations:!
- Height from the threshold: If you divide the height by the glide slope angle times 100, you should get the
distance from the threshold in nautical miles at which you should intercept the glide slope. 

For example: 3000 ft / (3 X 100) = 10 NM (approximately)!
- Height at which you would intercept the glide slope at a particular distance from the threshold, multiply the
distance in nautical miles by the glide slope angle times 100. 

For example: 10 NM X (3 X 100) = 3000 ft (approximately)!
!
Non-precision approaches:

A non-precision approach is an instrument approach which uses lateral guidance but does not use vertical
guidance.!
Minima (MDH):!
- localizer only (with or without DME): 250 ft!
- VOR/DME: 250 ft!
- VOR: 300 ft!
- NDB (with or without DME): 300 ft.

!
(Many operators add a further 50 ft, to the MDA, especially for large aircraft)!
!
The pilot may continue the approach below the minima if ONE of the following visual references is visible:!
- Elements of the approach light system!
- The threshold!
- The threshold markings!
- The threshold lights!
- The threshold identification lights!
- The visual glide slope indicator!
- The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings!
- The touchdown zone lights!
- Runway edge lights!
- Other visual references accepted by the Authority!
!
Circling approaches:!
Circling (visual manoeuvring) is the term used to describe the visual phase of an instrument approach required to
position an airplane for landing on a runway, which is not suitably located for a straight-in approach. !
Minima: for A320: MDA: 600ft, vis: 2400m


!
!
Visual approach:!
When the approach is flown with visual reference to the terrain.

Minimum RVR: 800m!
!
VMC Minimums:!

!
!
Procedure Turns:!
1. 45 degree procedure turn:




- An outbound track from the fix (usually the reciprocal of the approach track) to a set distance or timed point

- An outbound turn of 45 degrees away from the outbound track for either 1 minute (or 1 minute and 15
seconds) from the start of the turn or 45 seconds from wings level once the turn has been completed (plus or
minus wind correction in terms of drift and time)

- A 180-degree turn in the opposite direction to intercept the inbound track

!
2. 80/260 degree procedure turn:




- An outbound track from the fix (usually the reciprocal of the approach track) to a set distance or timed point

- An outbound turn of 80 degrees away from the outbound track

- Followed almost immediately by a 260-degree turn in the opposite direction to intercept the inbound track

!
3. Base turn:




- A specified outbound track from a fix to a set distance or time. Different outbound tracks exist for different
categories of aircraft based on their speed to allow sufficient space for the inbound turn (i.e., faster aircraft
require a larger turning radius).

- Followed by a turn to intercept the inbound track of an instrument approach.

!
4. Racetrack turn:




- The entries are the same like in a holding pattern. (direct, teardrop (offset), parallel)

- Over the fix turn from the inbound track through 180° to the outbound track, for 1, 2 or 3 minutes;

 - Turn 180° in the same direction to return to the inbound track.

!
NADP 1 (Noise Abatement Departure Procedure 1):!
Starts at 800 ft, until then takeoff thrust, V2 + 10, flaps at takeoff position!
At 800 ft CLB thrust V2 + 10, flaps at takeoff position!
At 3000 ft, accelerate to retract flaps and to normal climb speed!

!
!
NADP 2 (Noise Abatement Departure Procedure 2):!
Starts at 800 ft, until then takeoff thrust, V2 + 10, flaps at takeoff position!
At 800 ft flap retraction, when clean -» power reduction to CLB power, speed green dot + 10!
Ar 3000 ft accelerate to normal climb speed!

!
!
ICAO Noise Abatement Procedure A:!
Starts at 1500 ft AGL, until then takeoff thrust, V2 + 10, flaps at takeoff position!
At 1500 ft CLB thrust V2 + 10, flaps remains at takeoff position!
At 3000 ft, accelerate to retract flaps and to normal climb speed!

!
!
ICAO Noise Abatement Procedure B:!
Starts at 1000 ft, until then takeoff thrust, V2 + 10, flaps at takeoff position!
At 1000 ft flap retraction, when clean -» power reduction to CLB power, speed green dot + 10!
Ar 3000 ft accelerate to normal climb speed!

Fuel policy:!
An operator must base the company fuel policy, including calculation of the amount of fuel to be on board for
departure, on the following planning criteria:!
!
Basic procedure!
The usable fuel to be on board for departure must be the amount of:!
! !
! Taxi fuel, which shall not be less than the amount, expected to be used prior to take-off. Local conditions at the
departure aerodrome and APU consumption shall be taken into account; For A320 is normally 200 kg.!
!
! Trip fuel, which shall include:!
- fuel for take-off and climb from aerodrome elevation to initial cruising level/altitude, taking into account
the expected departure routing; and!
- from top of climb to top of descent, including any step climb/descent; and!
- fuel from top of descent to the point where the approach is initiated, taking into account the expected
arrival procedure;!
- fuel for approach and landing at the destination aerodrome;!
!
! Contingency fuel, which shall be the higher of a. or b. below:!
! ! (a) - 5% of the planned trip fuel or, in the event of in-flight re-planning, 5% of the trip fuel for the remainder of
the flight; or!
! ! ! - 3% of the planned trip fuel, if there’s an enroute alternate airport available within a radius of the 20% of
the total flight plan route!
! ! (b) An amount to fly for five minutes at holding speed at 1.500 ft, above the destination aerodrome in standard
conditions. For A320 is 200 kg!
!
! Alternate fuel which shall:!
! ! (a) include:!
- fuel for a missed approach from the MDA/DH at the destination aerodrome to missed approach altitude,
taking into account the complete missed approach procedure; and!
- fuel for climb from missed approach altitude to cruising level/altitude, taking into account the expected
departure routing; and!
- fuel for cruise from top of climb to top of descent, taking into account the expected routing; and!
- fuel for descent from top of descent to the point where the approach is initiated, taking into account the
expected arrival procedure; and!
- fuel for executing an approach and landing at the destination alternate aerodrome.!
! ! (b) where two destination alternate aerodromes are required the alternate fuel has to be enough to the
farthest destination alternate airport.!
!
! Final reserve fuel, which shall be:!
! (a) for aeroplanes with reciprocating engines, fuel to fly for 45 minutes; or!
! (b) for aeroplanes with turbine engines, fuel to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1.500 ft above aerodrome
elevation in standard conditions, calculated with the estimated mass on arrival at the destination alternate
aerodrome or the destination aerodrome, when no destination alternate aerodrome is required. If no alternate is
required Final Reserve Fuel must be increased to 45 minutes at destination. !
!
! Additional fuel, which added to comply with specific regulatory or company requirement. (for example ETOPS)!
!
! Extra fuel, which shall be at the discretion of the commander.!
!
Minimum fuel at destination:!
Alternate fuel + final reserve fuel!
!
Adequate aerodrome:!
An aerodrome which the operator considers to be satisfactory.!
Taking into account of the aircraft performance requirements and runway characteristics; at the expected time of
use, the aerodrome ATC, lighting, communications, weather reporting, naiads and emergency services.!
!
Suitable airport:!
A suitable airport is an adequate airport with weather reports, forecasts indicating that the weather conditions will
be at or above the minima and field condition reports indicate that a safe landing can be accomplished during the
period of intended operation.!
!
Isolated aerodrome: !
The destination aerodrome can be considered as an isolated aerodrome, if the fuel required (diversion plus final) to
the nearest adequate destination alternate aerodrome is more than:!
- For aeroplanes with reciprocating engines, fuel to fly for 45 minutes plus 15 % of the flight time planned to be
spent at cruising level or two hours, whichever is less; or!
- For aeroplanes with turbine engines, fuel to fly for two hours at normal cruise consumption above the destination
aerodrome, including final reserve fuel.!
!
Isolated aerodrome fuel policy:!
If an operator's fuel policy includes planning to an isolated aerodrome, the last possible point of diversion to any
available en-route alternate aerodrome shall be used as the pre-determined point.!
Fuel policy:!
!
Alternate airport:!
- Take off alternate: which an aircraft can land if necessary shortly after takeoff, and it’s not possible to use the
departure airport. 

Should be located within 1 hour still air flight time at 1 engine inop crusing speed in ISA, calculated on actual
take-off mass. This is 250 NM for the A320. 



Conditions:

The weather at the aerodrome will be at or above the applicable landing minima during a period commencing 1
hour before and ending 1 hour after the ETA; and 

If only non-precision and/or circling approaches are available ceiling must be taken into account; and any one-
engine inoperative limitations must be taken into account. 

Minimum LDA is to be 1800m 

!
- Enroute alternate: which an aircraft can land if experiencing abnormal or emergency conditions while enroute

At every moment of a flight, an adequate airport has to be reachable. This airport shall be located within one
hour still air flight time at the one-engine-inoperative cruising speed in ISA (great circle air distance 380 NM). 

!
- ETOPS enroute alternate: which an aircraft can land if experiencing an engine shutdown or abnormal or
emergency condition while enroute in an ETOPS operation

!
- Destination alternate: an alternate airport which an aircraft can land if impossible or inadvisable to land on the
destination airport.



Conditions for destination alternate, en-route alternate and isolated destination aerodrome:

The weather at the destination alternate aerodrome must be at or above the planning minima specified in table
below during a period commencing 1 hour before and ending 1 hour after the ETA.

The planning minima:

destination alternate

Cat II and III Cat I

Cat I Non-precision

 Non-precision Non-precision +200 ft to the MDA and +1000 m to the visibility

Circling Circling



Number of destination alternate airports:

At least 1 must be selected unless:

- the planned duration of the flight does not exceed 6 hours AND 2 separate runway is usable and the weather
forecasts indicates that from a period of 1 hour before until 1 hour after ETA, the ceiling will be at least 2000 ft or
circling height +500 ft, whichever is greater, and the visibility will be at least 5 km. 

- The destination is isolated and no adequate destination alternate exists.



2 destination alternate must be selected when:

- From 1 hour before to 1 hour after the ETA the weather conditions will be below the applicable planning minima
or 

- When no meteorological information is available. (Weather NIL)

!
The airport that the flight departs from also can be an enroute or a destination alternate.!
!
Cloud base:!
The lowest reported height of cloud(s). !
!
Cloud ceiling:!
The lowest height of the clouds which covers more than 50% of the sky.!
!
Low Fuel state emergency:!
- Pan-Pan: If the aircraft may land with less than Final Reserve Fuel, a "pan" call to ATC is to be made reporting
the estimated fuel time remaining in minutes. ATC must be kept informed thereafter.!
- Mayday: If it’s sure the aircraft will land with less than Final Reserve Fuel, a "mayday" call to ATC is to be made
reporting the estimated fuel time remaining in minutes.

!
Obstacle clearance:

- SID: 200 ft

- ENROUTE: 1000 ft +-5 NM (or 10 NM if RNP not available during 95% of flight time)

- APPROACH: 200 ft

- MISSED APPROACH:

!
Approach climb:!
An aircraft’s climb capability in case of a go-around with:!
• One engine inoperative!
• TOGA thrust!
• Gear retracted!
• Slats and flaps in approach configuration (CONF 2 or 3 in most cases)!
• 1.23 VS1g - 1.41 VS1g and check that V greater VMCL!
The minimum climb gradient to be demonstrated: 2,1%!

Landing climb:!
An aircraft climb capability in case of a go-around with:!
• all engines!
• Thrust available 8 seconds after initiation of thrust control movement from minimum flight idle to TOGA thrust!
• Gear extended!
• Slats and flaps in landing configuration (CONF 3 or FULL)!
• 1.13 VS1g - 1.23 VS1g and check that V greater VMCL.!
The minimum climb gradient to be demonstrated is 3.2%.!
!
What is rejected landing?!
If the go-around started below 50ft.!
!
What is a deicing system?!
A deicing system is used to remove the ice from the airplane surface when it has already built up on it. For
example with pneumatic leading-edge boots.!
!
What is an anti-icing system?!
An anti-icing system is used to prevent the ice from building up on the aircraft surface using for example thermal or
electrical anti-icing systems on engine cowls.!
!
Critical surfaces:!
Leading edges and upper surfaces of wings, vertical and horizontal stabilizers, all control surfaces, slats and flaps!
!
Deicing, anti-icing fluids:

Type I: unthickened, low viscosity – offers very limited protection, mainly DE-icer! /Orange color/, water/glycol
mixture, contains at least 80% of glycol!
Type II: thickened, higher viscosity (stays until 100kts) – Type IV is used nowadays instead /Light yellow/, water/
glycol mixture, contains at least 50% of glycol!
Type III: between I and II, for slower A/C, rotation speed less than 100kts /Light yellow/!
Type IV: same as II, but provides longer holdover time /green/, water/glycol mixture, contains at least 50% of glycol!
!
One step de-icing and anti-icing:!
When the de-icing and anti-icing are carried out in one step using the same fluid which also provides a limited
duration of anti-ice protection.!
!
Two step de-icing and anti-icing!
When the de-icing and anti-icing is carried out in two steps. First the de-icing to clean the aircraft structure from the
ice and than the anty-icing to protect them from refreezing. This second step must be carried out within three
minutes after the start of the first step.!
!
Holdover time: the estimated time for which an anti-icing fluid will prevent the formation of frost or ice and the
accumulation of snow on the protected surfaces of an aircraft, under specified weather conditions. !
!
Flight time (block time): !
The time between an airplane first moving from its parking place for the purpose of taking off until it comes to rest
on the designated parking position and all engines are stopped. !
!
Pilot-in-command (PIC):!
A pilot who is in charge of piloting the airplane, without being under the direction of any other pilot in the airplane. !
!
Precision approach: !
An instrument approach using guidance in both azimuth and elevation. Can be ILS, MLS or PAR.!
!
Visual approach:!
When the approach is flown with visual reference to the terrain. !
!
Navtech charts:!
Chart numbers:!
- 10: Aerodrome, General and Ground!
- 20: Area, Radar!
- 30: SID, Departure!
- 40: STAR and Arrival!
- 50: IAC (Instrument Approach Charts)!
- 51: Additional Landing Minima and Radar Procedures!
!
Abbreviations on charts:!
RFF: CAT 9 - Rescue and Fire Fighting Service Category (1-10)!
ALS: Approach Light Systems: H-D!
REDL: Runway Edge Lights: H!
RCLL: Runway Center Line Lights: 15m (Distance)!
RTHL: Runway Threshold Lights:!
P 3° (61): PAPI 3 degrees !
REIL: !
!
Descend calculations:!
If we started at FL330 and wanted to be at 3000' by the end of our descend, we would do the following math: !
33000’ - 3000’ = 30000’ / 1000 = 30; 30 * 3 = 90 Nm +10% (9) -> 99 Nm.!
!
During descend: Multiply the distance to go by 3 and add the final altitude. At 50 Nm I must be at approx. 15.000 ft
above the final altitude, so at 18.000 ft. Also, we have to take into account the required distance to decelerate from
the descend speed (~280Kts) to the zero flap optimum speed (~200kts), so we subtract about 10 nm from the
distance we are at. !
!
ROD: for 3° glide = GS / 2 x10, Example: GS 280 kts / 2 x 10 = 1400 ft/min!
!
VDP (Visual Descend Point):!
For non-precision approaches you have to descend to MDA (Minimum Descent Altitude) and if the aren’t any visual
references the latest point where you have to go around is the MAP. But sometimes the MAP is just above the
threshold or too close to it to descend safely (too high rate of descent). That’s why it’s important to use or calculate
a VDP point. The VDP is defined point on the final approach course of a non-precision, straight-in approach which
provides a normal 3 degrees descent path from the MDA to the runway touchdown point. So the VDP point is
located prior the MAP and calculated by taking the MDH (MDA - airport elevation) / 300 = ? NM!
Example: MDH is 600 ft above the terrain. 600 / 300 is 2, so the VDP point is 2.0 NM from the threshold!

!
!
CDFA (Continuous Descent Final Approach):!
Used for non-precision instrument approaches instead of the step-down technique. The aircraft has to descend
from the FAF with a previously calculated descent rate with the airplane at landing configuration and constant
speed until the VDP point (at MDA), where the go-around must be initiated when there’s no adequate visual
references has been established.!
!
Stabilized approach:!
Means that the aircraft is !
- on the correct lateral and vertical flight path (based on navaids guidance or visual references) !
- only small changes in heading and pitch are required to maintain this flight path!
- the aircraft is in the desired landing configuration!
- the thrust is stabilized, usually above idle, to maintain the target approach speed along the desired final
approach path !
- the landing checklist has been accomplished!
!
Standard rate turn calculation:!
Standard rate 1 turn is 3° / sec = 360° in 2 min., !
Calculate: IAS / 10 + 7, but max. 25° (180 kts); !
Example: 160 / 10 + 7 = 21°!
!
Turn radius and time: !
At 250 KTAS, a 90 deg turn takes 45 seconds, with with a turn radius of 2 nm at 25 deg AoB.!
At 200 KTAS, a 90 deg turn takes 36 seconds, with with a turn radius of 1.25 nm at 25 deg AoB!
At 180 KTAS, a 90 deg turn takes 32 seconds, with with a turn radius of 1.0 nm at 25 deg AoB.!
!
Fail passive system: !
Known as Land 2 system with two digital control computer channels. In the event of single channel failure, there is
no significant deviation of the flight path or attitude, but the landing is not completed automatically due to a
minimum dual channel system being required for a fully automated landing. !
!
Fail operational System: 

Known as Land 3 system with three digital computer channels. In the event of a single control channel failure
below the alert height, the approach, flare, and landing can be completed with remaining automatic systems due to
the minimum required dual channel system still being available. In the event of a failure, the automatic landing
system will operate as a fail-passive system.!
!
Fail-operational hybrid landing system:

A system which consists of a primary fail-passive automatic landing system and a secondary independent
guidance system (Head Up Display) enabling the pilot to complete a landing manually after failure of the primary
system.!
!
Alert height (AH):!
Alert height is a specified radio height (typically 100ft) above which, if a failure occurred in one of the required fail
operational systems during a CAT II or III approach, a go-around must be initiated.!
There's an exeption for that, when the aircaft is above the approach to landing height (normally 1000 ft), where
there's enough time to safely transfer to the new approach limit.!
Also, if a failure occurred in one of the required redundant operational systems below the alert height, the
approach also would be continued with the remaining system.!
!
RNP:!
Required Navigational Performance which is the required navigational performance accuracy that shall be within 5
NM of the desired flight path at least 95% of the flight time. Basic RNAV or RNP-5 means 5 NM, Precision RNAV or
RNP-1 is used for RNAV SIDs and STARs. If the accuracy has degraded the pilot shall report this to the ATC
immediately.!
!
TCAS:!
The Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), provides collision avoidance maneuver advice in the
vertical plane, in two forms: !
- Traffic Advisory (TA): A TA indicates the approximate position of nearby aircraft, which may become a threat !
- Resolution Advisory (RA): An RA recommends maneuver or a restriction of a maneuver in the vertical plane to
resolve conflicts with the nearby aircraft. !
!
MELs and CDL:

The difference basicly is that the MEL list of inoperative equipments, the CDL list of missing equipments.!
!
Minimum Equipment List!
Master MEL: is provided by the manufacturer and lists all the instruments, equipment, systems which may
temporarily inoperative while maintaining the level of safety and airworthyness of the aircaft. Specified for an
aircraft type like A320.!
MEL: is provided by the operator and lists all the instruments, equipment, systems which may temporarily
inoperative while maintaining the level of safety and airworthyness of the aircaft. Spacified for a given aircraft
(given registration number). Based on the MMEL and may not be less restrictive than it. This also must be
approved by the Authority.!


CDL: Configuration Deviation List: lists all panels and doors of the aircarft that may be missing for a particular
operation and graphically indicates areas of damage to the airplane skin/structure which are considered
acceptable for flight. !
!
Speed definitions:!
- IAS: dynamic pressure (1/2RV2)!
- CAS: Calibrated IAS for instrument and pressure errors (=RAS)!
- TAS: True airspeed is the actual speed of an aircraft through the air mass. The higher is the density, greater is
the resistance, lower is the TAS. !
- Temperature: Warm air is less dense than cold air. !
- Pressure: The higher the altitude, the lower is the air density. At constant IAS, the TAS will increase in altitude or
temperature because of the reduction int he reduction in air density. IAS=1/2R*V2(TAS)!
- LSS: Local speed of sound, it is influenced by temperature. LSS = 38,94√absolute temp. LSS will decrease with
an increase of altitude!
- Mach number: MN = TAS/LSS When climbing with IAS constant, MN will increase, because TAS will increase
and LSS will decrease.

!
What happens to your indicated airspeed (lAS) if you descend at a constant true airspeed (TAS)?!
The CAS (lAS) will increase, because density will increase. !
!
What happens to your true airspeed (TAS) if you climb at a constant indicated airspeed (lAS)?!
The TAS will increase, because the density will decrease.!
!
What happens to your Mach number (MN) if you climb at a constant indicated airspeed (lAS)?!
The MN will increase. !
!
What happens to your indicated airspeed (lAS) and true airspeed (TAS) if you fly at a constant lAS into a
warmer area?!
The lAS remains constant because IAS is unaffected by temperature, whereas the TAS will increase because of
the decrease in air density associated with warmer temperatures.!
!
If two aircraft are flying at different flight levels at the same Mach number, which aircraft has the higher
TAS/lAS?!
The aircraft at the lower altitude has a higher true airspeed (TAS) / indicated airspeed (IAS). This is so because the
local speed of sound (LSS) decreases as temperature decreases with an increase in altitude.!
!
What happens to Mach number (MN) and indicated airspeed (lAS) when climbing through an isothermal
layer at a constant true airspeed (TAS)?!
Mach number remains constant, and IAS decreases. The Mach number remains constant because an isothermal
layer has a constant air temperature, and therefore, the local speed of sound (LSS) is constant. IAS decreases
because the density is decreases with altitude. !
!
At what cabin altitude should a pilot go on oxygen?!
At or above 10,000 ft.
! !

When do you use emergency 100% oxygen?!

100% emergency oxygen is pure oxygen supplied continuously under positive pressure. It is used!
1. For life-support conditions above 34,000 ft.!
2. For medical conditions, especially suspected hypoxia!
3. Whenever smoke and/or other harmful gases are present in the cabin!
!
At what cabin altitude should passengers go on oxygen?!
At or above 14,000 ft.!
!
What are the following aircraft weight definitions?!
- Basic empty weight (BEW): The weight of the empty aircraft with all its basic equipment plus the unusable fuel
and oil.!
- Dry Operating Weight (DOW): The weight of the aircraft prepared for the specific operation (crew, cater.) without
fuel and traffic load!
- Operating Weight (OW): The DOW + fuel!
- Variable load (VL) : The weight of the crew, crew baggage, and removable units, i.e., catering loads, etc. and
the !
- Traffic load (TL): The weight of the passengers and cargo.!
- Under load (UL): The difference between the actual traffic load and the maximum allowed traffic load!
- Ramp weight (RW): Ramp weight is the aircraft weight prior to taxi. Can be above the MTOW with the taxi fuel.!
- Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW): is the maximum weight of the aircraft permitted for takeoff. May be
performance limited (short RWY, obstacle clearance) or structure limited.!
- Maximum landing weight (MLW) is the maximum weight of the aircraft permitted for landing. May be
performance limited (short RWY, obstacle clearance) or structure limited.!
- Zero fuel weight (ZFW) is a wing loading structural maximum weight. The maximum ZFW determines the
maximum permissible payload.!
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RADIOTELEPHONY!
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Emergency frequencies:!
121.5 MHz (VHF band) normally used for civil aircrafts (IAD = International Air Distress) and 243 MHz (UHF band)
normally used for military aircrafts (MAD = Military Air Distress). There’s an other frequency the 406 MHz (UHF
band), used by modern ELT-s for distress call.!
!
Transponder codes:!
- 7500: Unlawful interference!
- 7600: Radio failure!
- 7700: Emergency!
- 7000: VFR aircraft!
- 2000: IFR aircraft!
!
Position Report:!
- Aircraft identification (Wizzair One Two Three)!
- Position and time (Tapio, at two six)!
- Level (flight level one two zero)!
- Next position and estimate (JBR, at three eight)!
!
Mayday:!
A Mayday or distress or emergency call indicates that the aircraft or a person on board is in imminent danger and
requires immediate assistance. Made on the frequency in use, in case of no response use 121.5.

It must contain the following:!
1. "MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY”!
2. “Name" of station addressed!
3. “Call sign” and “standby” if time is critical, or!
4. “Nature of the emergency” (concise and precise)!
5. “Position, flight level and heading” (as appropriate)!
6. “Intensions” (if decided) or “standby” (for further information)



Example:!
- Mayday, Mayday, Mayday!
- Budapest Approach!
- Wizzair One Two Three (if the time is critical tell the ATC to “STANDBY”)!
- We have engine failure!
- Passing 1500 ft, climbing straight ahead!
- After cleaning the aircraft we wold like to turn back and land immediately (or STANDBY)!
!
Pan-pan:!
A Pan-pan or urgency call is used every situation which has a lower order than imminent danger and requires
immediate assistance such as a system failure or medical problem. Made on the frequency in use, in case of no
response use 121.5.

It must contain the following:!
1. “PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN”!
2. “Name" of station addressed!
3. “Call sign” and “standby” if time is critical, or!
4. “Nature of the urgency” (concise and precise)!
5. “Position, flight level and heading” (as appropriate)!
6. “Intensions” (if decided) or “standby” (for further information)!
!
Example:!
- Pan-pan, Pan-pan, Pan-pan!
- Budapest Radar!
- Wizzair One Two Three (if the time is critical tell the ATC to “STANDBY”)!
- !
!
Emergency descent:!
Mayday, Mayday, Mayday! WZZ123, EMERGENCY DESCENT TO FL100 DUE DECOMPRESSION AT 45 MILES
FROM TPS HEADING 300!
!
Communication failure procedure:!
When an aircraft unable to establish communication with the ATC on the appropriate frequency, it shall try to
establish communication on another frequency or other aircrafts. If the attempts fail, the aircraft shall transmit its
message twice on the frequencies, preceded with “TRANSMITTING BLIND” and set Squawk 7600 on the
transponder. !
!
In VMC:!
- Continue to fly in visual meteorological conditions;!
- Land at the nearest suitable aerodrome; and!
- Report its arrival to the appropriate air traffic control unit. !
!
In IMC:!
1. Continue your flight in accordance with your current flight plan. Maintain your last cruising level given by air
traffic control (ATC), or if no level was assigned, then maintain the flight plan level. Select the 7600 transponder
code. Continue routine position reports in case your transmissions are still being received by ATC.!
2. Arrange your flight to arrive over the arrival holding point as close as possible to your last acknowledged ETA
with ATC. Or if you had no ATC-acknowledged ETA, then plan to arrive at the holding point at the calculated
ETA computed from the last successful position report and flight plan data. Follow appropriate routes, i.e.,
STARs, etc.!
3. Commence your descent as close as possible from over the holding fix at the last acknowledged EAT
(estimated approach time) or the calculated ETA. !
4. If you do not become visual at your DA(H)/MDA(H), then you should leave the area of the aerodrome and
controlled airspace at your specified route and altitude to your alternate. Or if no altitude or route was specified,
fly at either the last assigned altitude or the minimum sector safe altitude, and avoid areas of dense traffic.!
5. Inform ATC ASAP after landing at your destination or alternate airfield.!
!
Two aircraft converging in the air, which one must give way, and how?!
When two aircraft are converging, i.e., at a constant relative bearing at the same altitude, the aircraft that has the
other on its right must give way by turning right and passing behind the opposing aircraft.!
An aircraft in the air must give way to other converging aircraft regardless of position as follows:!
1. Powered aircraft must give way to those towing objects such as banners.!
2. Flying machines must give way to airships, gliders, and balloons.!
3. Airships must give way to gliders and balloons.!
4. Gliders must give way to balloons.!
!
What actions should be taken if you are approaching head on with another aircraft at the same altitude?!
When two aircraft are approximately approaching head on at the same altitude, both aircraft must turn right to
avoid collision.!
!
How would you overtake (in the air) another aircraft at the same altitude and direction of flight?!
Whether climbing, descending, or in level flight, an aircraft overtaking another aircraft must turn right and keep right
of the other aircraft during the overtaking maneuver.!
!
Who has the right of way during an airborne overtaking maneuver?!
The aircraft being overtaken in the air has the right of way.!
!
Who has the right of way on the ground?!
The right of way on the ground is as follows:!
1. Regardless of air traffic control (ATC) clearance, it is the duty of the aircraft commander to do all that is possible
to avoid a collision with other aircraft or vehicles on the ground.!
2. Aircraft on the ground must give way to those taking off or landing and to any vehicle towing an aircraft.!
3. When two aircraft are approaching head on, each must tum right to avoid the other.!
4. When two aircraft are converging, the one that has the other on its right must give way either by stopping or
turning to pass behind the other. Avoid crossing in front of the other unless passing well clear.!
5. An aircraft that is being overtaken by another has the right of way, and the overtaking aircraft must keep out of
the way by turning left until past and well clear. This enables the commander of the overtaken aircraft (who!
has the right of way) to have an unrestricted view of the overtaking aircraft.!
!
What is the order of priority for all vehicles on an aerodrome?!
The priority for all vehicles on an aerodrome is as follows:!
1. Aircraft landing!
2. Aircraft taking off!
3. Vehicles towing aircraft!
4. Aircraft taxiing!
5. Other vehicles!
!
Aircraft lights:!
Navigation lights:!
- steady green navigation light on the starboard (right) wing that shows from dead ahead to around 110 degrees
on the right side.!
- steady red navigation light on the port (left) wing that shows from dead ahead to around 110 degrees on the left
side.!
- steady white navigation tail light that shows through 70 degrees on either side of dead astern.!
These lights must be switched on when the aircraft is powered. !
!
Anticollision lights:!
Flashing red lights showing in all direction. Must be switched on before engine start, and switched off, after the
engines completely stopped.!
!
Strobe lights:!
High-intensity white lights positioned on both wing tips. These are used to make the aircraft more visible. Must be
switched on while crossing or entering the runway and switched off when vacating the runway. !
!
Failures:!
- At night:!
! - On the ground. Failure of the anticollision light or the navigation lights on the ground means the aircraft cannot
dispatch because they are required to be displayed during night flights.!
! - In flight. Failure of the anticollision light or the navigation lights in flight requires the aircraft to land as soon as it
is safe and possible to do so unless authorized to continue by air traffic control (ATC).!
!
- During the day:!
! - Ground and flight. Failure of the anticollision light during daylight does not stop an aircraft from flying, provided
that the light is fixed at the earliest opportunity. The navigation lights are not required to be on during daylight
hours.!
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NO DA!!
15m centerline light spacing 9 lights 135m >125!
Timer start!
Initial climb first 15 and then 17,5 about 160 kts!
On ILS 51-52 % N1 with 2.5 pitch up attitude and 700 ft/min descend rate!
At 1000 ft call STABILIZED!
At about 20 ft thrust idle!
Land callout after ground contact: spoilers, reverse green, decel... at 70 call 70, idle reverse, manual brakes.!
!
Traffic circuits:!
Flaps 2 takeoff!
Calls: stabilized -> takeoff... Thrust set ... 100 -> checked ... V1, Rotate... Positive climb -> gear up!
Climb thrust (runway turnoff and taxi lights OFF) - 400 ft pull HDG!
When FMA changed to speed/alt star -> set flaps 1!
Turning downwind FD-s off, bird on!
Abeam threshold -> start timing ... 30 sec flaps 2, at 40 gear down and start turning to base -> flaps 3 and flaps full!
At 0.8 NM start turning final (set thrust to 45 N1 for descent)!
Landing memo - landing all green, autothrust speed (or manual)!
500 -> cleared to land!
Flare at about 30-20 ft, -> at 20 retard the thrust (pitch up to 4°)!
!
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE!
!
What is the purpose of the 40- to 100-knot call during the takeoff roll?!
The 40- to 100-knot call during the takeoff roll is used to check the requirements that need to be established by the
called speed. These requirements include!
1. Directional control surface (vertical tailplane) starts to become effective with all engines operating.!
2. Takeoff engine pressure ratio (EPR) should be set by this check speed so that the pilot is not chasing engine
needles for a prolonged period during the takeoff roll.!
3. Cross-check the airspeed indicator gauges to ensure their accuracy and reliability.!
!
What is VMCA?

VMCA is the minimum control speed in the air or the red line, which is the lowest possible speed on a multiengine
aircraft at a constant power setting and configuration at which the pilot is able to maintain a constant heading after
failure of the critical engine.!
!
What is VMCG?

VMCG is the minimum control speed on the ground, which is the lowest possible speed on a multiengine aircraft at
a constant power setting and configuration at which the pilot is able to maintain directional control on the ground
using the rudder after failure of the critical engine. The VMCG has to be equal or less than V1.!
!
How does VMCG/A vary with center of gravity position?!
An aft center of gravity position requires a higher VMCG/A. The turning moment acts around the center of gravity,
and if the center of gravity is in the aft position, the vertical tailplane (rudder) moment arm will be shorter, and
therefore, the vertical tailplane turning moment is less for a given airspeed. Thus the aircraft requires a higher
minimum control speed (VMCG/A) with an aft center of gravity position.!
!
What is V1?!
A dry (maximum) V1 is the normal decision speed that following an engine failure allows the takeoff to be
continued safely within the TODA or to be stopped safely within the EMDA. The takeoff must be rejected with an
engine failure below V1 and the takeoff must be continued with an engine failure above V1. A wet (minimum) V1 is
the maximum speed for abandoning a takeoff on a contaminated runway. A wet V1 improves the stopping
capabilities (final stop point) back to the dry conditions level but degrades the takeoff chances with a reduced
screen height in the event if a takeoff being continued. A recommended wet V1 for contaminated conditions is the
dry V1 - 10 knots. Thus wet V1 is a lower speed than dry V1.!
!
How does weight affect the V1 speed?!
If the field length is limiting, the greater the aircraft weight, the lower is the V1 speed. This means that the lower V1
speed provides a greater stopping distance while ensuring that V1 remains greater than VMCG and VMU.!
If the field length is not limiting, the greater the aircraft weight, the higher is the V1 speed, providing V1 remains less
than the VMBE speed and the field length emergency stopping distance is not compromised.!
!
What is VMBE?!
VMBE is the maximum brake energy speed. Or when the brakes fail. (catch fire most of the time). If an engine
failure occur before this speed is reached, the takeoff can safely be aborted. V1 can never be greater than Vmbe!
!
What is VR speed?!
VR (rotation speed) is the speed at which the pilot initiates rotation during the takeoff to achieve V2 at the screen
height, even with an engine failure. VR cannot be less than 1.05 VMCA/1.1 or 1.05 VMU.!
!
What is V2 speed?!
V2 speed is the takeoff safety speed achieved by the screen height in the event of an engine failure that maintains
adequate directional control and climb performance properties of the aircraft. V2 cannot be less than Vs x 1.2 and
VMCA x 1.1.!
!
What is Vx?!
Vx= best angle of climb speed or the greatest gain in altitude over a given horizontal distance. Used for obstacle
clearance.!
!
What is Vy?!
Vy=best rate of climb speed or the greatest gain in altitude over a given amount of time.!
!
What is Va speed?!
Maneuvering speed. Maneuvering speed is the airspeed at which maximum elevator deflection causes the airplane
to stall before overstressing the airframe. Va for maximum aircraft weight is specified in the flight manual.!
!
What is VAT / Vref speed?!
Velocity at threshold (VAT)/velocity reference speed (Vrer) is the target approach threshold speed above the
threshold for a specified flap setting. VAT / Vref = 1.3 x Vs!
!
What is absolute ceiling?!
The absolute ceiling is an aircraft's maximum attainable altitude/flight level at which the Mach number buffet and
prestall buffet occur coincidentally. This is known as coffin corner.!
!
What is service ceiling?!
The service ceiling is the maximum usable altitude of an aircraft where it can produce 500 ft / minute rate of climb
(100 ft / min for other aircrafts)!
!
How does the use of flaps affect the aircraft's takeoff performance?!
No flap setting gives the longest takeoff run (TORR), but the shortest take-off distance (TODR).!
Lowering the flap until maximum takeoff setting shorten the takeoff run because the increased Cl (lift coefficient)
reduces the Vr and V2 speeds, but increases the take-off distance, because reduced climb performance caused by
the increased drag.!
Flap setting outside the take-off range increases the drag during the take-off run causing slower acceleration and
increased takeoff run and also degrade the climb performance because the poor lift/drag ratio.!
!
How does air density (rho} / density altitude (pressure altitude and temperature) affect the takeoff
performance?!
An increase in density altitude (decrease in air density) increases the takeoff distance required (TODR). Therefore,
hot and high mean a decrease in performance that results in either a greater TODR or a lower TOW.!
!
How does humidity affect takeoff performance?!
High humidity decreases air density, which decreases an aircraft’s aerodynamic (CL) and engine performance and
results in an increased TOR/D required for a given aircraft weight.Therefore, hot, high, and humid mean a
decrease in performance that results in either a greater TODR or a lower TOW.!
!
What are the recommended adjustments to headwind and tailwind components when calculating the
takeoff and landing field length performance?!
Not more than 50 percent of the reported headwind or not less than 150 percent of the reported tailwind should be
used to calculate the takeoff or landing performance. These adjustments provide a safety margin to the reported
wind that covers acceptable fluctuations of the actual wind experienced.!
!
How are reverse thrust, antiskid, and braking applied to stopping distance?!
- Reverse thrust. In general, the performance gained by using reverse thrust is not applied to takeoff emergency
stopping distance (EMDR) or landing stopping distance, although a 10 percent safety factor is commonly applied to
landing distance in the event of an inoperative thrust reverser.!
- Antiskid. The performance gained by using the antiskid system is applied to both takeoff distance and landing
stopping distance. If the antiskid system is inoperative, then takeoff from a wet runway is normally prohibited, and
the landing calculation has a large safety factor calculated to its landing distance required, usually about 50
percent.!
- Braking. Maximum braking performance is applied to both takeoff emergency stopping distance (EMDR) and
landing distance required.!
!
What is the critical point (CP) or equal time point?!
The critical point, or equal-time point, is the position en route from where it is equal time to go to your destination
as it is to turn back. In still air this point is equidistant from the destination and the departure airport. The headwind
moves the point towards the destination airport. !
!
What is the point of no return (PNR)?!
PNR (point of no return) is the last point on a route at which it is possible to return to the departure aerodrome.
Required to calculate for oceanic flights.!
!
Load and trim sheet:!
Standard weights:!
- males: 88 kg!
- females: 70 kg!
- children: 35 kg!
- baggage: ? kg!
Loading policy: cargo hold 3 -» 4 -» 1!
!
ABNORMAL/EMERGENCY PROCEDURES - SITUATIONAL MANAGEMENT!
!
FAILURE MANAGEMENT!
!
DECISION MAKING!
!
What is DODAR?!
DODAR is an acronym and used for decision making.

Is used after the ECAM actions are completed.

!
D – Diagnosis (what is the problem)

O – Options (hold, divert, immediate landing etc.)

D – Decision (which option)

A – Assign tasks (carry out selected option and assign tasks)

R – Review (can involve addition of new information, and/or the ongoing result(s) of selected option)!
!
Diagnose is the first step to solve a problem or make a decision. It is necessary to find out what is wrong and if
possible what causes it. Often an aircraft’s computers (ECAM – Airbus) will diagnose the fault but it is important to
confirm it. It is not desirable to shut down the wrong engine or command and irreversible switch. The Diagnose
stage involves determining and confirming the problem.!


Options is determining what choices you have given the problem and circumstances. Not all faults are urgent or
require immediate action. If action is required, such as a diversion there may be choices in airfields such as one
where there is engineering or company support, length of runway given the fault etc.!


Decide is choosing the best option available to you. In a modern cockpit environment this should be discussed with
both crew members.!
!
Assign is to carry out the appropriate action and to assign tasks to people who are to carry them out.!


Reviewing is possibly the most important stage and is a constant process, not solely when the actions are
complete. It is needed to ensure that everything is proceeding according to plan, and the expected safe outcome is
likely. If this is not the case the process can be started again to diagnose what has changed or what is not working
and then adapt as necessary.!
!
What is NITS briefing?!
NITS is an acronym (Nature, Intentions, Time, Specials). In an emergency situation after the decision has been
made using the DODAR, the commander should immediately give a NITS briefing to the SCA (Senior Cabin
Attendant) to understand the situation and prepare the cabin.

It always starts with the sentence: THIS IS A NITS BRIEFING



Nature of the emergency.!
Intentions (return, diversion or continuation to destination).!
Time remaining before landing.!
Special instructions. In the special instructions the Commander is to clearly instruct the SCA!
whether to prepare the cabin for ‘NORMAL’ or ‘EMERGENCY’ landing. (Depressurization)!
back)!


A NITS briefing must be read back by the SCA (to make sure there is no misunderstanding).!
!
!
!
!
!
RESOURCE AND TIME MANAGEMENT!
!
ASPECTS OF CRM!
!
What is CRM?!
CRM (Crew Resource Management)!
The definition is the effective use of all available resources needed to complete a safe and efficient flight. These
resources are: !
- the airplane!
- ATC, passengers, handling!
- self resources (tiredness)!
- charts and so on!
Basic principles of the CRM is to improve decision making in the cockpit such as workload management,
situational awareness, cockpit communication, the leadership role of the captain, crewmember coordination. The

!
crew is taken into account as a team.!

!
AIRCRAFT TYPE KNOWLEDGE!
!
LOW VISIBILITY OPERATION!
!
Low Visibility Procedures (LVP):!
General visibility below 400 m!
For Cat I use DA because of the terrain!
!
Low Visibility Take-off (LVTO):!
LVTO = RVR below 400m and LVP in force!
!
125m allowed only if:!
- Multiple RVR info along ASDA!
- HICL 15m spacing!
- min of 90 meters visual segment from the cockpit (6 lights)!
- Operator must have an approval from the authority!
- Crew received a LVTO sim training

!
ATPL THEORY SUBJECTS!
!
!
INSTRUMENTATION!
!
!
Aircraft standard or primary instrument layout:!
The basic or primary instrument layout is the T arrangement. The attitude indicator is in the top center, airspeed to
the left, altimeter to the right and heading indicator under the attitude indicator. This completed by the turn
coordinator in the bottom left and the vertical speed indicator in the bottom right. This is called the six-pack, and
this is the primary instrument layout for a general aviation aircraft. These instruments are divided into two
categories: the pitot-static and gyro instruments. The pitot static instruments are: ASI, VSI, Altimeter, the gyro
instruments are: artificial horizon, the turn coordinator and the heading indicator (or directional gyro).



The six-pack can supplemented with other navigation related instruments like: the CDI, HSI, RMI and ADF!
!
What are the pressure flight instruments, and how do they work?!
The pressure flight instruments are!
1. Airspeed indicator (ASI)/Mach meter (MM)!
2. Altimeter!
3. Vertical speed indicator (VSI)!
!
Pressure instruments measure atmospheric pressure by using the pitot-static system, which is a combined sensor
system that detects the following:!
1. The total pressure (static and dynamic pressure), also called pitot pressure, which is measured by a pitot probe!
2. Static pressure alone, which is measured by either the static port on a pitot probe or by a separate static vent!
The difference between the two will give a measurement of the dynamic pressure. That is,!
Dynamic pressure = total pressure - static pressure!
Dynamic and/or static pressure measurements are the basis of the flight instrument readings.!
!
Pitot-Static System:!
The pitot-static system measures the total pressure created by the forward movement of the airplane and the static
pressure surrounding the airframe. These pressures transferred to various instruments which convert the pressure
differentials into speed, altitude and rate of change of altitude. So these instruments are: the ASI, the Machmeter,
the Altimeter and the VSI. !
The pitot tube is a tube which is fitted to the airframe with its opening facing directly into the airflow. The tube is
mounted typically close to the nose where the disturbance of the airflow is minimal. The tube measures the total
pressure which is the combined dynamic and static pressure of the airflow. !
The static port measures the ambient pressure of the air surrounding the aircraft. Its located where the airflow is
undisturbed by its passage and positioned perpendicular to the airflow.!

!
Errors: Configuration changes, maneuver induced errors, turbulence, use of alternate static source.!
!
Pressure Altimeter:!
The ISA: International Standard Atmosphere. This is a table created by ICAO, and used as a reference. In this
table we can find values of pressure, temperature, density which are vary at a prescribed rate with altitude. At sea
level the temp 15, the pressure 1013.25 hPa and the density is 1.225 km/m3.!
The Altimeter is designed to measure the pressure from the static port, called the static pressure.!
The simple altimeter comprises an aneroid (closed) capsule, a leaf spring, a mechanical linkage and a pointer in a
container. The static pressure lead into the container. As the aircraft climbs the static pressure decreases in the
container which causes the capsule to expand and drive the pointer to show a higher altitude. !
The altimeter calibrated at ISA sea level until it reads 0. To adjust the datum there’s a knob and scale to set
different pressure values. This called the Kollsman scale.!

!
QFE: the pressure at an airfield. If set the altimeter reads 0 on landing and take-off.!
QNH: the pressure corrected to sea level pressure. If set, the altimeter indicates the airport elevation.!
QNE: if 1013 is set the altimeter indicates the pressure altitude.!
Errors:!
- Instrument error: caused by the capsule movement. Generally increase with altitude!
- Pressure error: caused by the disturb ant airflow near the static vent!
- Time lag: occur because the response of the capsule is not instantaneous!
- Barometric error: occur when the actual pressure differs from the one is set on the scale. If the airplane flies
from high pressure into low pressure it will descend even the altimeter remains constant!
- Temperature error: occur when the actual temperature laps rate differs form ISA value. When the air below the
airplane is warmer (less dense, low pressure) the the airplane is higher than indicated. !
- Blockage: if the static tube blocked the altimeter indicates the altitude when the blockage occurred. In this case
you can use the alternate static port.!
!
The servo altimeter increases the accuracy of the simple altimeter, because no longer relies on a direct mechanical
links between its capsule and the altitude pointer. This removes the instrument error end the time-lag error.!
!
VSI:!
The Vertical Speed Indicator which indicates the aircraft rate of climb or descent.!
The principle of operation is measuring the pressure difference between 2 chambers. The atmospheric pressure
lead directly into the inner chamber (capsule), and via a calibrated leak to the outer chamber. When climbing or
descending the pressure changes faster in the inner chamber and slower in the outer chamber because of the
smaller leak. The lag between the pressures measured and transferred to a pointer which moves agains a
calibrated dial.!

!
Errors:!
- Lag: takes time for the pressure differential to develop!
- Instrument error!
- Maneuver induced error: attitude change, turbulence can cause any pressure instrument to misread!
- Blockage: if the static line blocked the VSI indicates 0 regardless to the aircraft vertical speed!
!
IVSI: Instantaneous vertical speed indicator. The IVSI removes the time lag of the simple VSI. The IVSI uses 2
spring loaded dashpots in the static line before the capsule. These dashpots senses the differential pressure
immediately when the aircraft start a climb or a descent. !
!
ASI:!
The Air Speed Indicator measures the pressure difference between the static pressure and the total pressure. This
pressure difference called the dynamic pressure. The pitot pressure fed into a (vidi or open) capsule or diaphragm
and the static pressure is fed into the case. When the aircraft is moving the pressure will be greater in the capsule
than in the case proportional to the pressure difference. A mechanical linkage is used to transfer the capsule
movement to a pointer which moves over a dial which calibrated normally in knots.!

!
Color codes:!
- White arc: flap operating speed range (from Vs0 to Vfe)!
- Green arc: normal operating range (from Vs1 to Vno)!
- Yellow arc: caution range (from Vno to Vne)!
- Red line: Vne!
- Blue line: Vyse (best rate of climb speed with one engine inoperative)!
!
Errors:!
- Instrument error: which can be in the manufacturer error tolerance limits!
- Pressure error: which can be maneuver induced error, caused by turbulence and attitude changes!
- Compressibility error: only significant over 300 kts, causes the ASI to over-read!
- Density error: the ASI calibrated to ISA sea level, so when the aircraft climbs the density of the air decreases so
the IAS. So at high altitudes the IAS will be significant lower than the TAS.!
- Blockage: if the pitot the blocked causes the ASI to not respond any speed changes in level flight. In that case
the capsule behave as an altimeter capsule. If the airplane climbs it indicates an increase in airspeed (over-
read), if it descends indicates a decrease in airspeed (under-read). If the static line is blocked the ASI over-read
at lower altitudes, and under-read at high-altitudes.!
!
IAS = ASIR (AirSpeed Indicator Reading) + Instrument error!
CAS = IAS + Pressure error!
EAS = CAS + Compressibility error!
TAS = EAS + Density error!
!
TAS = (1,75% of CAS per 1000 ft of altitude)! ! for example 100 its at 10.000 ft!
TAS = 1.75/100 x 100x10) = 117,5 kts!
!
Machmeter:!
The mach meter measures the ratio of the airplane TAS to the local speed of sound and displays as a Mach
number. The speed of sound varies only with temperature. If the temperature increases the LSS also increases.
The LSS at sea level ISA conditions about 662 kts. Its very important to know the critical mach number because at
that speed the aircraft reaches the sound waves ahead of it resulting a shock wave which increase the drag forces
and decreases the stability of the aircraft. The mach number when any element of the local airflow reaches the
speed of sound is the critical mach number. This number is highlighted by an index mark on the machmeter.!
!
Errors:!
- Instrument error!
- Pressure error!
- Blockage: blockage in the static system causes the machmeter to over-read during descends and under-read
during a climb.!
!
What are the airspeed indicator (ASI)/Mach meter indications and actions for a blocked pilot and/or static
probe?!
A static line blockage means that the static pressure in the ASI!Mach meter instrument case remains a constant
value. Therefore,!
1. At a constant altitude, the ASI!MM will read correctly.!
2. During descent, the ASIIMM will overread due to an increase in the pitot pressure in the capsule against the
trapped low static pressure of the higher altitude.!
3. During climb, the ASI!MM will underread due to a decrease in the pitot pressure in the capsule against the
trapped high static pressure of the low altitude.!
!
A pitot line blockage means that the total pressure in the ASI/MM instrument capsule remains a constant value.
Therefore,!
1. At a constant altitude, the ASI/MM reading will not change even if the airspeed does due to the trapped pitot
pressure in the capsule against a constant altitude static pressure.!
2. During descent, the ASI/MM will underread due to an increase in the static pressure in the case against a
constant pitot pressure. !
3. During climb, the ASI/MM will overread due to a decrease in the static pressure in the case against a constant
pitot pressure.!
!
The actions for a blocked pitot/static system causing an unreliable ASI/MM reading would be to!
1. Ensure that the pitot static probe anti-ice heating (pitot heat) is on, if applicable.!
2. Use an alternative, such as a static source or an air data computer, if applicable.!
3. Use a limited flight panel, i.e., standby ASI.!
4. Fly at a correct attitude and power setting.!
!
Magnetic compass:!
It’s mandatory for every aircraft to have a direct reading magnetic compass on board as a backup instrument.
Mostly “E” type compasses is used. The compass consist of a single circular cobalt-steel magnet attached is a light
metal compass card. The card has white markings on black background. Every 5 degrees has a smaller, every 10
degrees has a larger stripe and every 30 degrees has a number. The cardinal points are marked with letters N, S,
W, W. A white vertical line is drawn on the bowl to see the actual heading. The bowl is filled with silicone fluid to
prevent corrosion.!
Because the compass acts like a pendulum it has multiple errors. !
The main errors are:!
- Acceleration: on the northern hemisphere if the aircraft accelerate on an Easterly or Westerly heading, the
compass shows an apparent turn to the north. If the aircraft decelerate on an Easterly or Westerly heading, the
compass shows an apparent turn to the south.!
- Turn: on the northern hemisphere if the aircraft turns towards north the compass under indicate the heading, so
we need to turn less than the compass shows. Inversely if the aircraft turns towards south the compass over
indicate, so we need to turn more than the compass shows. The northernly turning error is greater than
southerly.!
!
Using the magnetic compass for navigation we need to know a few things:!
- Magnetic dip: the magnetic lines of force are parallel to the earth surface at the equator and descending
vertically at the magnetic poles. So the angle of dip is 0 at the equator and almost 90 at the magnetic poles. The
lines joining equal dip places known as isoclinic lines, and the line joining 0 dip places known as aclinic lines.!
- Variation: the angle between the magnetic and the true meridians is known as magnetic variation. Isogonal or
isogonic lines shows the places with equal magnetic variation. Agonic line shows the points of 0 magnetic
variation. When the magnetic meridian located to the left from the true meridian, the variation is West (minus),
when located to the right from the true meridian, the variation is East (plus). !
- Deviation: deviation is the error of the magnetic compass caused by the magnetic fields within the aircraft.
Deviation error is different on each heading. There’s a compensation table called deviation table for the pilots to
compensate this error.!
!
Directional Indicator (Gyro):!
The DI is a gyroscopic instrument that displays the aircraft heading using a compass rose display. The gyroscope
has 2 main properties: precession and rigidity in space. Rigidity means that the spinning rotor remains at the
original attitude while the gimbal and the cage moves around it. Precession means that the gyro resist any force
that wants to change its plane of rotation. The DI can be air driven or electrically driven. The DI uses a horizontal
axis tied gyro, which has freedom in 3 planes. There’s a caging knob which used to synchronize the DI with the
compass. The advantage of the DI is that gives steadier heading information than the magnetic compass, which
suffers from turning and acceleration errors. !
 !
But the DI also have errors. These errors are:!
- Gimballing error: which caused of the geometry of the gimbal system, that the case is able to rotate about only
one axis, so the outer gimbal must move to maintain the system rigidity giving a false heading indication change. !
- apparent wander or drift: which is caused by the earth rotation. This drift is about 15 degrees per hour at the
North pole and 0 at the equator. The effect is a westward drift in the northern hemisphere resulting a decrease in
heading indication. Apparent drift = 15 x sin (latitude) degrees per hour!
- random or real wander or mechanical drift: caused by the manufacturing imperfection. The drift rate can be up to
16 degrees per hour for air driven and only a few degrees for electrically driven gyros.!
- transport wander: is a form of apparent wander. If the gyro is aligned with the true north at one place on the
earth and then the aircraft is moved to another east-west position on the globe, the gyro axis will be out of
alignment.!
!
Because of this errors the has to be aligned/synchronized with the compass every 10-15 minutes.!
!
Artificial Horizon:!
The artificial horizon is the primary attitude instrument that measures and displays the pitch and roll of the aircraft
about the horizon level. The AH contains a vertical axis gyro and two gimbals for the pitch and the roll axis, so it
has 3 planes of freedom. On the attitude display we can see a horizon bar which is parallel to the true horizon.
Above this bar the upper part is blue like the sky and the lower part is black or brown indicating the earth. In front
of the bar there’s a miniature airplane. Its horizontal lines represents the wings and the dot represents the nose of
the aircraft. There are also markings shows the aircraft pitch attitude usually to 20 degrees up and down. At the
edge of the dial we can find the markings of the bank angle. At the top is the 0 bank, the next 2 shorter stripe is the
10 and 20 degrees, the longer stripes indicates the 30 and the 60 degrees. There is a knob to adjust the miniature
airplane to align with the horizon bar, or a knob to realign the cage.!

!
Errors:!
- Acceleration error or take-off error: the AH indicates a false climbing right turn during take-off!
- turning error: because of the centrifugal forces action on the pendulous unit, during a left turn the AH indicates a
false descent, and during a right turn indicates a false climb!
- real wander: caused by the manufacturing imperfection.!
!
The electrically driven AH is a bit different:!
- the electric squirell-cage motor drives the rotor about twice the speed of an air driven AH, about 22.000 rpm.!
- the acceleration and the turn errors almost eliminated because of the little pendulousity. !
!
Turn and Slip Indicator and Turn Coordinator:!
This is 2 instruments in one case. The basic instrument is the turn and slip indicator, the more advanced is the turn
coordinator. The turn indicator displays the rate and the direction of the turn while the slip indicator shows that the
airplane is in a balanced turn or slipping or skidding.!
The turn indicator contains a horizontal spin axis gyro, and one gimbal ring, so it has 2 planes of freedom. The
rotor can be air or electrical driven and rotates only about 9000 rpm because in level flight the gyro axis maintained
by 2 springs. The turn indicator indicates only the aircraft movement around the yaw axis (does NOT indicates
bank). The display indicates the rate one turn which is 3 degrees per second so 360 degrees in 2 minutes. !

!
Errors:!
!
The lower part of the instrument is the inclinometer which is a ball sealed in a curved tube which contains a liquid
to act as a damping medium. This gives the pilot the balance information of the turn. The ball’s movement caused
by the force of gravity and the aircraft centripetal acceleration. When the ball is centered the aircraft is in a
balanced turn. If the ball is on the inside (wing down side) of a turn, the aircraft is slipping. And finally, when the ball
is on the outside (wing up side) of the turn, the aircraft is skidding. In this cases the pilot correcting action should
be always “step on the ball”.!
!
Turn coordinator:!
This also contains 2 instrument in one case. It indicates the direction and the rate of the turn and the slip indicator
shows if the airplane is in a balanced turn or slipping or skidding. The turn coordinator contains also a horizontal
axis gyro, but its gimbal is raised at the form by 30 degrees. That’s why the instrument is sensitive to both roll and
yaw, so it will begin to indicate a turn when the roll in begins. Its important they the turn coordinator has no attitude
information!!
!
Radio Altimeter:!
The radio altimeter provides hight measurement from 2500 ft down to 50 ft AGL for pulse radar beams or 0 ft AGL
for continuous radar beams. The basic principle of the radio altimeter is that a wide conical beam is directed
vertically down toward the ground, and the time taken for the reflected signal to return corresponds to its height.!
!
ILS:!
The Instrument Landing System is a precision approach radio aid which gives lateral and vertical guidance.!
The ILS has 2 separate ground equipments:!
- the localizer: which provides tracking guidance along the extended runway centerline. The signal is protected 10
degrees either side of the centerline up to 6000 ft and out of 25 NM, and 35 degrees either side of the centerline
out to 17 NM. The left hand side signal has a 90 Hz tone, and the right hand side has a 150 Hz tone. If the
aircraft is flying to the left from the centerline, the receiver detects more 90 Hz modulation tone than 150 Hz.
This difference is called the DDM (Difference in Depth of Modulation). So the needle will indicate that the
centerline is to the right. The localizer uses the VHF frequencies from 108 - 112 MHz sharing with VOR. The 40
ILS channel uses odd 100 and 150 kHz spacing.!
- the glide slope: which provides vertical guidance above and below the glide slope. The transmitting aerial is
situated about 300m from the threshold and 150-200m from the centerline to ensure adequate wheel clearance
over the airfield fence. The upper side has 90 Hz, the lower side has 150 Hz modulation. The beam is 1.4
degree deep (0,7 degree above and below the glide path). The coverage of the glide slope signals is 8 degrees
either side of the localizer centerline out to 10 NM. 

The glide slope uses the UHF frequencies from 329,3 - 335 MHz at 150 kHz spacing. The glide slope frequency
is selected automatically when a localizer frequency is selected (also the DME). !
 !
There are also marker beacons installed along the approach path provide the aircraft range check points. The
beacons transmit at 75 MHz in the VHF band.!
- The outer marker (OM) located between 3,5 - 5 NM from the threshold, with a 400 Hz tone (2 dashes/sec), and
a blue light!
- The middle marker (MM) located 3500 ft +-500 ft from the threshold, with a 1,3 kHz tone, (alternate dots, and
dashes 3/sec), and an amber light!
- The inner marker (IM) located 250 - 1000 ft from the threshold, with a 3 kHz tone (6 dots/sec), and a white light!
!
Errors:!
- false glide slope: which has a double of angle than a real glide slope. The pilot should capture the real glide
slope from below to ensure to never encounter the false glide slope. The falls glide slope should be recognized
by the aircraft hight rate of descent.!
- phantom signals: it’s important that the pilot never rely the ILS signal outside the localizer protected range,
because it could be from an other station using a similar frequency!
!
The aircraft receiver can be: VOR/ILS receiver or HSI!
!
VOR:!
The VHF Omni Direction al Radio Range is a radio navigation system which allows the aircraft to determine its
position and stay on course by receiving radio signals from the ground station. The conventional VOR station
transmits a 30 Hz frequency modulated reference signal which is omnidirectional, and a 30 Hz amplitude
modulated variable phase signal which phase varying at a constant rate. The 2 signal phase difference gives an
unique signal for each 360 radials. A radial is the magnetic bearing outbound from the station (QDR). !
The VOR station uses frequencies in the VHF band from 108 to 117,95 MHz. 40 channels from 108 - 112 MHz,
sharing the frequencies with the ILS localizers and 120 channels from 112 - 117,95 MHz. !
The pilot has to tune the frequency and identify the station before using it for navigation by listening the 3 digit
morse code. !
The maximum theoretical reception range of the VOR is (NM): 1,25 x √(H1 + H2), H is the height in feet AMSL!
There are 2 types of VOR: Conventional VOR, and Doppler VOR. The DVOR is the second generation VOR which
is less sensitive to site errors.!

!
Errors:!
- Site error: because of the reflection from the nearby object causing an error of +-1 degree!
- Propagation error: because of the reflection from distant object and terrain causing an error of +-1 degree!
- Equipment error: of the aircraft equipment causing an error of +-3 degree!
So the total error of the VOR is +-5 degrees.!
!
The aircraft VOR receiver has 3 main components: the aerial, the receiver and the indicator.!
The instrument to display VOR information can be: OBI, VOR/ILS receiver, RMI and HSI!
!
NDB:!
The Non Directional Beacon is a ground based transmitter which transmit radio signal in all directions in the LF and
MF frequency bands from 190 kHz to 1750 kHz. The airborne system in the aircraft is the Automatic Direction
Finder.!
The NDB is very simple: a Radio Frequency oscillator provides a carrier wave. The ADF uses this carrier wave to
determine the direction of the NDB station. A loop aerial in the aircraft rotating until it will be perpendicular to the
radio wave. But in this case there will be 2 null positions. To determine the the beacon position a simple dipole
aerial is used. The given polar diagram (the cardioid) has only one minimum and that will be the direction of the
beacon.!

!
The cone of silence above the station the signal strength is too low for use. This space is the cone of silence. This
angle is 40 degrees from the vertical.!

!
Errors:!
- night effect: radio waves reflected back by the ionosphere can cause signal strength fluctuation 30 to 60 nautical
miles from the transmitter, especially just before sunrise and just after sunset!
- mountain effect: mountains can reflect the radio waves giving errors!
- shoreline effect: low-frequency radio waves will refract or bend near a shoreline, especially if they are close to
parallel to it, because of the different reflection properties of the land and water.!
- electrical effect: electrical storms, and sometimes also electrical interference (from a ground-based source or
from a source within the aircraft) can cause the ADF needle to deflect towards the electrical source!
!
The accuracy requirement for NDB’s are +-5 degrees, the airborne equipment has +-2 degrees.!
!
The NDB range:!
- over lands (NM): 3 x √power output in watts!
- over sea (NM): 9 x √power output in watts!
!
BFO: beat frequency oscillator, makes the carrier wave audible to the pilot to identify the NDB station. (not needed
for NDB’s with A2A indents, because that are already modulated)!
!
The instrument display the NDB information can be: RBI, RMI!
!
Homing: when the pilot keeps the ADF reading 0, resulting a continuous change in heading resulting a curved path
to the station.!
!
DME:!
The Distance Measuring Equipment is a secondary radar equipment which enables the pilot to measure the
distance from the ground station. This distance is slant range, so the difference between the slant range and the
ground distance is increasing when the aircraft gets closer and higher to the station! The aircraft equipment is able
to compute GS and ETA from this range. The DME is normally co-sited with a VOR or with an ILS loacalizer. The
DME uses the frequencies from 962 to 1213 MHz in the UHF band at 1 MHz spacing, which means 252 channels. !
The aircraft transmits pairs of pulses at random intervals, omni-directionally, the ground station retransmits all
pulses at +- 63 MHz after a delay of 50 nanosecundums.!
The DME coverage is limited by the line of sight.!
The DME accuracy is +- 0,2 NM. In theory 100 aircraft can interrogate the DME.!
!
!
RBI:!
Relative Bearing Indicator. Is a simple ADF instrument, that is used to display NDB navigation information. The RBI
display has a fixed 360 degrees compass card with the 0 degree position at the top, and which also shows the
aircraft heading. The ADF needle shows the relative bearing of the NDB from the aircraft heading. The pilot has to
use together with the DI to determine the QDM to the NDB. 

Advanced models has a manually rotated compass card so the pilot is able to set the aircraft actual heading on it,
so its easier to read the QDM to the NDB.!

!
!
OBI:!
The Omni Bearing Indicator is an instrument used in aircraft navigation to determine an aircraft's lateral position in
relation to a track. There is a knob (the Omni Bearing Selector) with that the pilot can rotate the compass card and
select the required course. The pilot only needs to keep the needle centered to follow the course selected on the
CDI to the VOR station. If the needle drifts off-center the aircraft would be turned towards the needle until it is
centered again. For intercepting a radial or course the most common method is using the acronym T-I-T-P-I-T. The
acronym stands for Tune – Identify – Twist – Parallel – Intercept – Track. First, tune the desired VOR frequency
then identify it by verifying the morse code heard with the sectional chart. Then twist the VOR OBS knob to the
desired radial (FROM) or course (TO) the station. The next step is to bank the airplane until the heading indicator
indicates the radial or course set in the VOR. The fifth step is to fly towards the needle by 30–45°. When the VOR
needle is centered, turn the heading of the airplane back to the radial or course If there is wind, a wind correction
angle will be necessary to maintain the VOR needle centered. 

The needle maximum deflection is 10 degrees either side, so 1 dot is 2 degrees.

The red nav or off blanker indicates that the there’s no or unreliable signal.!

!
!
VOR - ILS receiver:

The advanced version of the OBI is able to act as an ILS display instrument when an ILS frequency is selected. If
so the localizer deviation bar needle maximum deviation is 2,5 degrees either side, so 1 dot is 0,5 degree. The
horizontal line is the glide slope deviation bar which shows the actual glide slope of the aircraft. The maximum
deviation is 0.7 degrees so 1 dot deviation is 0.15 degree. If any of these needles are deflected the pilot must fly
toward the deflected needles to center them.!

!
!
HSI:!
The horizontal Situation Indicator combines a heading indicator and a VOR/ILS receiver. It shows the actual HDG
of the aircraft regardless of the selected course. On the bottom left side there’s a course selector know to select
the required course or radial. On the bottom right side there’s a HDG selector knob. On both side there are glide
slope deviation scales. The HSI is a command instrument, which means flying toward the deflected deviation bars,
the aircraft can center the course or the glide slope bar.!

!
!
RMI:!
The Radio Magnetic Indicator is used to display ADF and VOR navigational information in a single instrument. !
The RMI has a 360 degree compass card which automatically displays the aircraft magnetic heading. The 2
needles heads indicates the QDM to the stations the tails indicates the QDR. The selection button allows the pilot
to change between the needle ADF or VOR indications. !

!
!
Transponder:!
The transponder works on Secondary Surveillance Radar principles. It uses a ground based transmitter and
receiver called the interrogator, and an airborne transmitter and receiver called the transponder. !
The interrogator transmit pulses on VHF frequency of 1030 MHz and the transponder replies on 1090 MHz. !
There are different type of transponders:!
- A mode: basic, transmits only the aircraft 4 digit code !
- C mode: advanced, transmits the 4 digit code and the aircraft altitude (referenced to the STD setting)!
- S (Selective) mode: transmits the 4 digit code, the altitude and other information for example: call sign, flight
number, and also the S mode is required for TCAS resolution advisory.!
!
Usually the transponder has the following modes:!
- OFF: the transponder is off!
- STBY: the transponder is electrically supplied but does not operate!
- ON: which is the A mode this transmits only the aircraft 4 digit identification code!
- ALT: altitude mode or mode C (Charlie), transmits the altitude with the 4 digit code!
!
There’s a code selection knob to select the requested code by the ATC. The pilot should select mode STBY before
selecting the new code to avoid selecting an emergency or another aircraft code. There are 4096 code variations
from 0000 to 7777.!
There are special transponder codes:!
- 7500: to indicate unlawful interference!
- 7600: to indicate radio failure!
- 7000: to indicate emergency condition!
!
Theres’s also an IDENT button. If the ATC request the pilot to squawk ident, the pilot pushes the button which
causes a special symbol to appear on the ATC radar screen providing positive identification.!
!
ELT:!
The Emergency Locator transmitter is a device which able to send a distress signal on the designated frequencies.
These frequencies are the 121,5 MHz and the 406 MHz.!
Usually the ELT have two basic ways to work: !
- In case of detecting high G forces the ELT will be activated automatically and sends the distress message!
- by pilot request: in case of emergency, the pilot is able to activate it manually to send the distress message. !
In both ways, the device will send a message containing relevant information:!
! • Aircraft model!
! • Callsign!
! • GPS Coordinates!
! • SAR service request!
!
GPWS:!
The Ground Proximity Warning System is designed to prevent controlled flights into the ground accidents. Normally
activates between 50 ft and 2450 ft AGL. It has a central computer system that receives various data inputs from:!
1. Barometric altitude for rate of descent (ROD) calculations!
2. Radio altimeter!
3. Flap position!
4. Gear position!
5. Instrument landing system (ILS) glide slope!
6. Approach minima!
7. Throttle position!
!
It then calculates these inputs to detect if any of the following dangerous and/or potentially dangerous
circumstances exist:!
Mode 1. Excessive barometric rate of descent below 2450 ft AGL!
Mode 2. Excessive terrain closure rate!
Mode 3. Height loss after takeoff!
Mode 4. Flaps or gear not selected for landing. At 500 ft and landing gear not locked, at 200 ft if flaps not set.!
Mode 5. Too low on the ILS glide slope (lowest priority)!
Mode 6. Descending below approach minima!
!
Mode 7. Windshear!
!
These circumstances form the six main working modes of the GPWS.!
Each mode has a precomputerized active range with distinct boundaries. Most modes have two boundaries:!
1. Initial alert boundary, whereby a potential danger to the aircraft’s safety exists.!
2. Warning boundary, whereby a present danger to the aircraft's safety exists. A warning usually follows an alert if
the condition persists.!
!
However, some modes (5 and 6) do not have a warning boundary, only an alert. If the central computer determines
that a boundary of any of the various modes has been exceeded, it will activate aural and visual alerts to warn the
flight crew using the following cockpit equipment:!
1. Speakers.!
2. A pair of red warning lights with "Pull Up."!
3. A glide slope deviation inhibited amber advisory light.!
!
When more than one alert or warning is triggered at the same time, the GPWS will give only the highest-priority
alert or warning that has been triggered. The GPWS is now mandatory equipment for public transport aircraft!
over 5700 kg.!
!
Windshear warning is sometimes classed as a GPWS mode because it uses the GPWS flight crew visual and
aural warning system, but its not a a ground proximity warning but a separate system. The warning is only active
from ground to 1500 ft AGL. A windshear warning requires an immediate go-around at full thrust and maximum
flight director pitch-up attitude to avoid ground contact. The windshear warning always has the highest priority of all
warnings. !
!
TCAS:!
The Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) provides traffic information and maneuver advice between aircraft
if their flight paths are conflicting with each other. TCAS uses the aircraft's secondary surveillance radar (SSR)
transponders and is completely independent of any ground-based radar units. !
TCAS I is an early system that provides traffic information only.!
TCAS II is a later system that provides additional maneuver advice but in the main is restricted to vertical
separation.!
The TCAS and the transponder have usually the same control panel, like on the A320. There’s a numeric keypad
to select the transponder code and various knobs to select the modes. Usually there are 3 modes. STBY, TA, TA/
RA. The TA provides only traffic advisory. There’s another knob to select various altitude bands:!
- THRT: only proximate and intruders are displayed if TA or RA is present. The altitude range 2700 ft abc and blw!
- ALL: displays traffic 2700 ft above and below!
- ABV: displays traffic 9900 ft above and 2700 ft below!
- BLW: displays traffic 9900 ft below and 2700 ft above !
The TCAS interrogate the transponders of the nearby aircraft to plot their positions and movements. Based on this
information if the system determines that a collision is possible, it provides aural warning and vertical command
actions how to avoid the collision. !
The system has different levels:!
- TA: traffic advisory warning is generated for traffic that may become a threat (45-35 seconds from the collision
area) and a synthetic voice saying “Traffic, Traffic”!
- RA: resolution advisory warning is generated when the aircrafts are on collision course 30-20 second from the
collision area with various voice warnings. The pilot must follow the climb or descent instruction of the TCAS
system instead of instruction given by the ATC but the pilot must inform the ATC about the maneuver given by
the TCAS using “TCAS RA”

!
Clear of Conflict: when the synthetic voice saying clear of conflict that means that the traffic is no longer a threat.!
!
Describe GPS.!
The Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite system for worldwide navigation. The GPS consists of 24 satellites,
of which 21 are operational at any time. The satellites are circling at a height of 20,200 km. Four satellites will
always be in line-of-sight range of an aircraft receiver at any position on the earth. The satellites transmit timed
radio signals, and the receiver equipment uses the time delay to!
calculate its distance from the satellites. The distance measured from two satellites will establish a latitude and
longitude fix. The distance!
measured from a third satellite will confirm the fix, and the fourth satellite will give altitude information.!
!
What is an INS/IRS?!
An INS is an onboard self-contained inertia navigation system that can provide continuous information on an
aircraft's position without any external assistance. An IRS (inertia reference system) is a modern INS that usually
has a greater integration into the flight management system (FMS), and provides the aircraft's actual magnetic
position and heading information with reference to the FMS required position and heading. The INS system
measures the aircraft inertia movement from an initial position using accelerometers.!
!
!
!
 METEOROLOGY!
!
What is the aviation definition of height or QFE?!
Height is the measured distance above the ground when using the QFE, which is the pressure at the airport
reference point. (if temp is ISA)!
!
What is the aviation definition of altitude or QHN?!
Altitude is the measured distance above mean sea level when using the QNH, which is the pressure at the Mean
Sea Level. (if temp is ISA)!
!
What is the aviation definition of a flight level or STD or QNE?!
Flight level is the measured distance above the 1013 hPa isobaric surface divided by 100. (if temp is ISA)!
!
What are the ICAO ISA conditions at sea level?!
Temperature: +15°C [environmental lapse rate (ELR), -1.98°C per 1000 ft or -6,5°C per 1000 m)!
Pressure: 1013,25 hectopascals (decreases with altitude)!
Density: 1225 g/m3!
The standard tropopause altitude is 36.089 ft or 11.000 m where the temperature -56.5°C!
!
What is air pressure?!
Air pressure is the weight of a column of air. Can be measured using a barometer and can be expressed as
hektopascals (or inches of mercury). 1 hPa change is around 28 ft!
According to ISA:

1013 hPa - 0 ft - m!
850 hPa - 5000 ft - 1500 m - FL50!
500 hPa - 18000 ft - 5500 m - FL180!
300 hPa - 30000 ft - 9100 m - FL300!
250 hPa - 34000 ft - 10400 m - FL340!
200 hPa - 39000 ft - 11800 m - FL390 !
!
What is pressure altitude?!
Pressure altitude is the altitude above the 1013 hPa pressure. !
!
If you were at 33,000 ft with an outside air temperature (OAT) of -45°C, what is the temperature deviation
from international standard atmosphere (lSA)?!
ISA temperature is + 15°C at mean sea level (MSL), with a 2°C per 1000 ft lapse rate. Therefore ISA temperature
at 33,000 ft is +15 + (33 X -2) = -51C!
Actual temperature minus ISA temperature at 33,000 ft is -45 - (-51) = +6!
Therefore, temperature deviation at 33,000 ft = lAS + 6°C.!
!
What is density altitude?!
Density altitude is the pressure altitude corrected with the temperature. Is the altitude relative to the standard
atmosphere conditions (ISA) at which the air density would be equal to the current air density.!
!
How does the variation of air density due to temperature affect an aircraft’s performance?!
A warmer than international standard atmosphere (ISA) temperature for a given altitude causes a decrease in air
density, which causes a decrease in the aircrafts performance because of several things. First engine power is
reduced because the fuel-air mixture is reduced. The propeller develops less thrust because the blades, as airfoils,
are less efficient in the thin air. The wings develop less lift because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils.!
!
What is the transition altitude and transition level?!
The Transition Altitude is the altitude above the mean sea level at which the standard setting must be selected by
the pilots during a climb. The TA can be found on charts. !
The Transition Level is the first available flight level above the transition altitude taking into account the vertical
separation. It depends on the QNH. Below the TL the pilots must select QNH when descending. TL is given by ATC
or ATIS.!
Transition level calculation: !
- If the QNH is 1013 or greater, the next level is used: 5000 -» FL60!
- If the QNH is between 1013 - 977, the second next level is used: 7000 -» FL90!
- If the QNH is lower than 977, the third next level is used: 9000 -» FL120!
!
Describe TAT:!
TAT is the sum of the OAT and the adiabatic compression (ram rise) in temperature experienced on the
temperature probe.!
!
What is an isobar?!
An isobar is a line on a meteorologic chart that joins places of equal pressure.!
!
What is an isotherm?!
An isotherm is a line joining places of the same temperature.!
!
How does a change in air temperature affect an aircraft's flight level?!
A higher than ISA air temperature makes the air less dense and lighter in weight, causing the density altitude to
differ from the pressure altitude. The actual flight level will be higher than the pressure level read by the altimeter. 

However, a lower than ISA air temperature makes the air denser and heavier in weight, causing the density altitude
to differ from the pressure altitude. This results in the actual flight level being lower than the pressure level read by
the altimeter.!
If temperature is higher than ISA, you fly higher, if lower than ISA, you fly lower!!
Therefore, when flying from a high to low (temperature), beware below, because your actual flight level (and
therefore ground clearance) is lower than indicated by your altimeter. In other words, your altimeter overreads.!
This high-to-low mnemonic applies equally to pressure values as it does to temperature.!
!
What is a temperature inversion?!
A temperature inversion occurs when the air temperature increases with height (rather than the usual decrease).!
When a temperature inversion occurs, it acts like a blanket, stopping vertical movement of currents; i.e., air that
starts to rise meets an inversion layer and so stops rising.!
!
What is an isothermal layer?!
An isothermal layer is one where the air remains at the same temperature within a vertical section of the
atmosphere (i.e., a constant 10°C between 5000 and 10,000 ft ).!
!
What is the adiabatic process?!
The adiabatic process is a process where the air temperature changes because of an expansion or compression,
and no heat is added or removed from the system. Compressing the air increases it’s temperature, and
decompressing it (expansion) reduces its temperature.!
A common adiabatic process in aviation is the expansion of a cooling parcel of air when it rises in the atmosphere.!
!
What is ELR?!
Environmental lapse rate (ELR) is the rate of temperature change with height of a general surrounding
atmosphere. The international standard atmosphere (ISA) assumes an ELR of -2°C per 1000 ft of height/altitude
gained. The actual ELR in a real atmosphere, however, may differ greatly from this; in fact, it can be zero
(isothermal layer) or even a positive value (inversion).!
!
What is DALR?!
Dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) is the adiabatic temperature change for unsaturated air as it rises. Unsaturated air
is known as dry air, and its change in temperature is a rather regular drop of 3°C per 1000 ft of height/altitude
gained.!
!
What is SALR?!
Saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) is the adiabatic change in temperature for saturated air as it rises.!
The air becomes saturated when it cools down to its dew point when its water start to condense out forming
clouds. Above this height, the now saturated air will continue to cool as it rises, but because it releases latent heat
as the water vapor condenses into a liquid form, i.e., clouds, its cooling rate is reduced to a rather regular drop of
1.5°C per 1000 ft of height/altitude gained.!
!
Stability:!
When the ELR is lower than both DALR and SALR, so the air when it rises became colder and denser then the
surrounding air and sinks back to its original position.!
!
Instability:!
- Absolute: when the ELR is greater than both DALR and SALR, so the air when it rises become warmer and less
dense than the surrounding air and climbs further.!
- Conditional: when the ELR is lover then the DALR, but higher than the SALR so the movement of the air
depends on its the relative humidity.!
!
Explain relative humidity.!
Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor present in a parcel of air compared with the maximum
amount it can support (i.e., when the air is saturated) at the same temperature. Relative humidity is usually
expressed as a percentage, i.e., relative humidity is 100 percent whe the air is saturated. !
!
How does air temperature affect relative humidity?!
The amount of water vapor a parcel of air can hold depends on its temperature. That is, warm air is able to hold
more water (in a vapor or liquid state) than colder air. In other words, cooler air supports less water vapor.!
!
What is dewpoint?!
The dewpoint is the temperature at which a parcel of air becomes saturated. That is, its capacity to hold water
vapor is equal to that which it is actually holding, or in other words, its relative humidity is 100 percent.!
!
Describe how clouds are formed.!
For cloud formation to be possible, the following properties must exist:!
1. Moisture present in the air.!
2. A lifting action to cause a parcel of air to rise. The four main lifting actions are!
! a. Convection!
! b. Turbulence!
! c. Frontal!
! d. Orographic!
3. Adiabatic cooling of the rising air.!
4. Condensation nuclei!
If a parcel of air containing water vapor is lifted sufficiently, it will cool adiabatically, and its capacity to hold water
vapor will decrease( i.e., cooler air supports less water). Therefore, its relative humidity increases until the parcel of
air cools to its dewpoint temperature, where its capacity to hold water vapor is equal to that which it is actually
holding, and the parcel of air is said to be saturated (i.e., its relative humidity is 100 percent). Any further cooling
will cause some of the water vapor to condense out of its vapor state as water droplets and form clouds. Further, if
the air is unable to support these water droplets, then they will fall as precipitation in the form of rain, hail, or snow.!
!
How is the height of a cloud base determined?!
Provided that the properties for a cloud to form are present (i.e., moisture, lifting action, adiabatic cooling, etc.), the
height of a cloud base is determined by the difference between the dewpoint temperature and the ground
temperature. The difference divided by the appropriate lapse rate per 1000 ft will determine the height of the cloud
base. The higher the moisture content present in the rising air, the higher is the dewpoint temperature, and the less
the difference between the surface and the dewpoint temperatures, the lower is the cloud base. Thus the amount
of moisture content in the air is a determining factor of the cloud base height.!
Cloud base height = (Surface temp - Dewpoint)/3 x1000!
!
Cloud types:!
Curriform, cumuliform, stratiform, nimbus!
These types are further subdivided to the level of their cloud base above sea level (MSL):!
- Cirro - high-level cloud (cloud base more than 16.500-20.000 ft)!
- Alto - medium-level cloud (cloud base more than 6500 ft)!
- no prefix - low-level cloud (cloud base less than 6500 ft)!
!
Lenticular clouds:!
Airflow rises over mountains due to orographic uplift and cools adiabatically. If it cools below its dewpoint
temperature, then the water vapor will condense out and form clouds, either as lenticular clouds, often on the
hillside when there is a stable layer of air above the mountain, or as cumulus or even cumulonimbus clouds when
there is unstable air above the mountain.!
!
Mist and fog:!
Both of them are clouds which in contact with the ground. The difference between them is their density so the
visibility in them. If the visibility is less than 1 km is called fog, if the visibility is between 1 and 2 km is called mist.!
!
Types of fogs:

1. Radiation fog. 

This requires the following conditions:!
! a. Cloudless night. This allows the earth's surface to lose heat by radiation. This causes its water vapor to
condense out in liquid form.!
! b. Moist air. With a high relative humidity, which only requires a slight cooling to reach its dewpoint temperature.!
! c. Light winds. Between 2 and 8 knots.!
Radiation fog occurs inland, especially in valleys and low-lying areas.!
!
2. Advection fog. 

The term advection means heat transfer by the horizontal flow of air. Fog formed in this manner is called advection
fog and can occur quite suddenly, day or night, land or sea, if the following conditions exist:!
! a. A warm, moist air mass flowing across a significantly colder surface, which is cooled from below.!
! b. Light to moderate winds that encourages the mixing of the lower levels to give a layer of fog.!
! c. Sea fog. Sea smoke occurs in the reverse conditions; i.e., very cold air, often in an inversion, passes over a
warmer sea that causes evaporating moisture to condense out into whispers of vapor.!
!
3. Frontal fog. Usually forms in the cold air ahead of a warm occluded front as a prefrontal widespread fog. It forms
due to the interaction of two air masses.!
!
Dew (harmat):!
Dew is a water cover on the earth's surface that is formed when the following conditions exist:!
1. Cloudless night. This allows the earth's surface to lose heat by radiation and causes its water vapor to condense
out as a water liquid.!
2. Moist air. With a high relative humidity that only requires a slight cooling to reach its dewpoint temperature.!
3. Light winds. Less than 2 knots.!


The conditions for dew to form are the same as for radiation fog except for the lower or nil wind.!
!
Frost (dér):!
Frost is a frozen water cover on the earth's surface that is formed in the same manner as dew except that the
earth's surface has a subzero temperature that causes the water droplets that have condensed out of the air to
freeze on the ground. !
!
Virga:!
Virga is rain that falls from the cloud but evaporates before reaching the ground. This is a sign of a temperature
inversion, which in turn is an indication of possible winds hear.!
!
Formation of cumulonimbus (CB) clouds:!
Thunderstorms are associated with cumulonimbus clouds, and there may be several thunderstorm cells within a
single cloud. Therefore, we first have to examine how a cumulonimbus cloud starts to form.!
Four conditions are required for a cumulonimbus cloud to develop:!
1. A high moisture content in the air.!
2. A trigger lifting action (or catalyst) to cause a parcel of air to start rising. The four main lifting actions are:!
! a. Convection!
! b. Turbulence!
! c. Frontal!
! d. Orographic!
3. Adiabatic cooling of the rising air.!
4. A highly unstable atmosphere so that once the air starts to rise, it will continue rising. Effectively, the
environmental lapse rate (ELR) must be greater than the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) for over 10,000 ft.!
!
Life cycle of the cumulonimbus (CB) cloud: !
This life cycle can be divided into three phases: the developing stage, the mature stage, and the decaying stage.!
! 1. Developing stage: the hot moist air rises and whet it reaches its dew point, the water condenses out of it
forming the cloud. The latent heat of the condensation warms the air further, and it continue to rise sometimes until
the tropopause.!
! 2. Mature stage: is when precipitation begins to fall from the cloud, drawing air down with them. This
downdraft in the middle of the cloud, surrounded by strong updrafts, which are providing further fuel for the storm.
The downdrafts can reach 3000 ft/min, and updrafts can reach 5000 to 6000 ft/min. The mature phase of a
cumulonimbus cloud is also the most hazardous stage of its thunderstorms. These hazards are:!
! ! a. Heavy rain!
! ! b. Hail!
! ! c. Severe turbulence!
! ! d. Severe icing!
! ! e. Windshear and microbursts!
! ! f. Lightning!
! 3. Decaying stage. This is the final stage of the cumulonimbus cloud. It starts with the end of the continuous
rain and the cloud starts to dissipate. !
!
How are thunderstorms a hazard to aviation?!
Thunderstorms can produce the following hazards to all aircraft types:!
1. Severe windshear, which can cause!
! a. Handling problems!
! b. Flight path deviations, especially vertically!
! c. Loss of airspeed!
! d. Possible structural damage!
2. Severe turbulence, which can cause!
! a. Possible loss of control!
! b. Possible structural damage!
3. Severe icing, especially clear ice formed from supercooled water droplets (SWDs) striking a surface with a
subzero temperature.!
4. Airframe structural damage from hail!
5. Reduced visibility!
6. Lightning strikes, which can cause damage to the electrical system!
7. Radio communication and navigation interference from static electricity present in the thunderstorm!
These hazards exist inside, under, and for some distance around a thunderstorm's associated cumulonimbus
cloud. Therefore, cumulonimbus clouds (and thunderstorms) should be avoided by a minimum of 10 nautical miles
and in severe conditions (i.e., the mature stage of a cumulonimbus cloud) by at least 20 nautical miles.!
!
When is lightning most likely to occur?!
Lightning is most likely to occur when the outside air temperature (OAT) is + 10°C to -10°C and within or close to a
thunderstorm associated with a mature-stage cumulonimbus cloud.!
!
What are the common aviation meteorologic reports?!
The common aviation meteorologic reports are:!
1. METARs, SIGMETs, and SPECI!
2. Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)!
3. In-flight weather reports (i.e., VOLMETs, ATIS, and by radio communications with an air traffic service unit or
flight information service)!
!
Given winds are referenced to:!
Any that is PRINTED report is always referenced to the True north, any winds SPOKEN by ATC/ATS is referenced
to the Magnetic north, except the VOLMETs which are basically transmitted METARs.!
!
What are METARs?!
A METAR is a coded routine aviation weather report for an aerodrome. It is issued every half-hour or every hour at
fixed times. A METAR contains actual weather observed during the observation period, which is the last 10 minutes
prior to the observation time. Cloud base in a METAR is given above ground level (AGL). !
!
Decode the following METAR: METAR: EGCC/0920Z/210115 G27/1000 SW/R24/P1500M SHRA BKN 025 CB/
08/06/01013 or 29.92/RE TS/WS TKOF RWY 24/NOSIG.!
EGCC! Location identifier (Manchester, U.K.)!
0920Z! Time the report was taken (09.20 hours UTC)!
210/15 G27! Average wind direction and speed (210 degrees true at 15 kts, gusting to 27)!
! If the maximum wind gust is greater than 10 kts of the average wind is shown with a G!
! If the wind is calm then 00000KT will be shown.!
! If the wind is variable and not greater than 3 kts then it’s shown with a VRB (VRB03KT).!
! If the wind is variable greater than 3 kts and the direction is varying by 60 degrees or more then !
! a V is used between the two directions (280V360)!
1000 sw! Horizontal visibility in meters (1000 m to the southwest), 9999 if greater than 10km, !
! 0000 if less than 50m, VV if it’s not possible see the cloud cover in case of fog!
R24/P1500m! Runway visual range in meters (runway 24 plus 1500 m of visibility)!
SHRA! Weather (rain showers)!
BKN 025 CB! Clouds (broken at 2500 ft with cumulonimbus clouds)!
08/06! Temperature/dewpoint in whole celsius, negative indicated by “M” (8°C temperature, 6°C
dewpoint)!
Q1013 or 29.92! QNH (1013 hectopascal or 29.92 in)!
RE TS! Recent weather (recent thunderstorms)!
WS TKOF RWY24! Windshear if below 1600 ft (windshear report on takeoff runway 24)!
….! Runway State!
NOSIG! Trend (no significant change) or BECMG, TEMPO, FM TL AT!
!
Clouds: !
FEW: 1-2 eights coverage.!
SCT: 3-4 eights coverage.!
BKN: 5-7 eights coverage.!
OVC: Full coverage!
!
Wether Identifiers:!
BC Patches FC Funnel Cloud IC Ice Crystals SA Sand UP Unknown
Precipitation
BL Blowing FG Fog MI Shallow SG Snow Grains VA Volcanic Ash
BR Mist FU Smoke PE Ice Pellets SH Showers VC In the Vicinity
DR Low Drifting FZ Freezing PO Dust/Sand SN Snow
Whirls
DS Dust storm GR Hail (>5mm) PR Partial SQ Squalls
Moderate
DU Dust GS Small Hail <5mm PY Spray SS Sandstorm
DZ Drizzle HZ Haze RA Rain TS Thunderstorm
!
TREND:!
Trend is a short forecast given in the end of METAR for the next two hours following the observation. !
NOSIG: No significant change expected within the next two hours.!
TEMPO indicates that there will be a temporary change in the weather given after the TEMPO group which last
less than one hour at a time, and in total less than half the period indicated.!
BECMG (becoming) indicates a significant longer lasting change in the weather conditions from in the main part of
the METAR which condition will remain after the specified period.!
!
RMK (remark):!
After the abbreviation RMK the observer can put useful and important information. For example wind above the
runway level. Example: RMK WIND 1200FT 12015KT=!
!
SPECI:!
A SPECI is an Aviation Selected Special Weather Report for an aerodrome.!
Given if the weather changes significantly from the last METAR, and it is not yet time for the next one, then a
SPECI is sent. The format and contents of a SPECI is similar to a METAR.!
!
GAMET:!
A GAMET is an area forecast for low-level flights below FL100 for a specified flight information region (FIR). It
contains information on en-route weather phenomena expected to be hazardous to low-level flights (e.g. strong
wind, low visibility, thunderstorms, significant clouds, icing and turbulence).!
!
AIRMET: !
AIRMETs are warnings for a specified flight information region (FIR) below FL100. It contains any hazardous
weather phenomena which are not included in the last issued GAMET and which may affect the safety of low-level
aircraft operations (up to flight level 100). Can be: strong wind, low visibility, thunderstorms, significant clouds,
moderate icing and moderate turbulence.!
!
SIGMET:!
A SIGMET are a warnings for a specified flight information region (FIR). It gives information of significant
meteorological (SIG/MET) conditions that may affect the safety of aircrafts enroute.!
The criteria for raising a SIGMET include:!
1. Active thunderstorms!
2. Tropical revolving storms!
3. Severe line squalls!
4. Heavy rain!
5. Severe turbulence!
6. Severe icing!
7. Marked mountain waves!
8. Sandstorms!
9. Volcanic Ash!
!
TAF:!
A Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF) is a coded routine weather forecast for an aerodrome. TAFs are usually
issued every 3 hours for a 9-hour period or issued every 6 hours for a 12 and 24 hour period.!
!
Decode the following TAF: !
TAF: EGCC/150600/0716/210/15/5000/SHRA/BKN025/TEMPO/1116/3000/SHRA/PROB30/1416/TSRA/BKN
006CB.! !
!
EGCC! Location identifier (Manchester, U.K.)!
150600! Time the report was taken (15th day, 0600 hours UTC)!
0716! Validity time of forecast (0700 to 1600 hours UTC)!
210/15! Wind direction and speed (210 degrees true at 15 knots)!
5000! Horizontal visibility - only the minimum, no RVR (5000 m)!
SHRA! Weather (rain showers)!
BKN 025! Clouds (broken at 2500 ft), or SKC or NSC or CAVOK!
TEMPO! Significant changes (TEMPO, BECMG)!
1116! Validity time of TEMPO (1100 to 1600 hours UTC)!
SHRA! Weather (rain showers)!
PROB30! Probability!
1416! Validity time of PROB (1400 to 1600 hours UTC)!
TSRA! Weather (thunderstorm, rain showers)!
BKN 006CB! Clouds (broken at 600 ft with cumulonimbus clouds)!
!
If the TAF is amendment, AMD inserted ahead of the TAF.!
!
BECMG:!
BECMG means "Becoming'' and is followed by a four-digit time group, which indicates the beginning and the
ending hour of the change. The forecasted condition will remain after the specified period.!
!
TEMPO:!
TEMPO relates to a temporary variation in the general forecasted weather conditions are expected to last less than
one hour at a time, in total, less than half the period indicated. Once the TEMPO weather events have finished, the
originally forecasted weather will valid.!
!
FM:!
Means from. Followed by date and a four digit validity time, hours and minutes UTC (FM191230) is used to
indicate a rapid change from the main part of the TAF.!
!
PROB:!
PROB is used in weather forecasts when the probability of the forecasted weather conditions less than 50%. If
greater than 50 percent, then it would be listed as a TEMPO. Only 30% or 40% is used.!
!
CAVOK:!
When the following conditions occur simultaneously:!
1. Visibility equal or greater than 10 km!
2. No clouds below 5000 ft or below the highest minimum sector altitude (MSA), whichever is the greater, and no
cumulonimbus clouds at any altitude!
3. No precipitation, thunderstorms, shallow fog, or low drifting snow then the term CAVOK is used to replace
visibility, RVR, weather, and clouds in meteorologic reports and forecasts.!
!
SKC:!
Sky Clear. If the conditions of CAVOK are not met, but there is no cloud to report, the cloud section of the METAR
is replaced by “SKC”.!
!
NSC:!
No Significant Cloud. Means no cloud below 5000 ft or below the highest minimum sector altitude (MSA),
whichever is the greater.!
!
What in-flight weather reports can you access?!
In-flight weather reports that can be accessed include:!
1. Flight information service or air traffic (control) service!
2. ATIS!
3. VOLMET!
!
ATIS:!
The Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) which is a continous automatic transmission of information for
departing and arriving aircrafts about the airport operating and weather conditions. It starts and ends with a letter
code. With this code at the initial contact with the ATC the controller can confirm that pilot has copied the current
ATIS.!
!
VOLMET:!
VOLMET is worldwide network of radio stations that broadcast continuous METAR and SIGMET reports for
multiple airports on a VHF/HF frequency. SNOWCLO used when the airport is closed because of snow.!
!
NOTAM:!
Notice to Airmen and provides information about any changes in procedures, services, navigation aids, or anything
else, which affect the safety of the flights. Can be available for a FIR or an aerodrome.!
NOTAMs are used for pre flight planning. !
!
SNOWTAM:!
Snow Notice to Airmen and provides information about the conditions of runways, taxiways, aprons in winter time
in case of snow. Issued everyday and and changes with any significant change.!
SWEN0611 ENGM 02191828!
SNOWTAM 0611!
A) ENGM!
B) 02191828 C) 01L!
F) 6/4/4 G) XX/XX/XX H) 5/4/4!
B) 02191810 C) 01R!
F) 4/4/4 G) XX/XX/XX H) 3/4/4!
N) B3 B4/CLSD A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A9 B1 B5 B6 B7 B8!
B9 C C1 C2 C3 C4 E F G G1 G2 H J J1 K K1 K2 L L1!
L2 M N N5 P P2 R R1 S T U U1 U2 U3 V W Y Z/4 ALL!
REMAINING TWYS/2!
R) ALL REPORTED APRONS/4!
T) RWY 01L!
CONTAMINATION/100/100/100/PERCENT.!
FRICTION 4 ON TAXIWAYS. OPEN EXITS ARE SANDED.!
RWY 01R!
OBSERVATION TIME RWY 01R 201402191810!
CONTAMINATION/100/100/100/PERCENT.!
SAND APPLIED.!
FRICTION 3 ON TAXIWAYS. OPEN EXITS ARE SANDED.!
FRITION 3 ON OPEN EXITS.!
!
! A.! AERODROME IDENTIFIER!
! B.! DATE/TIME OF OBSERVATION (UTC)!
! C.! RUNWAY DESIGNATOR!
! D.! CLEARED RUNWAY LENGTH (if less than published length)!
! E.! CLEARED RUNWAY WIDTH (if less than published width)!
! F.! DEPOSITS OVER TOTAL RUNWAY LENGTH (Observed on each third of the runway)!
! G.! MEAN DEPTH OF DEPOSITS (mm) (for each third of total runway length)!
! H.! FRICTION MEASUREMENTS OR ESTIMATES (for each third of runway length)!
! J.! CRITICAL SNOWBANKS (if present)!
! K.! RUNWAY LIGHTS (if obscured)!
! L.! FURTHER CLEARING OPERATIONS (if planned)!
! M.! FURTHER CLEARANCE EXPECTED TO BE COMPLETED BY . . . (UTC)!
! N.! TAXIWAY!
! P.! TAXIWAY SNOWBANKS!
! R.! APRON!
! S.! NEXT PLANNED OBSERVATION/MEASUREMENT!
! T.! PLAIN LANGUAGE REMARKS!
!
ASHTAM:!
Provides information about the status of volcanic activity, contains a volcano alert level code, and also the location
and movement of volcanic clouds.!
!
Wind:!
Wind is the horizontal movement of air in the atmosphere that is driven initially by a difference in pressure between
two places, and then it can be influenced further by a number of factors, including the earth’s rotation forces,
temperature, and surface friction. !
!
Wind is expressed in terms of direction and strength.!
1. Wind direction. This is the direction from which the wind blows and is expressed in degrees measured clockwise
from true north, except reported wind given from the ATC or the ATIS which is measured from magnetic north:!
The upper winds used for airways planning are expressed in degrees magnetic so that the airway direction and
reported wind are relative to each other.!
2. Wind strength. This is measured and expressed in nautical knots.!
!
Wind velocity relates to the wind's direction and strength. It is usually written in the following form: 180/25; i.e., a
wind blowing from 180° at a strength of 25 knots.!
!
Describe a veering and backing wind.!
A wind is said to be veering, or is said to have veered, when it changes its direction in a clockwise direction, e.g.,
100/10 to 160/10. A wind is said to be backing, or is said to have backed, when it changes its direction in an
counterclockwise direction, e.g., 160/10 to 100/10.!
!
What is the altitude effect on wind direction and speed?!
- Climbing: as the aircraft climbs in the northern hemisphere the wind veers in direction (turning clockwise) and
increasing in speed!
- Descending: as the aircraft descends in the northern hemisphere the wind backs in direction (turning
counterclockwise) and decreases in speed. For example: FL050: 160/20, GND: 140/8!
!
What is the night effect of wind direction and speed?!
As the aircraft descends in the northern hemisphere the wind backs further in direction and decreases more in
speed at night than at day, because at night there's less turbulence and the temperature is lower so the surface
friction has full effect.!
!
What does it mean if you have a port (left) wind in the northern hemisphere?!
This means that you are flying toward to a low-pressure system, resulting in a descending flight path for a constant
altimeter pressure setting, e.g., 1013 millibars/29.92 inHg.!
!
What is the pressure gradient force?!
A pressure gradient force is a natural force generated by a difference in pressure across a horizontal distance; i.e.,
gradient between two places. It is usually responsible for starting the movement of a parcel of air from an area of
high pressure to an area of low pressure.!
!
What is the coriolis force (or geostrophic force}?!
The coriolis (geostrophic) force is an apparent force that acts on a parcel of air that is moving over the rotating
earth's surface. This means that the air does not flow simply from a high- to low-pressure system but is deflected to
the left or right according to which hemisphere you are in. This is known as the coriolis effect. The coriolis force is a
product of the earth's rotational properties. In the northern hemisphere, the coriolis force deflects the airflow to the
right (i.e., as a westerly wind), and in the southern hemisphere, the airflow is deflected to the left.!
!
What is the geostrophic wind?!
The geostrophic wind is the balanced flow of air from a westerly direction that is parallel to straight isobars with a
low-pressure system to its left, i.e., buys ballot's law, and at a strength directly proportional to the spacing of the
isobars (i.e., pressure gradient).!

!
What is buys ballot's law?!
Buys ballot's law is if you stand with your back to the wind in the northern hemisphere, the low pressure
(temperature) will be on your left.!
!
Sea breezes: !
These occur during the daytime when the land heats up quicker than the sea. The warm air is less dense and so it
rises. The cooler air above the sea, now with higher sea level pressure, flows towards the land into the lower
pressure, creating a cooler breeze near the coast. The strength of the sea breeze is directly proportional to the
temperature difference between the land and the sea.!
!
Land breezes:!
At night, the land cools faster than the sea. If the land cools below the sea temperature the pressure over the water
will be lower than the pressure over the land, so the colder air from the land flows towards the sea. This wind is the
land breeze. If there is sufficient moisture and instability available in the air, the land breeze can cause showers or
even thunderstorms, over the water.!
What is a jet stream?!
Jetstream is simply a long corridor of high speed winds which has a typical dimensions of 1500nm in length,
200nm in width and 12.000 ft in depth. The wind speed must be greater than 60 knots for a wind to be classified as
a jet stream. The wind speed is fastest at the core and decreases with movement away from the core. The wind
speed is directly proportional to the thermal gradient. That means if the greater the thermal gradient (and that’s
because the pressure gradient), the greater is the speed of the jet stream. In winter time the temperature difference
between the cold and the warm air is the greatest so the jet streams are stronger this time. We can find the jet
streams just below the tropopause where the cold air meets the warm air. Because of the earth rotation the jets are
moving from west to east and shift north to south according to the season.!
There are 4 types of jet streams, but 2 of them are dominant:!
- Polar front jet stream: between 45 and 65 degrees latitudes, where the subtropical air meets the polar air,
around 30.000 ft hight!
- Sub-tropical jet stream: between 20 and 40 degrees latitudes, where the subtropical air meets the tropical air,
around 45.000 ft!
- Equatorial jet stream: between 10 and 15 degrees latitudes, which flown from east to west, around 55.000 ft!
- Polar jet stream: over the poles between 70 to 80 degrees latitudes, around 75.000 ft!
!
Aircrafts flying within and close to the jet streams may experience windshear which caused Clear Air Turbulences
next to the jet stream on the cold side of the jet stream and above the jet stream on the warm side. CAT’s indicated
by a rapid change in OAT.!
!
Cyclone, Low-pressure system (depression):!
The cyclone is a low-pressure system means that the lowest pressure located in the center of the system. That’s
why there’s convergence in the lower layers and in the center the air is forced upward and cools adiabatically. If the
air is unstable and humid cumuliform clouds will form with showers of rain. The isobars are closed to each other so
the winds are strong. In the northern hemisphere the wind circulates counterclockwise. Frontal weather is present
because fronts are associated with low-pressure systems!
!
Anticyclone, High-pressure system:!
The anticyclone is a high-pressure system means the highest pressure located in the center of the system. The air
is converging in high levels and forced to move down in the center followed by an outflow at lower levels. Because
of the descending stable air adiabatically heated the sky will be mostly cloudless. The visibility is expected to be
poor at low levels because of the inversion layer. The isobars are far from each other so the winds are light. In the
northern hemisphere the wind circulates clockwise. The anticyclone is moving slower than a cyclone.!
!
Warm front:!
A warm front is the boundary produced between two air masses. Warm air behind cold air, where the warmer, less
dense air mass slides over the colder air mass at the surface. The warm front moves slower than the cold front
because the more dense cold air decreases the movement of the warm less dense air.!
In a significant chart a warm front is marked by a line with half circles and shows the surface position of the front,
but the frontal air at higher altitudes is well ahead of its marked position on a weather chart.!
As the warm front approaches a lowering of the cloud base is experienced. First cirrus clouds in high altitudes
followed by cirrostratus, altostratus and finally nimbostratus clouds. No precipitation is expected until the
altostratus and nimbostratus clouds where the rain become moderate or heavy. Poor visibility is experienced
because of the low-level clouds and the rainfall. !

!
!
Cold front:!
A cold front is the boundary between two air masses in this case cold air behind warm air, where the colder, denser
air mass slides under the warm air lifting it up rapidly.!
In significant weather charts the cold front marked by line with triangles which represents the front's surface
position. The upper altitude position of the front is just overhead it’s surface position. There is little warning of the
approach of a cold front because of it’s steep slope.!
As the cold front approaches cumulus and even cumulonimbus clouds are experienced with heavy rain,
thunderstorm and hail.!
As the cold front passes the air temperature drops significally because of the arrival of the cold air mass. Clear
skies with isolated cumulus clouds are seen with strong winds in Hungary.!

!
!
Occluded front:!
An occluded front is a combination of both a cold and a warm front when a faster cold front catches up the slower
warm front.!
In a significant weather chart the occluded from is marked with a line with a combination of semicircles (warm front
symbol) and triangles (cold front symbol) which shows the surface position of the front.!
The characteristic weather of the two fronts are combined. !
There are 2 types of occlusions: the warm and the cold occlusion!
- In the warm occlusion the air behind the cold front is less cold than the air ahead of the warm from so it slides
over it. In this case the cold front is never in contact with the ground. The expected clouds initially are the same
like in a warm front but there are cumuliform clouds in the same time with the nimbostratus clouds. Most of the
weather experienced before the surface position of the front.!

!
!-
In the cold occlusion the air behind the cold front is colder than the air ahead of the warm front so it slides under
it. In this case the warm front is never in contact with the ground. Same clouds expected like in a warm occlusion
but, the most of the weather experienced after the surface position of the front.!

!
!
What is windshear?!
Windshear is significant change of wind direction and speed over a relatively short distance in the atmosphere.!
Low level windshear can be dangerous for aircrafts especially for the take-off and landing phase because the loss
of energy can lead the aircraft to stall.

Low level windshear can be found in association with: frontal passage, microburst and thunderstorm gust!
Medium and high level windshear: CAT with jetstreams, frontal passage!
!
What is microburst?

Microbursts are severe vertical downdrafts associated with mature cumulonimbus clouds. They are highly
concentrated, only about 5 km across, and last only up to 10 minutes. A mature cumulonimbus cloud produces
continuous updrafts around its outer edges (and sometimes outside the cloud itself that build up to fuel the
downdrafts in the center of the cloud. This is a very dangerous weather phenomena because it cause severe
windshear.!
!
What is CAT?!
Clear Air Turbulence: is a turbulence which is not associated with any clouds, thats why it is very hard to detect
them, but a rapid fluctuation in the total air temperature(approximately ± 10°C) in a few seconds is a very good
indication of CAT, as are broken engine trails of a preceding aircraft.!
Clear Air Turbulences can be found next to the core of the jet stream on the cold side and above the jet stream on
the warm side.!
Turbulence intensity:!
- light: IAS fluctuates 5-15 kts, slight changes in attitude and/or altitude!
- moderate: IAS change 15-12 kts, similar to the light but greater intensity, changes in attitude and/or altitude can
occur, but the aircraft remains under positive control.!
- severe: IAS change more than 25 kts, cause large changes in attitude and/or altitude, and the aircraft may be
momentarily out of control!
!
What conditions present an icing risk?!
When the total air temperature (in flight) or outside air temperature (on the ground) is between + 10°C and
-40/45°C.!
!
What hazards to aviation does icing cause?!
- reduced aerodynamic performance: Ice buildup on an aircraft’s wings seriously disrupts the airflow pattern,
causing it to separate at a significantly lower angle of attack than it would from a clean wing. This results in: !
! a. Reduced stalling angle!
! b. Reduced maximum lift capability!
! c. Increased stall speed!
! d. Increased drag!
! e. loss of lift!
- Increase in aircraft weight effects. !
- Reduced engine power. Ice buildup in the jet engine intake or piston engine carburetor can restrict the airflow into
the engine, causing a power loss and even engine failure!
- Vent blockage effects. Ice buildup on pitot and static probes will produce errors in the aircraft's pressure-driven
flight instruments, airspeed indicator (ASI), altimeter, and vertical speed indicator(VSI).!
- Degraded navigation and radio communication effects. If ice builds up on navigation and radio aerials, then these
systems will be degraded and unreliable!
!
Type of icing:!
There are 4 types of structural icing:  clear ice, rime ice, mixed ice and frost. The type of icing is depends on the air
temperature and the size of the water droplets.!
!
Clear ice typically forms when temperatures are between 2° C to -10° C and when there are large supercooled
water droplets first impact the aircraft surface and then flow aft before freezing making horn shape formations.
Clear ice is the most dangerous type of icing because it is transparent and that’s why hard to see and also
because it can change the shape of the airfoil.!
!
Mixed ice, is a combination of clear ice and rime ice and forms when temperature between -10° C to -15° C when
ice particles become embedded in clear ice and build a very rough accumulation.!
!
Rime ice typically occurs with temperatures between -15° C and -20° C, when small supercooled droplets freeze
immediately on contact with the aircraft surface. Rime ice has a milky appearance and easier to remove than clear
ice. Rime ice tends to form wedge-shaped accretions that do not disturb airflow as much as clear ice.!
!
Frost is form on the aircraft surface in clear air when the aircraft is parked in sub-zero temperatures.!
!
What is carburetor icing?!
Ice formation can occur in the carburetor of piston engines, in the venturi and around the throttle valve, where the
acceleration of the air will reduce it's temperature by as much as 25°C. This, combined with the heat absorbed as
the fuel evaporates, can cause serious icing, even when there is no visible moisture present. Such a buildup of ice
in a carburetor can disturb or even prevent the flow of air and fuel into the engine manifold, causing it to lose
power, run roughly, and even to stop the engine in extreme circumstances. Throttle icing (i.e., around the throttle
valve) is more likely to occur at low power settings (e.g., descents), when the partially closed butterfly creates its
own venturi cooling effect.!
To prevent carburetor icing, the carburetor heating is used which takes unfiltered warm air from the heat exchanger
of the exhaust system to the engine, reducing it’s power about 10-15%.!
!
What is meteorological visibility?!
- the greatest distance at which a black object can be seen against a bright background!
- the greatest distance at which lights of 1000 candelas can be seen against an unlit background!
!
What is the most important visibility to the pilot?!
The most important visibility to the pilot is from the aircraft to the ground, i.e., the slant visibility, especially during
and in the direction of takeoff and landing. This may be very different from horizontal visibility distance (normal
meteorologic measured visibility direction). For example, low-level stratus, smog, or fog may severely reduce the
slant visibility (especially on an approach) when the vertical visibility might be unlimited.!
!
How is visibility reported?!
Visibility is reported in the following ways:!
1. General visibility (the least distance visible from the point of the observation in all directions)!
2. Runway visual range (RVR) for instrument landings!
!
Why is the tropopause higher at the equator than the poles and higher in summer than in winter?!
Because the hight of the tropopause is controlled by the temperature of the air near the surface (which comes from
the solar radiations). The warmer the air, the higher the tropopause. That’s why the tropopause also higher in
summer than winter. !
The temperature of the tropopause is controlled by height. So the tropopause is warmer at the poles and colder at
the equator.!
!
Significant weather charts: !
Issued at fixer times: 00, 06, 12, 18 UTC, issued 6 hours before the fixed time!
CB clouds:!
- ISOL: isolated: individual CBs, less than 50% of the coverage!
- OCNL: occasional: well separated CBs, between 50-75% of the coverage!
- FRQ: frequent: CBs with little or nor separation, 75% or more of the coverage!
- EMBD: embedded: if they are embedded in layer of other clouds and cannot be seen!
!
Turbulence:!
- light: IAS fluctuates 5-15 kts, slight changes in attitude and/or altitude!
- moderate: IAS change 15-12 kts, similar to the light but greater intensity, changes in attitude and/or altitude can
occur, but the aircraft remains under positive control.!
- severe: IAS change more than 25 kts, cause large changes in attitude and/or altitude, and the aircraft may be
momentarily out of control!
!
Icing:!
- trace: ice is noticeable, the accumulation only slightly greater then the sublimation, de-icing or anti-icing is only
used after one hour!
- light: the accumulation can be a problem if the aircraft is flying more than 1 hour in this condition, the usage of
the de-icing and anti-icing equipment removes/prevents the accumulation. !
- moderate: the accumulation is so quick, that flying in this condition is hazardous and the use of de-icing and
anti-icing equipment or diversion is necessary!
- severe: the accumulation is so quick, that the de-icing and anti-icing equipment fails to reduce the accumulation,
so immediate diversion is necessary!
!
Clouds:!
CI - Cirrus! ! AS - Altostratus! ! ST - Stratus!
CC - Cirrocumulus! NS - Nimbostratus! ! CU - Cumulus!
CS - Cirrostratus! SC - Stratocumulus! ! CB - Cumulonimbus!
AC - Altocumulus!
!
Cloud ammount:!
SKC! - Sky clear! - 0 oktas!
FEW! - Few! ! - 1-2 oktas!
SCT! - Scattered! - 3-4 oktas!
BKN! - Broken! - 5-7 oktas!
OVC! - Overcast! - 8 oktas!
!
Markings:!
(semicircle, triangle, half circle, dashed line, wave)!

!
 !

!
!
!
 PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT!
!
What are the forces acting on an aircraft in flight?!
Thrust, drag, lift, and weight.!
When thrust and drag are in equilibrium, the aircraft will maintain a steady speed. To accelerate the aircraft the
thrust must exceed the value of the drag. When lift and weight are in equilibrium, the aircraft will maintain level
flight. To climb the aircraft, the lift must exceed the weight of the aircraft.!
!
What is the effect of weight on the glide range?!
The glide range is proportional to the lift-drag ratio, which does not vary with weight. So a heavy aircraft will glide to
the same distance as a lighter aircraft. Only the heavier aircraft will have a higher airspeed than the lighter aircraft
so it will descend quicker.!
!
What is dihedral?!
Dihedral is the upward inclination of a wing from the root to the tip.!
!
What is anhedral?!
Anhedral is the downward inclination of a wing from the root to the tip.!
!
What is lift?!
Lift is the phenomenon generated by an airfoil due to pressure differences above and below the airfoil if its
cambered on its topside and flat on its bottom side. So the airflow over the top of the airfoil has to travel more and
faster than the airflow below the airfoil. Because of that the pressure will be higher below than above and this
pressure difference creates the lift force. The formula of lift:!
Lift = CL x 1/2rho x V2 x s!
!
CL = coefficient of lift (the lifting ability of a particular wing)!
1/2rho = half the value of the air density!
V2 = airflow velocity squared!
s = wing span area!
!
What are high lift devices?!
The high lift devices are used to increase the lift force of the wing:!
1. Trailing edge flaps (Fowler flaps) increase lift at lower angles of deflection.!
2. Leading edge flaps (Krueger flaps) and slats increase lift by creating a longer wing chord line, camber, and area.!
3. Slots (boundary layer control) delays the separation of the airflow boundary layer and therefore produce an
increase in the coefficient of lift maximum.!
!
What is drag?!
Drag is the resistance to motion of an object (aircraft) through the air.!
There are 2 types of drags: !
- Profile drag or parasite drag which is composed of:

! 1. Form drag

! 2. Skin-friction drag

! 3. Interference drag

Profile drag increases directly with speed because the faster an aircraft moves through the air, the more air
molecules (density) its surfaces encounter, and it is these molecules that resist the motion of the aircraft through
the air.!
- Induced drag is a consequence of lift and caused by the wingtip vortices. The higher the angle of attack the
higher the lift and the higher the drag caused by the wingtip vortices. When the speed increases the angle of
attack decreases so the wind creates less lift so the induced drag will be lower.!
!
Minimum drag speed (VIMD) is the speed at which induced and profile drag values are equal so the total drag is
the minimum. This is also the speed for the best lift-drag ratio which provides the maximum endurance (the longest
time in the air).!
!
Swept wing (advantages / disadvantages):!
A swept wing produces less lift than a conventional wing for a given speed, and it has the tendency for tip to stall
first (causing pitch up), and it has poor lateral stability. !
Advantages:!
- The swept-wing design delays the airflow from going supersonic on the upper side of the wing, so the aircraft
capable to use higher Mach cruise speeds because the increased critical mach number. And the swept wing is
designed with a minimal chamber and thickness to reduce the profile drag, which also increases the wing's
ability for higher speeds.!
- The swept wing aircraft are more stable in turbulent conditions, because the swept wing produces less lift and
therefore is less responsive to updrafts, which allows for a smoother, more stable fly in turbulent conditions.!
Disadvantages:!
- Poor lift qualities are experienced because of the sweep-back design!
- Higher stall speeds are a consequence of the poor lift qualities of a swept wing.!
- Speed instability is the second consequence of poor lift at lower speeds for the swept-wing aircraft. Speed is
unstable below minimum drag speed (VIMD) because the aircraft is now sliding up the back end of the jet drag
curve, where power required increases with reducing speed. This means that despite the higher coefficient of lift
(CL) associated with lower speeds, the drag penalty increases faster than the lift; therefore, the lift-drag ratio
degrades, and the net result is a tendency to progressively lose speed. Thus speed is unstable because of the
drag penalties particular to the swept wing.!
- A wing-tip stalling tendency is particular to a swept wing aircraft mainly because of the high local CL loading it
experiences. Uncorrected (in the design), this effect would make the aircraft longitudinally unstable, which is a
major disadvantage.!
!
Center of pressure (CP):!
The center of pressure is a point where the total aerodynamic force acts on a wing chord. The location of the
centre of pressure is depends on the angle of attack. With increasing angle of attack the CP moves forward to the
leading edge until the stalling angle of attack. When the wing stalls the CP moves rapidly rearward towards the
trailing edge.!
!
Center of gravity!
The CG is the point where the total weight of a body will act.!
It is very important to maintain the center of gravity between the limitation. If the CG moves out of range the aircraft
may pitch up or down in a way that the pilots are unable to control the aircraft even with full deflected flight
controls. !
!
Movement of center of gravity!
The CG point could move because of fuel burn or passenger movement!
!
Static Stability:!
Static stability is the initial tendency of an aircraft displays after displaced from equilibrium. The aircraft can be:!
- Statically stable if the aircraft tends to return is original position!
- Statically neutral if the aircraft tends to remain its disturbed position!
- Statically unstable if the aircraft continues to move in the direction of displacement!
!
Dynamic stability:!
Dynamic stability shows how will respond a statically stable aircraft to the displacement from its equilibrium
position. The aircraft can be:!
- Dynamically stable if the oscillation will ends after a time!
- Dynamically neutral if the oscillation will remain without any change in magnitude!
- Dynamically unstable if the oscillation increase in magnitude!
!
Directions:!
- Longitudinal stability -» pitch!
- Lateral stability -» bank!
- Directional stability -» yaw!
!
What is directional stability?!
Directional stability is the tendency for an aircraft to regain its direction(heading) after it has been disturbed (for
example an induced yaw) from its straight path. This is achieved naturally because the fin (vertical stabilizer) which
generates a restoring aerodynamic force.!
!
What is lateral stability?!
Lateral stability is the tendency for an aircraft to return to a laterally level position around the longitudinal axis on
release of the ailerons in a sideslip.!
There are two principal features that make an aircraft naturally laterally stable, namely,!
1. Wing dihedral. The airflow due to a sideslip causes an increase in the angle of attack (lift) on the lower (leading)
wing and a decrease in angle of attack on the raised wing because of the dihedral angle. !
The lower wing thus produces an increase in lift because of the increased angle of attack, and the raised wing
produces less lift. The difference in lift causes a rolling moment that tends to restore the wing to its laterally level
position.!
2. Side loads produced on the keel surface. When the aircraft is sideslipping, a side load will be produced on the
keel surface, particularly the fin. This side load will produce a moment to roll the aircraft laterally level, which in
general terms is stabilizing. The magnitude of this effect depends on the size of the fm, but regardless, its effect is
small compared with other laterally stabilizing effects. !
!
What is longitudinal stability?!
Longitudinal stability is an aircraft's natural ability to return to a stable pitch position after a disturbance. When an
aircraft is in equilibrium, the tailplane in general will be producing an up or down load to balance the moments
about the center of gravity. If the aircraft is disturbed in pitch (say, nose-up), there will be a temporary increase in
the angle of attack. The increase in tail plane angle of attack produces an increase in tailplane lift, which will cause
a nose-down pitching moment. The wings also experience this increase in angle of attack, resulting in the wings
producing an increase in lift. The moment and the direction of the moment produced by this lift will depend on the
relative positions of the center of pressure and the center of gravity.!
!
Mach number:!
Mach number (MN) is a true airspeed indication, given as a percentage relative to the local speed of sound; e.g.,
half the speed of sound = M0.5. To calculate it we have to divide the TAS with the LSS.!
!
Critical Mach number (Mcr):!
Mcrit is the aircraft's Mach speed at which the airflow over a wing becomes supersonic.!
The aircraft's Mach speed is lower than the speed of the airflow over a wing. Subsonic aircraft experience a rapid
rise in drag above the critical Mach number, and because the aircraft's engines do not have the available power to
maintain its speed and lift values under these conditions, the aircraft suffers a loss of lift.!
!
Describe the characteristics of critical Mach number (Mcrit)?!
1. Initial Mach buffet, caused by the shock waves on the upper surface of the wing as the aircraft approaches Mcrit
is usually experienced.!
2. An increase in drag because of the breakdown of airflow causes the stick force to change from a required
forward push to a neutral force and then a required pull force as the aircraft approaches and passes Mcrit!
3. A nose-down change in attitude (Mach tuck) occurs at or after Mcrit!
4. A possible loss of control.!
!
Mach tuck:!
Is a nose down pitching tendency of an aircraft when it passes its critical Mach number. Above the Mcrit the airflow
over the wing reaches the speed of sound and creates a small shock wave. The wing generates more lift in front of
the shockwave than after the shockwave. As the aircraft flies even faster, the shock wave moves rearwards,
moving the center of pressure also rearward. This rearward movement of lift causes the aircraft nose to pitch down
or "tuck."!
!
Coffin corner:!
Coffin corner occurs at the aircraft absolute ceiling, the altitude where the critical mach number and the stall speed
of the aircraft are equal. At this point if the speed decreasing the aircraft will stall, if the speed increasing the
aircraft will experience the mach tuck. This called “corner” because the flight envelope has a triangular shape.!

!
Explain why an aircraft stalls.!
An aircraft stalls when the laminar airflow (or boundary layer) over the wing's upper surface becomes turbulent
when the critical angle of attack is exceeded, causing a loss in lift. The only way to recover is to decrease the angle
of attack by moving the control column or stick forward. !
!
What properties affect an aircraft's stall speed?!
The aircraft stall speed is variable and depending on the the following:!
- Actual weight (heavier aircraft has higher stall speed)!
- Load factor, g in a turn (more g higher stall speed)!
- Center of gravity position (forward CG has higher stall speed)!
- Wing design (more cambered wings have lower stall speed)!
- Configuration (with flaps the stall speed will be lower)!
- Propeller engine power (more power gives a lower stall speed)!
!
How does the stall speed vary with weight?!
The heavier the aircraft, the higher is the indicated speed at which the aircraft will stall.!
If an aircraft's actual weight is increased, the wing must produce more lift to be equal to the increased weight, but
because the stall occurs at a constant angle of attack, we can only increase lift by increasing speed. Therefore, the
stall speed will increase with increasing weight. !
!
What wing design areas delay the breakup of airflow (stall)?!
1. Wing slot which is a form of boundary layer control that reenergizes the airflow to delay its separation. The wing
therefore produces a higher coefficient of lift (CL) and can achieve a lower speed at the stall angle of attack.!
2. Lower angle of incidence and a greater chamber for a particular wing section, e.g., wing tips.!
!
What changes the aircraft's angle of attack at the stall?!
The movement of the center of pressure point at the stall causes a change in the aircraft's angle of attack.!
Normally a wing is designed so that the center of pressure will move rearward at the stall which results in a stable
nose down pitching tendency of the aircraft.!
!
Deep stall or super stall:!
A deep stall is a stall from which the aircraft is unable to recover. It is associated with rear-engined, high-T-tail,!
swept-wing aircraft. Swept wings stalls at the wing tips first causing a pitch-up nose tendency. This plus that the
turbulent airflow of the stalled wings makes the elevators ineffective the pilot will unable to recover from this
situation. To prevent this situation a stick pusher is installed to these aircrafts which pushes forward the control
column when the angle of attack reaches a pre-determined value.!

!
!
What systems protect against a stall?!
Stall warning devices and stick pushers.!
Stall warning device can be an audio warning or a stick shaker, which usually are activated just before the critical
angle of attack. Stick pushers are normally used only on aircraft with superstall qualities and usually activate after
the stall warning but before the stall, giving an automatic nose-down command.!
!
What is Dutch roll what causes it and how to recover from it?!
Dutch roll is a combination of yawing and rolling motions associated with swept-wing aircrafts and occurs when the !
directional stability is less then the lateral stability. When the aircraft yaws, because of the swept wing the outer
wing will travel faster and become more straight relative to the airflow. This creates more lift on this wing. And the
same time will travel slower and becomes more swept relative to the airflow. This reduces the lift on that wing. The
increased induced drag in the rising wing will yaw the aircraft to the opposite direction and the sequence will be
repeated.!
To prevent Dutch roll swept wing aircrafts are fitted with a Yaw Damper. It automatically moves the rudder
proportional to the rate of yaw to damp the oscillation.!
If the Yaw Damper fails the pilot should apply opposite aileron movement to the direction of the roll. Because of the
response lag using the rudder will worsen the situation.!
!
What are spoilers, and how do they work?!
Spoilers are panels mounted on the upper surface of the wing. When extended, both increase drag and decrease
lift by disrupting the airflow over the wing. Spoilers can be used for:!
- Ground spoilers: when armed they will raise symmetrically when the aircraft main gears touching the ground or
in case of a rejected takeoff then the thrust levers retarded to idle!
- Roll spoilers: used for roll control. When raised on only one wing it will create an imbalance of lift which produce
a rolling moment. The spoilers are connected to the aileron controls, and they work together for roll control. !
- Speedbrakes: when manually extended symmetrically as speed brakes to increase the drag!
!
Describe differential and nondifferential spoilers.!
The difference between differential and non-differential spoilers they provide lateral roll control when already
extended as speed brakes.!
- Nondifferential spoilers: when partly extended as a speed brake, the spoilers will extend further on one side but
will not retract on the other side in response to a roll command. When fully extended as a speed brake, both
sides remain in the extended speed brake position, and therefore, the spoilers will not provide any roll control.!
- Differential spoilers: when partly extended as a speed brake, the spoilers will extend further on one side and
retract on the other side in response to a roll command. When already fully extended as a speed brake, the
spoilers will remain extended on one side and retract on the other side in response to a roll command.!
!
What do leading-edge slats do?!
Leading-edge slats increase the wing's chamber area and mean aerodynamic chord (MAC), thereby increasing its
coefficient of lift (CL) maximum, which reduces the aircraft's stall speed. !
!
What are Krueger flaps?!
Krueger flaps are leading-edge wing flaps used to increase the wing chamber and therefore increase the
coefficient of lift maximum.!
!
What are Fowler flaps?!
Fowler flaps are trailing-edge wing flaps used to increase the wing area and chamber, which increases the
coefficient of lift maximum for low flap settings, e.g., 1 to 25°. High flap settings increase more drag than lift and
used to lose speed and/or height during a final approach.!
!
What is the stabilizer and the variable-incidence tailplane? What is the difference between them?!
A stabilizer and the variable-incidence tailplane are horizontal tailplanes which not fixed in one position. !
- Stabilizer: an all-moving horizontal tailplane which has a separate elevator surface with its own controls and
movement range for pitch maneuverability. !
- Variable-incidence tailplane: an all-moving horizontal tailplane which does not have an elevator surface. So it
provides pitch control by control column and longitudinal balancing by the trim system.!
!
 ENGINES!
!!
What is the combustion cycle of a piston engine?!
Induction, compression, combustion (expansion), and exhaust. The combustion of a piston engine occurs at a
constant volume.!
!
What produces the ignition in a piston engine?!
Magnetos are used in piston engines to supply the high tension voltage necessary to cause an electric spark at the
spark plug.!
!
What are the disadvantages of a piston engine?!
- decreasing power with increasing altitude!
- low airspeed because the propeller rpm limitations!
- mechanical inefficiency!
!
What is a supercharged (piston) engine?!
A supercharger increases the ammount of air delivered to the engine. Because of that more fuel required to
maintain the correct mixture ratio. This produces more power. So a supercharged engine can maintain sea level
engine power at high altitudes.!
!
What advantages does an aircraft gain from a propeller?!
The propeller provides the following advantages:!
- the propeller creates a slipstream, which has three main effects:!
! 1. the slipstream creates extra lift over the wing.!
! 2. the slipstream decreases the stall speed of the aircraft.!
! 3. the slipstream makes the rudder more effective.!
- The propeller driven aircraft has a quick response rate to a throttle input, so it has good slow-speed recovery.!
!
What is the main disadvantage of a propeller?!
The lower airspeed that can produce because of the rpm limitations. The rpm is limited to a value where the blades
tips becomes supersonic. !
!
Why is the propeller blade twisted?!
The propeller blade is twisted along its length to maintain a constant blade angle of attack.!
!
What are the disadvantages of a fixed-pitch propeller?!
The disadvantage of a fixed-pitch propeller is that it only produces its maximum efficiency at one rpm, altitude, and
forward airspeed condition. This is so because an increase in forward airspeed causes a decrease in blade angle
of attack, which reduces the rearward moving air and decreases the thrust. And if a blade designed for cruise it has
a reduced performance at takeoff and climb, and if the blade is designed for climb it has a reduced cruise
performance.!
!
What is a variable-pitch propeller, and why is it used?!
Variable-pitch propellers have a controllable blade angle for different flight conditions to maintain optimal
performance and produce constant thrust value.!
!
What is the critical engine?!
The critical engine of a propeller driven multi-engine aircraft is the one whose failure would result in the most
adverse effects on the aircraft's handling and performance.!
!
Is there a critical engine on a propeller aircraft?!
Yes, when the propellers are rotating in the same direction. !
!
Why is the number 1 (left) engine the critical engine on a multi-engine propeller aircraft?!
There are two main reasons why the number 1 (left) engine is the critical engine on an aircraft with propellers
rotating in the same direction: (1) slipstream effect and (2) asymmetric blade effect.!
1. Slipstream effect. If the propellers are rotating in the same direction (i.e., clockwise viewed from behind and
counterclockwise viewed from in front), then the number 1 engine will produce a sideways slipstream force on the
fin, which help to counteract the yawing moment when the number 2 engine fails. But when the number 1 engine
fails, the slipstream from the number 2 engine will aggravates the yawing moment, resulting in a more critical
situation.!
Therefore, a greater control force is required, resulting in a need for a higher critical speed to make the rudder
more effective during a number 1 engine failure, which therefore determines that the number 1 engine is the critical
engine.!

!
!
2. Asymmetric blade effect. Propeller blades produce more thrust in the downward rotation than in the upward
rotation. Depending on the direction of rotation of the propellers, this either increases or decreases the thrust
moment arm, and in aircraft with propellers rotating in the same direction, failure of the engine with the shortest
moment arm will produce the greatest yawing moment from the other live engine (i.e., normally clockwise rotation
when viewed from behind).!
Therefore, the engine with the shortest thrust moment arm is the critical engine.!
!

!
!
How does a crosswind affect the critical engine?!
A crosswind can help to restore or aggravate the yawing moment of an aircraft with a failed critical engine.!
If the critical engine is the number 1 engine it will cause a yaw to the left. A crosswind component from the left will
apply a restoring force to the aircraft's fuselage, whereas a crosswind from the right will aggravate the yawing
moment further to the left.!
!
What is a windmilling propeller?!
Windmilling is when the propeller rpm is reduced but the airspeed is maintained, which cause negative blade angle
of attack and increased drag and yawing moment on a multi-engine aircraft.!
!
What is propeller feathering, and why is it used?!
Feathering the propeller is accomplished in the event of an inflight engine failure or fire.!
Feathering a propeller means when the propeller blades turned until their the chord line are parallel to the airflow,
therefore doesn’t create extra drag.!
!
Turbine engines!
!
What is the theory of a jet/gas turbine engine?!
The theory behind the jet turbine is the practical application of Newton's third law of motion.!
A jet/gas turbine drives the aircraft forward by thrusting a large mass of air rearward.!
Thrust = air mass X velocity!
Early jet engines produced a small mass of air and expelling it at an extremely high velocity. Today gas turbine
engines produces a large mass of air and expelling it at a relatively slow velocity (e.g., high-bypass engine).!
!
Describe how a jet/gas turbine engine works.!
The gas turbine is uses a large mass of air as a working fluid to provide thrust by accelerating it through the engine
and increasing its kinetic energy. To obtain this increase, the pressure energy is increased first by a compressor,
followed by the addition of heat energy in the combustion chamber, before its final conversion back to kinetic
energy to rotate the turbine which drives the compressor. The airflow is then finally exhausted through the exhaust
nozzle duct.!
The mechanical arrangement of the gas turbine, i.e., compressor, combustion, turbine, exhaust, is in series so that
the combustion cycle occurs continuously at a constant pressure.!
!
What are thrust reversers, and how do they work?!
Thrust reversers reverse the airflow to forward creating a breaking action. There are two types of thrust reverses:

!Describe maximum takeoff thrust and its limitations.!

(1) blockers and (2) reverse flow through the cascade vane.!

Maximum takeoff thrust is simply the maximum permissible engine thrust setting for takeoff, expressed in N1 or
EPR ratio (Engine Pressure Ratio). To protect the engine the maximum takeoff thrust setting has a 5 minutes time
limit when all engines operating and 10 minutes with an engine failure.!
!
Describe maximum continuous thrust.!
Maximum continuous thrust is the maximum permissible engine thrust setting for continuous use, expressed in N1
or engine pressure ratio (EPR).!
!
Describe the bypass engine and the bypass ratio.!
In a bypass engine after the initial compression one part of the airflow is ducted to bypass the engine core the
other part is delivered to the combustion system. The bypass air is mixed with the hot air from the engine core in
the exhaust usually found in low bypass ratio engines or simply discharged into the atmosphere to generate thrust
found in high bypass ratio engines. The bypass ratio is the ratio of the cool air mass flow passed through the
bypass duct to the airmass passed through the combustion system.!
!
Describe the fan engine and its advantages.!
The fan engine is an advanced high bypass ratio engine, where the cold airflow and the hot airflow discharges
separately. The fan delivers around 70-80 percent of the total thrust. The advantages of the fan engines are:

- smaller engine size!
- better fuel efficiency!
- reduced noise!
!
When and where is a jet/gas turbine (bypass) engine at its most efficient and why?!
At high altitudes and high rpm speeds, because the engines compressors are most efficient at around 90-95
percent rpm and this with the low air density at high altitudes gives the best specific fuel consumption.!
!
What is a reduced-thrust takeoff?!
The reduced takeoff thrust is the correct thrust setting for the aircraft's actual takeoff weight that achieves the
aircraft's takeoff and climb, one engine inoperative, performance requirements. the reduced takeoff thrust is used
to increase the engine life and reduce the aircraft noise.!
!
What is a jet engine surge, what causes it?!
A surge is the reversal of airflow through an engine from the combustion chamber o the compressors. Caused
when the compressor stages have stalled. !
!
Is there a critical engine on a jet/gas turbine aircraft?!
No.!
!!
!
 NAVIGATION!
!
What is true direction (heading)?!
True direction (heading) is measured with reference to true north.!
!
What is magnetic direction (heading)?!
Magnetic direction (heading) is measured with reference to magnetic north.!
!
What is magnetic variation?!
Variation is the difference between the direction of magnetic north and true north. Variation is varies from place to
place across the earth. Variation can be east (plus) or west (minus).!
!
What is compass deviation?!
Deviation is the difference between the direction of magnetic north and compass north.!
!
What are the lines that run from pole to pole on the earth called?!
Meridians of longitude and are described by their angle away from the prime meridian, namely, the Greenwich
meridian. The units of measurement used to describe a meridian's position are degrees, minutes, and seconds,
and they are named east or west depending on where they lie in relation to the prime meridian. The maximum
longitude is 180 degrees.!
!
What are the lines that run east-west on the earth called?!
Parallels of latitude run east-west on the earth. Parallels of latitude are described by their angle above or below the
equator. The units of measurement used to describe a parallel of latitudes position are degrees, minutes, and
seconds (1 degree = 60 minutes, 1 minute = 60 seconds). The maximum possible latitude is 90 degrees north or
south, i.e., north or south pole.!
!
What is a great circle track?!
A great circle track is a line of shortest distance between two points on a sphere (or a flat surface) with a constantly
changing track direction as a result of convergence.!
!
What is a rhumb line?!
Rhumb lines are tracks with a constant track direction between two points on a sphere and therefore must be a
longer distance than a great circle track.!
!
Give the following Q definitions.!
QUJ = True bearing to the station!
QTE = True bearing from the station!
QDR = Magnetic bearing (radial) from the station!
QDM = Magnetic bearing (radial) to the station!
!
Explain the 1:60 rule.!
The 1:60 rule is basically a procedure for off track situations. The rule is that for every 60 miles travelled, 1 mile off
track is equal to a track error of 1 degree.!
Example: You plan to fly a 100nm leg from A to B and the magnetic track is 360 degrees. After a period of time you
find yourself at point X, which is 40nm from departure and 2 miles right of track. So you work out your track error.
60/40 x 2 = 3 degrees. so your actual track has been 003. So you need to turn left 3 degrees to stop getting off
track ie. you will now parallel your planned track. To fly to your destination (point B) you need to work out another
1:60 using distance to travel (60nm) and your off track dist. (2miles) 60/60 x 2 = 2 degrees. So at point x you need
to turn left 3+2= 5 degrees to get back to your destination. BTW that is a 5 degrees heading change, the beauty of
the one in 60 is that wind effect is taken care of!!
!
Air Law!
!
!
Visual flight rules !
Except when operating as a special VFR flight, VFR flights shall be conducted so that the aircraft is flown in conditions of
visibility and distance from clouds equal to or greater than those specified according Section 8.1.4 table. !
Except when a clearance is obtained from an air traffic control unit, VFR flights shall not take off or land at an aerodrome
within a control zone, or enter the aerodrome traffic zone or traffic pattern: !
When the ceiling is less than 450m (1500ft); or !
When the ground visibility is less than 5 km. !
!
VFR flights between sunset and sunrise, or such other period between sunset and sunrise as may be prescribed by the
appropriate ATS authority, shall be operated in accordance with the conditions prescribed by such authority. !
Unless authorized by the appropriate ATS authority, VFR flights shall not be operated: !
Above FL 200; !
At transonic and supersonic speeds. !
!
Authorization for VFR flights to operate above FL 290 shall not be granted in areas where a vertical separation minimum of
300m (1000ft) is applied above FL 290 (RVSM airspace). !
Except when necessary for take-off or landing, or except by permission from the appropriate authority, a VFR flight shall not be
flown: !
Over the congested areas of cities, towns or settlements or over an open-air assembly of persons at a height less than 300m
(1000ft) above the highest obstacle within a radius of 600m from the aircraft; !
Elsewhere than as specified above, at a height less than 150m (500ft) above the ground or water. !
!
Except where otherwise indicated in air traffic control clearances or specified by the appropriate ATS authority, VFR flights in
level cruising flight when operated above 900m (3000ft) from the ground or water, or a higher datum as specified by the
appropriate ATS authority, shall be conducted at a flight level appropriate to the track. !
VFR flights shall comply with the provisions for Air Traffic Control Services, when: !
Operated within Classes B, C and D airspace; !
!
Leasing airplanes:!
Dry lease: when the airplane is operated under the AOC of the lessee.!
Dry lease-out:!
Dry lease-in: !
Wet lease:!
Wet lease-out:!
Wet lease-in:!
!
!
!
 DA42!
!
Dimensions:!
Wingspan: 13,42 m!
Length: 8,56 m!
Height (winglet): 2,20 m !
Height (tail): 2,59 m!
Blade diameter: 1,87 m!
180° turn radius: ! 9,5 m (no brake, 46 cm safety margin)!
! ! 6,0 m (full brake, 30 cm safety margin)!
!
Antenna locations:!
GPS antennas: cabin roof!
VHF NAV and GP antennas, Stormscope: horizontal stabilizer!
Marker, DME, Transponder, ADF antenna and OAT sensor and battery vent: fuselage belly!
!
Mass (Weight):!
Empty! 1250 kg!
Max Takeoff! 1785 kg!
Max Zero Fuel! 1650 kg!
Max Landing! 1700 kg!
!
Fuel JET A1 (kerozin) or Diesel: 0,8 kg/liter or 3,03 kg/USG!
!
Caracteristic speeds:!
Vno! 155! (normal operations)!
Vne! 194! (never exceed)!
Va! 121! (1250-1468 kg) (maneuvering speed)!
! 124! (1468-1750 kg)!
Vso! 56! (stall speed in landing configuration) !
Vmca! 68! (minimum control speed with one engine inoperative)!
Vx! 76! (best angle of climb)!
Vy! 76! (best rate of climb)!
Vxse & Vyse! 82! (best angle and rate of climb with one engine inoperative)!
Vfe! 137! (maximum flap extended - APP)!
! 111! (flaps landing)!
Vlo e! 194! (maximum landing gear operating speed, e = extend, r = retract)!
Vlo r! 156!
Vle! 194! (maximum landing gear extended)!
!
Vmca and Vyse not changing with increasing weight!
Vso increasing with increasing weight!
!
Emergency switch providing flood light for backup instruments. Non rechargable battery.!
ELT = Emergency Locator Transmitter!
!
Alternate static valve: when pitot static port blocked, left seat left side!
!
Parking brake: apply when brakes full, because it’s only holds pressure!
!
Landing gear: hydraulically operated, squat switches prevent retraction on the ground!
Green lights = gear down and locked!!
Gear held up hydraulically, that’s why emergency extension - free fall - by releasing pressure (left seat right
side)!
Landing gear warning: Gear up AND 1 power lever below 20% OR Flaps landing!
Nosewheel steered with rudder pedals. Steering angle: 30° without brakes, 52° with one brake fully applied!
!
!
Flight Controls:!
Ailerons, elevator, flaps - push rods!
Rudder - cables!
Elevator, rudder trim - bowden cable!
!
Flaps: inboard and outboard but mechanically connected, and electrically operated!
!
Variable elevator backstop:!
Normal elevator deflection: 15°, limited to 13° when levers above 20% and flaps landing!
Stick limit caution when limitation not working properly!!
!
Powerplant:!
2 x TAE125, four cylinders, liquid cooled, 1700 cm3 diesel engine, turbocharger, max power 135 HP at
2300 rpm!
Maximum overspeed 2500 rpm max. 20 sec!!
Power lever selects LOAD in %! RPM automatically determined by the selected power!!
Oil quantity: 4,5 - 6.0 liter!
!
Propeller: !
3 blade wooden, constant speed, feathering, pitch control (by gearbox oil) integrated to engine!
!
Feathering system:!
No autofeather, feathering by ENGINE MASTER OFF, when rpm above 1300. Unfeathering ENGINE
MASTER ON.!
Max. restart altitude 6000 ft, 83-125 KIAS!
!
Alternate air valve: when engine air filter blocked, operated from cockpit right seat!
!
Fire detection in each engine, warning above 250°C.!
!
Fuel system:!
2 tanks (each 3 chambers) 2 x 25 USG usable + 2 x 13 USG auxiliary = 76 USG. 5 USG max. imbalance.!
10,5 USG fuel flow on cruise!
Transferring fuel from auxiliary to main tanks manually. Transfer pump switches OFF when main tank is full
or AUX empty.!
!
Power sources:!
Main Battery 24V 10 Ah, LH and RH generator 24V 60 Ah, emergency battery for backup instruments!
Hot battery bus - always on without ELECT MASTER ON. Reading light!!!!!
!
ICE protection:!
„TKS” de-icing fluid which based on ethylene-glycol and depresses the freezing point of ice !
Protection fluid (30 liters): glycol + water: freezing point -22 to -40° C (glycol: -12° C)!
3 modes of operation: ! - Normal (2 pump simultaneously 30s ON and 90s OFF, 2,5 hrs)!
! ! ! - High (1 pump continuously, 1 hrs)!
! ! ! - MAX (2 pumps simultaneously ON for 2 min, 0,5 hrs)!
Windshield ice protection operated by pressing a push button for 5 sec!
Deice level LOW caution when fluid level below 10 liters (45 min in NORM mode)!
!
KAP-140 Autopilot:!
ALT alert - leaving selected altitude!
PT - pitch trim annunciator when trimming for long!
Barometric pressure!!!!
CWS on joystick: control wheel steering, disconnect the AP servos, but when released AP continues!
AP disconnect on joystick!
!
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM:!
 !

!
The DA42 has a 28 Volt DC system. Power is provided by two 60A flat belt generators. The LH Generator is
connected to the LH MAIN BUS the RH Generator is connected to the RH MAIN BUS. Both main buses are
connected to the BATTERY BUS. The Main battery power is a 24 V 10 Ah lead-acid battery and is connected to
the HOT BATTERY BUS and to the BATTERY BUS via the battery relay which is controlled with the ELECTRIC
MASTER switch. The HOT BATTERY BUS is always connected to the MAIN BATTERY and provides supply for the
reading light and for the ELT. In addition, a non-rechargeable dry battery is installed for the artificial horizon and the
flood light. When the EMERGENCY switch is set to ON, these two systems are supplied with power for at least 1.5
hours. In the event of a main battery failure two 12 V 1.3 Ah lead acid batteries (excitation battery) connected in
series provides electrical supply for the generators. !
The LH and RH ECU BUS is connected to the LH and RH MAIN BUS and provides power for the ECU A and ECU
B via the LH and RH ECU relays which are controlled by the ENGINE MASTER switches. in case of a malfunction
of the main battery an ECU backup battery are connected to the RH and LH ECU BUS to provide 30 minutes of
engine operation in case of a complete airplane electrical failure. Both engines may stop if the 30 minutes have
elapsed.!
The LH and RH MAIN BUS is connected to the BATTERY BUS. The LH MAIN BUS provides power to the
consumers connected to the LH MAIN BUS. The RH MAIN BUS provides power to the consumers connected!
to the RH MAIN BUS and the AVIONIC BUS via the AVIONICS MASTER relay. The AVIONIC MASTER switch
must be set to ON to connect the RH MAIN BUS to the AVIONIC BUS.!
!
FUEL SYSTEM:!

!
Fuel is stored in the wing tanks. Each tank consists of three aluminum chambers which are connected.
The tank is filled through a filler in the outboard fuel chamber. 2 USG of fuel are unusable, so 25 USG of
each tank is usable. There are two tank vents and a relief pressure valve to protects the tank against high
pressure. At the lowest point in each fuel tank, there’s a fuel filter with a drain valve remove water and
sediment which has collected in the fuel system. !
Normally fuel for the right engine is taken from the right wing main tank and for the left engine from the
left wing main tank. The fuel is injected with high pressure directly into the cylinders. The pressure s
generated by a high pressure pump which receives fuel from a low pressure pump. Depending on the
power setting the pressure is controlled by the ECU through an electric valve. Both pumps are powered
mechanically by the engine. Fuel that is not injected is fed back into the appropriate wing tank. Both sides
of the fuel system are interconnected by crossfeed lines.!
For each engine one fuel selector valve is provided. The control levers for the fuel selector valves are
situated on the center console behind the power levers. The positions are ON, CROSSFEED and OFF.
During normal operation each engine takes the fuel from the tank on the same side as the engine. When
CROSSFEED is selected, the engine will draw fuel from the tank on the opposite side in order to extend
range and keep fuel weight balanced during single engine operation. With the fuel selector valve both the
feeding and the return line are switched. Each auxiliary fuel tank has a fuel transfer pump which pumps
the fuel to the related main fuel tank. There’s a fuel transfer switch in the cockpit to operate these pumps.!
There’s an auxiliary fuel tank installed in the rear section of the engine nacelle which can contain 13 USG
of fuel per side. !
!
!
 AT3!
!
Wingspan: 7,55 m!
Length: 6,15 m!
Height: 2,23 m!
Wing surface: 9,3 m2!
Flaps: 0 - 15 - 40!
!
Engine:!
Bombardier Rotax 912 S2, 4 cylinders, dual ignition, liquid cooled cylinder heads, ram-air cooled!
cylinders, carburetor, max. power 98,5 hp @ 5800 rpm - 5 min., max. cont. 92,5 hp @ 5500 rpm, idle:!
1400 rpm, min. start -25 C, max. +50 C,!
!
Propeller:!
2 wooden blades, 1730 mm diameter, clockwise rotating!
!
Fuel tanks:!
Max. 73,5 l, 70 l usable!
!
Oil:!
Oil quantity: max. 3,5 litres - min. 2,5 litres!
Oil temp: 50 - 130 C, normal 90 - 110 C!
Oil pressure:!min.: 0.8 Bar / 12 psi!
normal: 2 - 5 Bar / 29 - 73 psi!
max.: 7 Bar / 102 psi!
!
Weights:!
MTOW: 582 kg!
ZFW: 350 kg!
MLW: 582 kg!
Max. cargo: 30 kg!
!
Reference speeds:!
Vne: 127 kts!
Vno: 112 kts!
Va: 112 kts!
Vfe: 85 kts!
Vrotate: 45 - 50 kts!
Vx: 54 kts!
Vy: 60 kts!
Approach speed t/o: 60 kts!
White arc: 44 - 85 kts!
Green arc: 52 - 112 kts!
Yellow arc: 112 - 127 kts!
Red line: 127 kts!
Max. operating altitude: 14000 ft!
Max. crosswind component: 12 kts!
Load factors: +3,8 G, -1,5 G, max. 60 bank angle!
!
Engine test run:!
- Engine speed 4000 rpm!
- Carb heat ON rpm drop: -300 rpm, 120 rpm!
!
FUEL SYSTEM:!
 !
!
The fuel is contained in the fuel tank, which is located between the instrument panel and the firewall. The fuel tank,
made of composite, is contained in a sack, made of fabric resistant to smoke and to fuel.!
There are drains installed in the sack, to drain any spilled fuel out of the aeroplane. The fuel tank is fitted with a
filler which is drained. A measuring stick is attached to the filler cap. The fuel quantity is measured by the fuel level
sensor. The signal from this sensor is transmitted to the fuel quantity indicator and to the reserve fuel sensor. The
reserve fuel signal lamp starts to light, when the fuel tank contains 10 litres of consumable fuel.!
The fuel is filtered by the coarse filter located on the fuel tank outlet, by the filter in the electric driven emergency
fuel pump and by the fine filter, located behind the engine driven pump. The fuel shut-off valve is located under the
fuel tank, behind the firewall, and is operated from the cabin.!
The engine driven pump feeds the fuel under pressure via a five-way connector to the carburettors and to the fuel
pressure sensor. Surplus fuel is drained back to the fuel tank.!
!
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM:!
 !
!
The source of on board electric power is the generator and the battery. It is a 12 Volt system. Automatic circuit
breakers located on the instrument panel protect the system. The BATTERY switch switches on the system. The
switches BATTERY and GENERATOR perform the task of the system master switch. In case of generator failure,
the GENERATOR signalling lamp lights up. In such a case the system is fed from the on board battery.!
There is also an electrical ground power receptacle installed into the system, being located in front of the wing, on
the port wall of the fuselage, in front of the firewall. An electric board socked is installed in the cabin, on the
instrument panel. When using the ground power source, the on board battery is automatically switched off.
Switching of the electric power receivers in this case is the same as when using the on board battery.!
The following options are available:!
- Anti-collision strobe!
- Navigation lights and the landing light!
!
!
 C152!
!
Wingspan: 9,97 m!
Length: 7,31 m!
Height: 1,47 m!
Wing surface: 14,83 m2!
Flaps: 0 - 10 - 20 - 30!
!
Engine:!
Lycoming 0-235, ram air cooled, 4 cylinder boxer engine with carburetor, 3823 cm3, max. 110 HP at 2550 rpm!
!
Propeller:!
McCauley 2 blades propeller with a 1753 mm diameter, clockwise rotating, !
!
Fuel tanks:!
Max. 144 litres usable 139 litres, 100 LL AVGAS fuel!
!
Oil:!
Oil quantity: 4 - 6 Quarts!
!
Weights:!
MTOW: 757,5 kg!
ZFW: 503 kg!
MLW: 757,5 kg!
Max. cargo: 54 kg!
!
Reference speeds:!
Vne: 149 kts!
Vno: 111 kts!
Va: 104 kts with MTOW!
Vfe: 85 kts!
Vrotate: 50 kts!
Vx: 54 kts!
Vy: 60 kts!
Approach speed t/o: kts!
White arc: 35 - 85 kts (Vs0 - Vfe)!
Green arc: 40 - 111 kts (Vs - Vno)!
Yellow arc: 111 - 149 kts (Vno - Vne)!
Red line: 149 kts!
Max. operating altitude: 14.700 ft!
Max. crosswind component: 12 kts!
Load factors: +4,4 G, -1,76 G!
!
FUEL SYSTEM:!


!
!
- How would you fly this SID?!
!
!-
Can you brief this approach?!
!
!-
I see your flying various twin's, do they all have a critical engine?!
No. The DA-42 has critical engine, the Seneca has not. Because the propellers on DA-42 are rotating in the same
direction but in the seneca they are rotation in the opposite direction. Assuming that the propellers rotating
clockwise from behind, the critical engine is the number 1 (left) engine. Because of 2 things:!
- Slipstream effect: the number 1 engine produce slipstream force on the fin which helps to counteract the yawing
moment for a number 2 engine failure. But if the number 1 engine fails the slipstream force from the number 2
engine aggravates the yawing moment. Therefore greater control force required resulting a higher critical speed
to make the rudder more effective. So the number 1 engine is the critical engine!
- Asymmetric blade effect: propeller blades produce more thrust in the downward rotation than in the upward
rotation. This increases the thrust moment arm of the number 2 engine. Because of the failure of the engine with
the shortest moment arm produce the greatest yawing moment of the other live engine, that’s why the number 1
engine is the critical engine.!
Effect of crosswind: In this case the live (number 2) engine cause a yaw to the left. So a crosswind component
from the left has a restoring force to the aircraft fuselage but a right crossing aggravates the problem.!
!-
Lost comm. on approach outside FAF with wx below mins.!
!
!-
Runway lights and how do you know distance remaining at night.!
!
!-
If you are 200 miles out @ 310, ATC wants 110 @ 40 DME, when do you descent.!
Altitude to lose = 20.000, distance 160 NM, so 20 x 3 = 60 - 160 NM = 100 NM out!
!-
At 2000 feet on localizer, 5 miles back, where do you expect glideslope to be?!
Nm x 300 = glideslope , Example: 5NM to the threshold. Multiply by 300 = 1500 ft !
!-
The tower calls the WX below landing mins when you are in the final segment of the approach. What do
you do?!
I can continue the approach until the OM, before that I’ll call the ATC for WX. If it’s still below minima, I’ll go around.!
!-
You are at FL310 enroute from LHBP to LIRF and you lose comms. How would you continue flight? -
How would you brief the approach? How would you know what RWY is being used? What would you do
if you had to go missed?!
!
!-
What would you give special consideration to when departing from a contaminated runway?!
Because of the contamination the acceleration will be slower, resulting a greater TORR and TODR and lesser V1
for the same TOW. !
!-
isolated aerodrome-ra milyen a fuel poiicy; !
- hogyan szamithato a 3% contingency fuel; !
- irj fel egy uzema. szarnitast a repült tipusodra egy peldautvonal esetere r^obstacle clearance értekek: sid,
enroute, app, missed app; milyen szegmensei!
- take-offnak, mennyi a climb gradient az egyes szegmensekben: !
- milyen szegmensei vannak a missed appnak; !
- driftdown obst. clearance feltételei t !
-
-
!
high speed flight, mire jo a swept wing, !
- CAS/TAS/Mach összefüggései emelkedés, süllyedés, izoterma, inverzió eseten, !
- Mach tuck, center of gravity vándorlása , !
- weather plannlno, minima: mit es hogyan kell figyelembe venni a METARbol es a!
ftj AF bol -                                                                                              ^"!
!-
approach and rwy lighting; távolságok, osztásközök, színek!
- !
- GPWS modes!
- WL. M5A RVSM!
- Approach Light felepitese, tipusai, távolságok!
!
!
Technical:!
Jason + egy Holland srác.!
- Bemelegítő kérdésnek, hogy kezdtél el repülni? Milyen gépen repülsz? Mikor repültél utoljára a DA42-vel?!
- If you flying from high pressure to low pressure, hogy változik a magasságom? !
- After departure at 200 ft, you have engine failure. Which speed will you maintain? Blue line (Vyse, best rate of
climb speed with one engine inoperative). What do you do if you increase the pitch and the speed continues to
decrease? I’ll be able to maintain directional control until the VMCA (minimum control speed), below that, I
should reduce the thrust and decrease the pitch to maintain directional control and build up speed. If not?!
- Draw the electrical system of the DA42 or the C152!
- VOR: Inbound 270-es radiálon vagyok, és a 210-es radiálra akarok ráfordulni. Merre kell forduljak? Jobbra.!
- VOR: 180 HDG, crossolom a 150-es radiált, akkor a DME növekedni fog vagy csökkenni? Növekedni.!
- Egy megközelítésnél meddig lehet süllyedni? MSA!
- Kolozsvári approach chart. Innen jövök, ilyen magasan, mikor kezdenék el süllyedni (altitude difference divided
by 3) és hogyan csatlakoznék a holdingba. Nincs radar control. Figyelni az MSA-ra, mert csak addig lehet
süllyedni, tovább csak a holdingba. Tovább jövök a final-en, comm failure, VMC-ben. !
- Communications failure on final. What do you do? 

Set squawk 7600 immediately. If VMC, and if the rwy is free I’ll land (In VMC comm failure procedure is to land
at the nearest suitable airport. In IMC, I’ll go around following the published missed approach procedure.!
!
!
Lehetséges Wizz témakörök az interjún!
!
Definition!
! MOCA, MORA, MEA, MSA, MAA!
! Aerodorme operating minima, DA/DH!
! MDA/MDH, MAP, OCA/OCH, FAF!
! One engine inoperative net flight path !
! Aerodromes Fire fighting!
! Aerodrome categorization: CAT A CAT B CAT C!
! Take-off alternate, Destination aerodrome, Destination alternate, Planning minima!
! Selecting one destination alternate, Selecting two destination alternate!
!
Approach!
! Aeroplane approach categories,!
! Conversion of visibility to RVR !
! Operating minima!
! Take-off minima, Landing minima !
! CAT I, CAT II, CAT III!
! Circling!
! Visual Approach!
! VFR operating minima!
!
Determination of the quantities of fuel!
! Fuel policy, Standard procedure!
! Taxi fuel, Contingency fuel, Alternate fuel, Final reserve fuel, Additional fuel!
! Replanning in flight!
! Isolated aerodrome procedure, Minimum block fuel!
!
Mass and CG!
! DOM MZFM MSLM MSToM!
! Traffic load!
!
De-icing and anti-icing!
! Definitions!
! One-step de-icing/anti-icing, Two-step de-icing/anti-icing, Prevent anti-icing!
! Critical surfaces!
! Frozen deposits!
! Holdover time!
!
Oxygen requirements!
!
Jeppesen!
! Obstacle clearance (PDG) !
! Procedure turns !
! Missed approach !
! Holding Speeds !
! ! Rate of turn !
! ! Entry!
! ! Obstacle clearance !
! ! Minimum holding level!
!
Noise abatement!
! Procedure A, Procedure B, NADP 1, NADP 2!
!
Performance!
! TORA, TORR, TODA, TODR, ASDA, LDA!
! Stopway, Clearway!
! V speeds (performance) !
! Take-off segments!
!
Aerodynamics!
! Swept wing!
! Flying high !
! Critical engine!
!
Runway lights !!!!
!
!
Meteoro!
! TAF, METAR, SIGMET értelmezés!