Drainage Engineering - M

AMBO UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL AND BIOPROCESS ENGINEERING
Department of Agricultural Engineering (AGEN)
Drainage Engineering Course
Course Number AGEN 5214
Course Title Drainage Engineering
Degree Program B.Sc. in Agricultural Engineering
Module Drainage Engineering
Module Coordinator
Lecturer
The credits in ECTS 4 CP
Contact Hours (per week) Lecture Tutorial Practice or Laboratory Home study
2 3 0 3
Course Objectives & The objective of this course is to give students a broad understanding of
Competences to be Acquired drainage engineering especially the drainage system for agricultural land
and the design of drainage canals and related structures and salinity
control. Successful students in this course will be able to adopt the pipe
lines for surface as well as for sub surface drainage system in agricultural
land also installing drainage pipelines for salinity control.
Course Description/Course Introduction: Forms and nature of occurrence of water in soils, soil
Contents moisture characteristics, Flow of water in soils, Darcy’s law and drainage
equation, soil water movement above water Table. Drainage and Crop
production: The need for drainage, Drainage to control ponding, Drainage
to control Water logging, Drainage to control Salinization, Benefits of
drainage. Drainage Systems: Components of drainage system, Field
Drainage systems: Surface drainage systems, subsurface drainage
systems and compound drainage systems. Factors Related to Drainage:
Drainage coefficient, Water Table, Depth to the water table, Dissolved
Salts in the ground water, groundwater salinity, Hydraulic conductivity,
Topography, impermeable layer. Surface Drainage Systems: Land
forming; land grading and land shaping, Design criteria, drainage design
equations, Hydraulic Design of surface drains and its related structure
construction and maintenance of surface drains. Subsurface Drainage
Systems: Types of subsurface drainage systems, Design of Depth of
subsurface drainage systems, Design criteria, drainage design equations,
Design of spacing of sub-surface drainage systems for steady state and
unsteady state conditions; Diameter of pipe drains, slope of pipe drains,
Design of envelopes, Construction and maintenance of subsurface drains,
Economics of subsurface drains. Soil Salinity: Salt and water balance,
concepts of saline agriculture on salt affected soils; Saline, alkaline and
saline-alkali soils, salinization due to irrigation, Drainage for salinity
control; Land Reclamation techniques for salt affected soils.
Pre-requisites Soil Phhsics and Mechanics and Irrigation Engineering
Semester Year 5, Semester I
Status of Course Compulsory
Teaching & Learning Methods Lectures, tutorials
Assessment/Evaluation & Mid-semester exam-30%, Final exam-50%, Assignments-20%

Grading System
Attendance Requirements A student must attend at least 80 % of the classes
1.INTRODUCTION
1.1. Genera
1.2. Historical Background of Drainage Practice
1.4. Benefits of Drainage
2.AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE
2.1. Excess water in agricultural field
2.2. Agronomic Water Balance
2.3. Soil Water and Soil Water holding Capacity
2.3.1. Types of Soil Water
2.3.2. Infiltration capacity
2.3.3. Porosity and drainable porosity
2.4. Watertable and root zone depth
2.5. Agricultural impacts of Excess water
2.6. Need for drainage in Agriculture
2.6.1. Drainage to control soil salinization
2.6.2. Drainage to control waterlogging
Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

2.6.3. Drainage to control ponding
3. DRAINAGE SYSTEM
3.1. System Component and Layout
3.1.1. Components
Course Contents
3.1.2. Layout
3.2. Field drainage system
3.2.1. Surface drainage system
3.2.2. Subsurface drainage system
3.2.3. Combined drainage system
3.2.4. Tubewell drainage system
3.3. Drainage water disposal
4. PLANNING AND DESIGN OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM
4.1. Design considerations
4.1.1. Drainage system design criteria
4.1.2. Drainage outlet
4.1.3. Design Discharge
4.1.4. Drain slope
4.2. Design of surface drainage system................................................................
4.2.1. Estimation of runoff .......................................................................................
4.2.2. Drainage coefficient
4.2.3. Design of drainage channels ................................................................
4.3. Design of subsurface drainage system ................................................................
4.3.1. Steady state drainage equations
4.3.2. Unsteady state drainage equation
4.3.3. Subsurface drains (pipe) diameter
5. DRAINAGE FOR SALINITY ALKALINITY CONTROL
5.1. Salinity and Alkalinity in soil ................................................................
5.2. Agronomic impacts of salinity................................................................
5.3. Irrigation water quality and crop tolerance.............................................................
5.4. Leaching Requirement
References 1. Land and Drainage Principles Methods and Applications. Bhatta

Charya. New Delhi, 2001
2. Land Drainage and Irrigation: Volume 3. Ciriacacono Salvatore.
Singapore, 1998
3. Manual of Surface Drainage Engineering. B.Z Kinori. New York,
1984
4. H.P., Ritzema. (1999). Subsurface Drainage: The need for
drainage in irrigated land. International Institute for Land
Reclamation and Improvement. Wageningen, The Netherlands
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.General
Water is the component of all landscape design that needs due consideration. The spatial and
temporal distribution of water is not uniform across the world. Some areas are water scarce
whereas other areas have excess water. Water issuessuch as scarcity, uneven distribution, water
flowing across undesirable point(flooding), and so on are the major concern of humankind in day
to day life.
In response to these water issues, different remedial scientific concepts have been developed. For
example,to solve the water scarcity problem in agriculture irrigation technologies have come to
existence.Water harvesting technology is also a strategy by which rainwater is collected and
conserved for different purposes (drinking, agricultural production, sanitary purpose, etc) water
deficient season.Dams, embankments and artificial canal are constructed in order to control
flood.Excess water is collected and disposed from points where it is not needed using drainage
system.
Plants, in addition to other nutrients need moisture and air for their optimum and healthy growth.
Because precipitation and temperature vary spatially and temporally at a time, moisture may be
deficient (arid areas) or excess (humid areas). Therefore, the need for irrigation and drainage may
vary from region to region. Humid areas need artificial drainage whereas arid zones need
irrigation to keep soil moisture at optimum level. The excess water in humid areas helps in
removal of salts, the accumulation of which could cause salinity problem. In arid regions
however, salinity is problem and needs drainage for removal of these salts. Therefore, irrigation,
drainage and reclamation are complementary processes of equal importance especially in arid
regions.
Proper balance must be kept between irrigation and drainage in order to get optimal soil condition
relevant to crops at different stages of development. Reclamation is very important to maintain
good soil fertility and salt distribution. These three terms therefore need to be looked singly and
collectively for good soil water management.
1.2.Historical Background of Drainage Practice
The history of drainage practice goes back to early human civilization. Records from the old
Indus civilizations show that around 2500 B.C. the Indus Valley was farmed using rainfall and
floodwater to cultivate wheat, sesame and cotton. In the course of the life of these people, the
stage of the Indus River sometimes raises flooding narrow strip of land along the river. In

response to this problem of flood and over saturation of the soil, Indus people started to drain the
excess water and therefore, irrigation and drainage started occurring as equilibrium natural
processes. This situation also existed in other inhabited valleys even earlier in Mesopotamia
(3000 B.C.), in China from (2627 B.C.), in Egypt (3000 B.C.),and lately inNorth America, Japan,
and Peru.
Although salinity problems may have contributed to the decline of old civilizations, there is
evidence that in irrigated agriculture the importance of land drainage and salinity control was
understood very early. In Mesopotamia, control of the watertable was based on avoiding an
inefficient use of irrigation water and on the cropping practice of weed-fallow in alternate years.
During the period from 1122 B.C. to 220 A.D., saline-alkali soils in China were ameliorated with
the use of a good irrigation and drainage system by leaching, by rice planting, and by silting from
periodic floods.
Man’s drainage problems have been attributed partly to his neglect of drainage systems and
partly to his lack of understanding of all the physical and technical problems involved.
Today, basic knowledge and understanding of soil physics and hydraulics are being applied to
drainage problems, and drainage engineering is rapidly emerging from the “build it here and see
how it works” stage. Nowadays, modern drainage technologies which are installed and operated
with machineries have become common in modern agriculture.
1.3.Benefits of Drainage
Soil is a porous medium consisting liquid, gaseous and solid materials which provide the crops
with essential water, oxygen, and nutrients. Unless both the supply of water and oxygen can be
maintained, the nutrient intake by crops is reduced. Drainage is essential to maintain the supply of
oxygen. Other factors associated with drainage and plant growth are soil temperature, workability,
resistance to disease and root growth, and chemical and biological conditions favorable to crop
growth. Saturated soils directly impede the intake of water and nutrients and limit root growth.
Poor drainage discourages the growth of aerobic bacteria which are needed to providenitrogen for
crops. In saturated soil, lack of oxygen prevents formation of usable forms of nitrogen and sulfur.
In addition, toxic organic and inorganic compounds develop in saturated soils.
Subsurface drainage promotes conditions that maintain soil structure and workability. These
conditions exist particularly in fine-textured soilscontaining swelling clays. Efficient farm
operations require well-drained soilsthroughout the season. Poorly drained soils adversely affect

preparing, planting, cultivating, irrigating, and harvesting operations. Saturated soilsrequire as
muchas three times more heat to raise the soil temperature 1 oC and they are usually 4 to
8oCcooler than similar well-drained soils. Drainage promotes early warming of soils in the spring
which, in turn, promotes biological and chemical activity in the soils that is important to
seed germination and plant growth. Well-drained soils can be planted from 2 to 3 weeks
earlier than similar saturated soils, which is important in areas with short growing seasons
and where early harvests bring higher prices
1.4.Scope of this Material
This course focuses on the drainage issues, basically the system design aspect. The syllabus
comprises four basic chapters in which the issue is discussed for concept to system design. Next
to this introduction section is overview of land drainage, which deals with excess water, its
sources, and its impacts on plant growth. The third chapter deals with drainage systems i.e.,
alternatives for the removal of excess water from the field. In chapter four of this course planning
and design of drainage system will be discussed.
2. AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE
2.1.Excess water in agricultural field
Agricultural water is supplied either from rainfall or from irrigation. The amount of precipitation
may exceed the amount of water required to meet the crop evapotranspiration. Any rain water,
which is excess beyond the crop water demand, is therefore drainable water.
Drainage is removal of excess surface or sub-surface water from the land to enhance crop growth.
In addition to this it is also important for removing soluble salts that may cause salinity to the soil
Over irrigation is another source of excess water in irrigated agriculture. While artificially
supplying water to crop fields, the applied depth may be greater than the consumptive use during
the period between irrigation intervals. In fields with soils of low infiltration capacity and rough
fields the water may form ponding.
Ponding is the accumulation of water on the soil surface. This occurs due to less infiltration
capacity or total saturation of the soil.
Another source of excess water in agricultural land is ground water. Whenever there is ground
water recharge, watertable rises up. The ground water when rises super saturates the root zone of
the crop causing waterlogging in the cultivated field.

Waterlogging is the accumulation of water in the root zone of the soil.
Watertable may also rise due to ground water recharge from seepage under surface water bodies
and hydrostatic pressure from artesian aquifers. In general, the source of excess water determines
the type of remedy to be taken to avoid the water.
2.2.Agronomic Water Balance
Agronomic water balance is the equilibrium between the amount of water entering and escaping from the root
zone of the soil.
I i + R + S + I = Eo + ET + N + q
Figure 1: Agronomic water balance

Where, Ii = irrigation water
R = Precipitation
I = Infiltration
S = Upward movement of ground water (seepage) or capillary rise
Eo = Evaporation from ponds in the field (very important especially for rice field)
ET = crop evapotranspiration
O = surface runoff (surface drainage) from the field
N = downward movement (seepage) of water from root zone (natural drainage)
q = ground water outflow (sub-surface drainage)
Even if the general catchment water balance is based on the principle that
Inflow – outflow = change in storage,

Agronomic water balance assumes that change in storage is negligible. That means, it is assumed
that no water beyond the above component is available in the root zone.
Agronomic water balance offers simple method to estimate the amount of water required for
irrigation, and/or the amount to drain out. If all agronomic water balance components are known
for some specified period, irrigation or drainage amount can be estimated.
2.3.Soil Water and Soil Water holding Capacity
Soil is a porous system made up of solid, liquid, and gaseous phases. The liquid phase (soil
solution) consists of soil water. Therefore, soil can be considered as reservoir that stores water.
Each of the pore spaces between soil particles are micro reservoirs, and these micro spaces
collectively build up large volume reservoir. Water that is found in the pore space of soils in the
soil root zone is considered as soil water. The type of soil in terms of texture, structure, organic
matter content, etc. affect the amount of water that can be held in that soil and this amount is
expressed as soil water content; the amount of moisture available in a unit volume of dry soil.
2.3.1. Types of Soil Water
Gravitational Water
Water that is free to move downward through the soil by the force of gravity is called
gravitational water. At saturation, all pores are filled and the soil holds the maximum amount of
water, with no air in the soil. Under such condition crops face shortage of oxygen required for its
growth. This type of water is by its nature rapidly drainable, and hence not available to crops.

Figure 2: Soil water and cardinal soil moisture levels
Capillary Water
Capillary water is held in the soil against gravity. It includes the film of water left around the soil
grains and the water filling the smaller pores after gravity water has drained off. This type of
water is readily available to crops (Figure 3). Provided that the soil water is free from the
influence of ground water table, if gravity water is allowed to drain from a saturated soil, the
quantity of capillary water held is called field capacity. Close to the water table, the quantity of
capillary water held in a granular material is greater than field capacity. This form of capillary
water is sometimes called capillary fringe water. Therefore, amount of water held at a given point
in the soil depends on the distance above the water table, as well as on the soil pore sizes and
shapes.
Hygroscopic water
When a granular material is completely dried by heating, then exposed to the air, it absorbs
atmospheric moisture. This water, when in equilibrium with the atmospheric moisture, is called
hygroscopic water. Such water is very small and hence not available to crops.

Figure 3: Soil reservoir and water availability to plants
2.3.2. Infiltration capacity
Whenever water falls on to soil surface, it starts infiltrating. Infiltration is vertical movement of
water through the soil surface into the root zone. This movement is influenced by matrix and
gravitational forces. Soil properties like texture, structure and organic matter content determine
the soil porosity, which in turn affects the infiltration rate (as shown in Table 1).
Infiltration rate defined as the depth of water entering into the soil per unit time, regardless of
the force or gradient driving the movement of the water.
Light and homogeneously deep soils have relatively higher infiltration than heavy and compacted
soils, which blocks the water from entry into the soil. Infiltration is high at the beginning and
gradually decreases with time. As the soil reaches saturation point, infiltration remains constant
(steady state). This steady state is called basic infiltration rate and the rate nearly equals the
hydraulic conductivity of the soil. Any water coming on to the soil surface (rainfall/
irrigation/runoff water) at rate greater than the infiltration rate causes ponding on the surface and
waterlogging in the root zone.

Table 1: Typical infiltration rate for different soils
Soil type Infiltration rate (mm/hr)
Sand >30
Sandy Loam 30 – 20
Silty Loam 20 – 10
Clay Loam 10 – 5
Clay <5
Soil water holding capacity is the amount of water that a soil can store before the water starts
freely flowing. Ones the soil gets saturated, that water is considered as gravitational water and it
cannot be accessed by plants.
Figure 4: Infiltration pattern in the soil

Soils with finer particle size have more pore volume than coarse particle soils. Due to this fine
soils better water holding capacity. However, the infiltration rate in coarse particle soils is high.

2.3.3. Porosity and drainable porosity
η)
Porosity (η
A soil mass is not totally solid; it has also air and water. That is why it is considered as three
phase material of the nature. The part of a soil mass occupied by air and water is called pore space
(void space). Therefore, a soil block is porous mass because it consists of air and water volume in
addition to solid volume. The volume of air and water are collectively called volume of void.
Now, if we assume recall a porous soil mass

of total volume V consisting volume of solid
Vs, volume of water Vw and Volume of air
Va, then
V = Vs + Vw + Va
Figure 5: Soil components and pore space

Volume of void Vv is the sum of volume of air Va and volume of water Vw.
Porosity is the ratio of volume of void to total volume of the soil. It can be expressed as
dimensionless fraction or percentage.
Vv V − V s V ρ
η= = = 1− s = 1− b
V V V ρs
Drainable porosity (µ)
Water is held in the soil by capillary force; the force that arises from surface tension. If surface
tension is greater than gravity effect, then no water will drain out of the soil. Fine particle soils
(clay) have higher surface tension and are less drainable than the courser soil (sand). The force of
gravity exceeds the capillary force when the soil is saturated.
The amount of water (in percent volume) that is drained per unit volume of saturated soil under
gravitational effect is calledDrainable porosity or Drainable pore space.
The value of drainable porosity ranges from about 5 per cent for clayey materials to 35 per cent
for coarse sands and gravelly sands. Drainable pore space of soil varies with the relative location
of water table. This is because the location of watertable affects the gravitational effect on the
water in the root zone (unsaturated zone). For example if the watertable is shallow, it limits
percolation from the root zone. Otherwise if the watertable is lowered, a certain amount of water

in the unsaturated part of the soil profile will be released by gravity flow. Therefore, drainable
porosity is a dimensionless index that shows the percentage of change in watertable position that
resulted change in water storage in the root zone.
Change in the amount of soil moisture storage
µ=
Change in depth of watertabl e
2.4.Watertable and root zone depth
Part of the water applied to the soil surface drains below the root zone and feeds deeper soil
layers, which are permanently saturated. This saturated zone of soil is considered as part of
ground water. The topmost of this saturated zone is called water table (refer Figure 5).
Watertable is an imaginary surface separating capillary water from free ground water. At
watertable hydrostatic pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
Watertable is unstable surface that varies from to time. Following heavy rainfall or irrigation, the
groundwater table rises. It may even reach and saturate the root zone. If prolonged, this situation
can be disastrous for crops. Where the groundwater table appears at the surface, it is called an
open groundwater table.
Figure 6: Ground water natural recharge and location of watertable

This is the case in swampy areas. The groundwater table can also be very deep and distant from
the root zone, for example following a prolonged dry period. In such case to keep the root zone
moist, irrigation is then necessary (Figure 6).
Figure 7: Fluctuating water table with average depth and an infrequent shallow depth of the water
table
2.5.Agricultural impacts of Excess water
The growth of most agricultural crops is sharply affected by continued saturation of any
substantial part of the root zone or by ponded water on the surface. Poorly drained soils
depress crop production in several ways:
Heat removal from soil root zone due to high evaporation, causing cold stress to plants
Saturation or surface ponding stops air circulation in the soil and prevents bacterial activity.
Certain plant diseases and parasites are encouraged.
High water table limits root penetration.
Soil structure is adversely affected by excess water.
Toxicity effectdue to salt and alkali accumulation
Wet spots in the field delay farm operations or prevent uniform treatment.
2.6.Need for drainage in Agriculture
2.6.1. Drainage to control soil salinization
Salinization is the accumulation of soluble salts at the surface or some point below the surface of
the soil to the extent that has negative impact on the plant growth.

To remove salts from the soil, water is used as vehicle. This is done by applying more irrigation
water than required for crop growth. The excess water applied infiltrates into the soil and then
percolates through the root zone. During percolation the water takes away (leaches) part of the
accumulated salt from the soil and removes through sub-surface drainage system. Here, the
additionally supplemented water needs to be removed by the aid of drainage. Thus salinity control
is made by combination of irrigation and drainage measures.
Figure 8: Leaching with extra irrigation water and removal of salty water with drainage system
2.6.2. Drainage to control waterlogging
Following over irrigation and heavy rainfall soil in the root zone gets saturated. At this state, all
pore spaces are filled with water. This is waterlogging problem and it affects plant growth. To
remove excess water from the root zone, subsurface drainage is used (Figure 8). This is done by
digging open drains or installing pipes, at depths varying from 1m to 3m. The excess water then
flows down through the soil into these drains or pipes. In this way, the water table can be
controlled

Figure 9: Controlling watertable rise with sub-surface drainage system
2.6.3. Drainage to control ponding
There are three ways surface ponding can occur; excess rainfall, over irrigation and runoff inflow
in to the field. Under these circumstances, the surface soil may not be capable of passing all the
incoming water to infiltrate. More over pore spaces near the surface of the soil may be sealed due
to the excess supply. As a result water accumulates over the field.
To remove ponding water from the surface of the land, surface drainage is used. Normally, this
consists of digging shallow open drains. To make it easier for the excess water to flow towards
these drains, the field is given an artificial slope. This is known as land shaping or grading (Figure
9)
Figure 10: surface drainage system to control ponding

3. DRAINAGE SYSTEM
3.1.System Component and Layout
3.1.1. Components
A drainage system can have three components: field drainage system, main drainage system and
the outlet (shown in figure 10). The field drainage system is used to collect ponded water and/or
sub-surface water from the field. The main drainage system conveys the drainage water collected
from the field by the field drainage system to the drainage outlet. Outlet is the point where the
drainage water is disposed safely.
Field drainage system is a network that gathers the excess water from the land by means of field
drains, which are supplemented by measures to promote the flow of excess water to these drains.
Field drainage system is the most important part of the whole drainage system as it is direct
measure to control ponding and waterlogging. Field drains can be surface or subsurface drains
based on the source of the drainage water. Surface drains are shallow graded channels usually
with relatively flat side slope. Subsurface field drains may be open or pipe. The open drains are
the same as the surface ditches, but different in that side slope is steeper and the depth high with
exposed watertable (figure 11). Pipes are subsurface drains, which are buried at the safest depth
where excess subsurface water can be collected effectively. The pipes are perforated so that the
water enters into the pipe.
Main drainage system is conveyance system that receives water from the field drainage system,
surface runoff and ground water flow, and passes it to the outlet point.
The main drainage system consists of collector drains and main drains. Collector drain is a drain
that collects water from the field drains and carries it to the main drain for disposal. Like field
drains collector drains may also be open or pipe. The main drain is the principal of the system to
carry the drainage water from field to the disposal point. Usually they are canalized stream, which
runs through the lowest part of the agricultural field.

Figure 11: Components of drainage system
Outlet is the terminal point of the drainage system from where the drainage water is discharged
into the river, lake, sea or ponds.
The outlet can be gravity or pump aided. In fields that are at lower elevation with relative to the
discharging point, pump is needed at the outlet. In swampy and delta fields gravity alone is not
sufficient to drain the water to the required depth. In such case also, pumping is needed.
3.1.2. Layout
Surface drainage system layout
In surface drainage system two types of drainage layouts are known. These are:
Random layout and
Parallel layout
Random field drainage system is applied where there are large but shallow depressions in a field
and land forming operation is not important. The random field drainage system connects the
depressions by means of a field drain and evacuates the water into a collector drain (figure 11).
The system is often applied on land that does not require intensive farming operations (e.g.
pasture land) or where mechanization is done with small equipment. Of course, routine of the
drains should be selected such that there will be less interference with field operation.

Figure 12: Random drain layout for surface drainage
Parallel layout (Figure 12), is the most effective method of surface drainage. This layout is
effective with proper land forming operation (planing, grading and bedding). The parallel field
drains collect the surface runoff and discharge it into the collector drain. The spacing between the
field drains depends on the size of fields that can be prepared and harvested economically, on the
tolerance of crops to ponding, and on the amount and costs of land forming. The system is
suitable for flat field with irregular micro-topography where farming operations require fields
with regular shapes.
Figure 13: Parallel field layout for surface drainage system
Subsurface drainage system layout

There are three common types of subsurface drainage system layout:
Random
Parallel and
Herringbone layouts.

Random layout is applicable to fields in which there are some wet spots in the root zone. These
wet spots are linked to the field laterals by random pipes (subsurface drainage system). The wet
spots can be linked or individually drained (Figure 13).
Figure 14: Subsurface drainage layout A) Random B) Parallel C) Herringbone

Parallel layout is used on fields having fairly flat, regular, and even surface and which suits for
parallel alignment of pipes (Figure13b).The parallel field drainage system consists of laterals that
are perpendicular to the main drain. Variations of this system are often used with other patterns.

In many cases, the parallel system is desirable because it provides intensive drainage of a given
field or area.
Herringbon layout is suitable in fields having even slope with contours running in parallel
fashion (Figure 13c). Each of the field drain collects water at any point regardless of the slope.
The herringbone layout consists of laterals that enter the main drain at an angle, generally from
both sides. If site conditions permit, this system can be used in place of the parallel system. It can
also be used where the main is located on the major slope and the lateral grade is obtained by
angling the laterals upslope. This pattern may be used with other patterns in laying out a
composite system in small or irregular areas.
Unlike in irrigation system where the system capacity decreases from the water source to the
application point, the drainage system is opposite to this setup. In drainage system, the field drains
are small in sized and capacity when compared to the main drainage system. Therefore, the system
goes decreasing from field to outlet.
3.2.Field drainage system

3.2.1. Surface drainage system
Depending on the source of the drainage water in the agricultural field, three methods of drainage
systems are used to remove the excess water from the field. These are surface, subsurface,
tubewell drainage system.
Surface drainage system is a system of drainage measures such as open drains and land forming
meant to divert excess water away from an agricultural area in order to prevent ponding.
Land forming
The setup of the natural land (slope, levelness, shape…) is not as suitable as needed for any
activity to be implemented on the land. Therefore, the natural land surface needs to be reworked
to make it suitable for the anticipated use. Both irrigation and drainage need regular land surface
feature for efficient water application and removal of the drainage water.
Land forming is defined as manipulation of the micro-topography of the land to meet the
requirement of surface irrigation and/or drainage.

Three types of land forming are common in draiange practice; bedding, land grading and land
planing.
Bedding is a one of the land forming which is accomplished by ploughing the land to form a series
of low and narrow ridges separated by parallel field drain ditches.
Bedding is suitable in grassland. In modern agriculture however, bedding is not accepted as

proper drainage land forming method for row crops because the rows adjucent to field drains will
not drain satisfactorily. Therefore, land grading and planing are usually practiced.
Land grading is forming of surface to a predetermined grade such that the surface slopes to the
field drains.
This involves cutting, filling and smoothening the surface to have well planed surface with certain
grade. Land grading is better than bedding in that it reduces the number of field drains resulted.
This reduces maintenance requirement and enable proper land utilization.
Land planing is smoothening the land surface to avoid depressions and irregularities without
changing the general topographic nature of the land.
Land planing is common activity in most land use, especially in modern agriculture. It is applied
simultaneously with land grading and sometimes with land bedding.
Cross slope drainage system
This is a system of surface drainage system, and it is also called a diversion system. It is
applicable on gently sloping land where sufficient runoff may occur but where water ponds on the
land. The system consists of one or more diversions, terraces, or fields ditches built across the
slope. As water flows downhill it is intercepted and carried off. The cross-slope system is used
mainly with the aim of:
Draining gently sloping land that may get wet because of slowly permeable soil
Preventing the accumulation of water from upslope areas
Avoiding the concentration of water in shallow pockets within the field
Such ditches usually provide both surface drainage and erosion control. When designed
specifically for the control of erosion, they are called terraces. Diversion ditches sometimes are

used to divert runoff from low-lying areas, thus reducing the drainage problem by preventing
entrance of water in to the agricultural field.
3.2.2. Subsurface drainage system
Excess rainfall, over irrigation and runoff inflow into the agricultural field causes rise in water
table. Moreover, continuous irrigated agricultural practice on a field causes salt and alkali
accumulation in the root zone.
Subsurface drainage system is a system by which excess water is removed from the ground in
order to lower the ground watertable. Subsurface drainage is also used for removing salts from the
soil using drainage water as vehicle.
Subsurface drainage system can be open drains or pipe drains. Open drains are ditches which are
deep enough to intersect the watertable so that the ground water joins the ditch to drain out. On
the other hand, a perforated pipe buried at a desired depth, which is sufficiently below the raised
watertable provides pipe drainage. Proper decision needs to be made on which type of drain (open
or pipe) to use in subsurface drainage system specifically for the collector and field drains. Two
options are available when pipe drains are used.
a) All field drains are buried and drainage water from these drains discharges to open
collector drains. This system is called singular drainage system.
b) All field drains and all collector drains are buried pipes. This is called composite drainage
system.
The layout of the subsurface drainage system can also be random, parallel or herringbone. The
random layout in this system is totally composite. However if uniform drainage of the field is
needed, the regular layout (parallel and/or herringbon) can be made in either singular or
composite fashion.

Figure 15: composite drainage system
Comparative advantage and disadvantage surface and subsurface drainage system
Table 2: comparison between surface and subsurface drainage system
Surface drainage system Sub surface drainage system
Serves for removing surface excess Serves for removing subsurface excess water
water
Avoids water stagnation on the surface Lowers ground water table
of the field
Uses shallow open ditches Uses deep open ditches, pipe drains or well
pumping
Needs less construction cost Needs high construction cost
Needs frequent maintenance Needs very less maintenance (except open
(reconstruction) ditch)
Takes over cultivable land Pipe drains are totally buried; the surface is
cultivated
Delays machinery operation Except open ditch, does not delay machinery
operation
Accessible for inspection Pipe drains are difficult to inspect
3.2.3. Combined drainage system

Sometimes, combined surface and subsurface drainage systems are used. Whether this is needed
or not depends on a combination of factors: the intensity and duration of the rainfall, surface
storage, the infiltration rate, the hydraulic conductivity (which is a measure of the
watertransmitting capacity of soils), and the ground water conditions. Some of the cases in which
combined system is used are:
In irrigated areas in arid and semi-arid regions, where the cropping pattern includes rice in
rotation with "dry-foot" crops (e.g. maize and cotton). Here, subsurface drainage is needed
to control salinity for the dry-foot crops, whereas surface drainage is needed to evacuate
the standing water from the rice fields.
Areas with occasional high-intensity rainfall, which causes water to pond at the soil
surface, even when a subsurface drainage system has been installed
3.2.4. Tubewell drainage system
Tubewell drainage system is similar to subsurface drainage system in its aim of lowering ground
water table. It is mainly used to reach deeper layer of permeable soils to drain excess water for
tree crops like orange, banana, apple, avocado and so on.
Tubewell drainage system is a network of tubewells to lower the watertable with pump provided
for drawing the drainage water from deep soil layer.
Tubewell drainage system is also called pump drainage system. This drainage system is generally
used situations like;
When the aquifer is permeable and deep
When quality ground water is needed for irrigation or other purposes like industrial use
When the water is under artesian pressure and therefore easy to pump out
When the land is flat
When there is sufficient power to operate the pump
When the thickness of the aquifer is sufficiently high to install the well components

Figure 16: Tubewell drainage system
3.3.Drainage water disposal
Drainage water needs proper disposal to appropriate point; usually to rivers leading to seas, or
lakes with no outlet. Drainage water influences surrounding in different ways. In small scale
agricultural fields, the drainage effluent of a farmer harm the farm land of the downstream
neighbor farmer. This also causes conflict among the local farmers. On large scale agricultural
field, the excessive drainage water can cause peak river flow that in turn results inundation of the
downstream catchment. Measures need to be taken to reduce these drainage disposal
problems.These measures are:
Improving irrigation efficiency especially the application depth and rate to reduce
percolation of water
Improving drainage efficiency
Re-use of drainage water for different purposes (irrigation, industrial, sanitary, etc)
Discharging to surface water by properly routing the drainage water
If the quality of the water does not allow redirecting it to the natural stream, then the following
options are used.

Channeling the water to a location on the site (but far enough) where it is less troublesome
and where it can percolate into the ground
Build an evaporation pond (earthen, masonry or concrete) and direct the water into it

4. PLANNING AND DESIGN OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM
4.1.Design considerations
4.1.1. Drainage system design criteria
There are varieties of factors affecting requirement and functioning of drainage system. These
include topography, depth of watertable, groundwater quality and drainage surplus (the amount of
water that is excessive in the soil).
Topography of a region determines the need for and specification of drainage system of an area.
Topographic map provides all physical features that influence the design of the drainage system.
Elevation is one of the important parameter obtained from topographic information. Beyond this,
the presence of different infrastructures like farm road, irrigation canals, etc determines planning
of the system.
Depth of watertable is the primary factor and criteria for drainage system design. Drainage is
basically solution to watertable rise. Therefore, the location of watertable with respect to the root
zone depth has to be known to design the appropriate drainage solution. Observation well (a small
diameter pipe of about 12.5 cm) is used for testing the groundwater condition at the area where
the drainage system is to be installed (constructed).
Groundwater quality is another reference to have drainage system or not for the purpose of
leaching of soluble salts and alkali. In addition to the accumulation of salt in soil due to irrigation
water quality, salt also arises due to the geological formations that have salty nature. These salts
rise whenever watertable rises. Therefore, if the geology of the area is of saline nature, then
drainage is must to leach out the salt.
Drainage surplus is the amount of water that needs to be removed from the soil in a given period
of time to lower the watertable and avoid any ponding as well. Even if it is difficult to know the
exact value of the drainage surplus, agronomic water balance can be used to estimate the quantity.
A drainage design criterion is a specified numerical value of one or more drainage parameters
that allow a design to be calculated with drainage equations.
The depth of the water table is often used as a criterion factor because it can be related to crop
production, drain depth and spacing. As the water table fluctuates from time to time, it is
necessary to see the condition using appropriate watertable indices. To decide the level of water
table for which the design is to be made, the level of the undesirable level, that affects crops need

to be known. For this matter, different watertable indices have been developed. The following are
the possible watertable indices that can be referred to make decision on drainage system design:
Depth of watertable at harvest date
The average depth of the water table during a season with excess rainfall
The average depth of the water table during the irrigation season
The frequency or number of days during the growing season with a water table shallower
than a certain reference level
Sum of the exceedences of the daily watertable over a specific reference depth below the
soil surface
The time it takes for the water table to fall from a certain critically high level to a safe
lower level
4.1.2. Drainage outlet
No matter the type of drainage system installed for an agricultural field, well considered drainage
outlet is must. The outlet should be sufficiently lower in elevation than the field in order to
provide hydraulic head for the drainage flow. Hydraulic head of drainage flow is determined by
the drainage base (the water level at the drainage outlet). The outlet for different drainage
components is different. For instance, drainage base for field drains is the water level in the
collector drains; the drainage base for collector drains is the water level in the main drains, and
that of the main drains is the water level at the whole drainage outlet. Due care has to be taken to
make sure that the drainage base in any recipient drain is sufficient to allow potential drainage
flow especially when drainage is important.
4.1.3. Design Discharge
The capacity of the drains, whether they are open drains or pipe drains, are fixed based on the
required design discharge. This design discharge is influenced by the storage capacity of the
drainage system. That means the system to be designed should be capable of passing the whole
volume of water that has to be drained out from the field within a given period of time. By
reducing ponding or waterlogging, a drainage system creates a buffer capacity in the soil,
ensuring that space is reserved for the incoming recharge, and the discharge of the drainage water
is in steady state condition.

Steady state flow in drainage is the situation in which the rate of drainage water recharge in to the
soil is equal to the rate of drainage water discharge from the soil. Otherwise the flow is considered
as unsteady state flow.
Therefore, the design discharge should be fixed based on the soil buffer capacity and the recharge
rate. The following tips can be used for fixing the design discharge for different drainage
requirement situations.
In areas receiving heavy rainfall, both surface and subsurface drainage are required
(combined system can be used). In such case, the design discharge is calculated from the
water balance after the discharge from the working surface drainage is deducted.
In areas with low rainfall intensity (usually less than 100 mm/month) and irrigated land,
the design discharge has to be determined for the month or season with net highest
recharge.
In fields where surface drainage system consisting bed land form, the drainage system has
low capacity. Therefore, design discharge computation has to base on the water balance
of short period (2 to 5 days).
4.1.4. Drain slope
The maximum slope of field drains is dictated by the maximum permissible flow velocity. If the
topography should call for steep slopes, drop structures should be built into the drains. For pipe
drains, these are normally incorporated in manholes. Special caution is needed if a steep slope
changes to a flatter slope: high pressures may develop at the transition point unless the flow
velocity on the upstream side is properly controlled and the downstream (flatter) reach has a
sufficient capacity. In general, the drain slope needs to be designed such that it is not much
steeper to cause scouring of the earthen drains, or not much flatter to cause siltation in the system.
4.2.Design of surface drainage system
4.2.1. Estimation of runoff
Before a decision is made on the type and size of drainage structure or storage structure that is
needed, the peak runoff rate and total volume of runoff must be determined. This is important not
only to design the field drainage structures, but also the appropriate size of the main and outlet
system. There are different methods of runoff estimation methods, which are used under different
catchment conditions. The most commonly used and therefore discussed in this course are:

Rational method
USDA-NRS release method (Curve Number method)
Rational Method
Rational method is the most commonly used method of calculating peak discharge for small
catchments (not greater than 20 hectare). In this method, it is assumed that the maximum flood
flow is produced by a certain rainfall, which lasts for a time equal to or greater than the time of
concentration. The rational formula is given as:
CIA
Q= …………………………………………………………………1
360
Where, Q = peak runoff rate (m3/s)
C = runoff coefficient (mm/ha)
I = rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
A = area of the considered catchment (ha)
The major challenge in using this method is getting accurate value for each of these parameters.
That is why some assumptions are made when using this method. Assumptions made in rational
method are:
The rainfall intensity over the entire catchment is uniform
The rainfall duration is at least equal to the time of concentration
The catchment area is not greater than 20 hectares
If these assumptions fail the method no longer works and therefore the result is misleading.
The runoff coefficient C is the ratio of runoff depth to rainfall depth. It therefore shows the
percentage of rainfall that is converted to runoff. It depends on the catchment characteristics like
slope, soil type, land use and land cover (Table 3). If the characteristics of the catchment are
uniform throughout, the representative value of runoff coefficient is used. However, if the
catchment is of composite characteristics then weighted runoff coefficient Cw is calculated.
C1 A1 + C2 A2 + C3 A3 + ..... + Cn An
Cw = ……….……………………………..2
A1 + A2 + A3 + .....An
Table 3: Runoff coefficient of some drainage catchment area
Type of Drainage catchment Area Runoff Coefficient

Business:
Downtown areas 0.70 – 0.95

Neighborhood areas 0.50 – 0.70
Residential:
Single –family areas 0.30 – 0.50
Multi- units, detached 0.40 – 0.60
Multi-units, attached 0.60 - 0.75
Suburban 0.25 – 0.40
Apartment dwelling areas 0.50 – 0.70
Industrial:
Light areas 0.50 – 0.80
Heavy areas 0.60 – 0.90
Parks, cemeteries 0.10 – 0.25
Playgrounds 0.20 – 0.40
Railroad yard areas 0.20 – 0.40
Unimproved areas 0.10 – 0.30
Lawns:
Sandy soil, flat 2% 0.05 – 0.10
Sandy soil, average, 2-7% 0.10 – 0.15
Sandy soil, steep, 7% 0.15 – 0.20
Heavy soil, flat, 2% 0.13 – 0.17
Heavy soil, average 2-7% 0.18 – 0.22
Heavy soil, steep, 7% 0.25 – 0.35
Streets:
Asphalted 0.70 – 0.95
Concrete 0.80 – 0.95
Brick 0.70 – 0.85
Drives and walks 0.75 – 0.85
Roofs 0.75 – 0.95
Rainfall intensity I is the depth (mm) of rainfall in the catchment area in a given duration of
time. The value of rainfall intensity is obtained from Intensity-Duration- Recurrence interval
curve (Figure 15). For rational method it is usually calculated for a rainfall duration, which equals
the time of concentration Tc. Time of concentration is the time required for the surface runoff
from the remotest part of the catchment area to reach the basin outlet. It depends on:
Slope of the catchment
Rainfall intensity
Size and shape of the drainage area

Surface condition of the catchment
Existence of channel, depressions, obstructions, etc
Time of concentration can be estimated by empirical formula
Tc = 0.0195K 0.77
L H
K= S=
Where S and L
L = maximum length of the channel in the catchment
H = Difference in elevation over drain length (m)
Figure 17:: Intensity-Duration-

Intensity Recurrence interval curve (IDR curve).
Limitation of Rational Formula
The formula is applicable to small catchments.
Duration of rainfall intensity should be more than the time of concentration of the basin.
It gives the peak of the hydrograph but does not provide the complete hydrograph.
It plots a straight-line
line relation between discharge and Intensity with intercept zero whereas
nature does not follow such a simple equation.

Rainfall intensity must be constant over the entire watershed during the time of
concentration.
Coefficient C is assumed to be same for all storms which means the losses are constant for
all storms
Illustrative Example #2:
A catchment ahead of a farm land has a total area of 2.8 hectares out of which 0.5 hectare is
impervious surface, 1.4 hectares is lawn at 1.8 % slope and sandy soil, and 0.9 hectares is lawn
at 0.75% slope and heavy soil. The drainage way is 200 meters long with a slope of 1.2%.
Determine the peak runoff that would probability enter in to the farm land once in 10 years.
Solution:
Step #1: Determine the weighted runoff coefficient Cwusing eq. 2
C1 A1 + C 2 A2 + C3 A3 + ..... + C n An
Cw =
A1 + A2 + A3 + .....An
Read the appropriate runoff coefficient for each catchment division from Table 3 above (take the
lower value of the range to be safe). Accordingly,
0.7 × 0.5 + 0.06 × 1.4 + 0.15 × 0.9
Cw = = 0.20 mm
2 .8 ha
Step #2: Calculate the time of concentration
L 200
Tc = 0.0195K 0.77 Where K = = = 1826.5
S 0.012
Then, Tc = 0.0195× (1826.5) = 6.3 min

0.77
Step #3: Read the rainfall intensity I from the IDR curve (Figure 16)
The rainfall intensity for of 6.3 minutes Tc that would happen once in 10 years (this means,
recurrence interval is 10 years) reads 1 inch/hr, which is equivalent to 25.4mm/hr.
Step #4: Calculate peak runoff Q

CIA 0.2 × 25 .4 × 28 3
Q= = = 0.40 m
360 360 s
This implies that maximum surface runoff about 400 liters per second is resulted from the
catchment once in ten years. In order to safeguard the downstream farmland from unexpected
flooding surface drainage system that can bypass this discharge should be designed.

Curve Number Method
This method computes the runoff on the basis of retention capacity of the soil, which is predicted
based on the wetness status (i.e. antecedent moisture condition) and physical feature of the
watershed. Here in Curve Number method the total rainfall is divided into direct runoff, retention
and initial abstraction and the direct runoff is computed as:
Q=
( P − 0.2S )
2
…………………………………………………3
(P + 0.8S )
Where Q = direct runoff (mm), P = rainfall depth (mm)
S = soil moisture retention capacity (mm) and is given as
 1000 
S = 25.4  − 10 ……………………..…………………………4
 CN 
CN is taken from table for different land uses and soil types (Table 4)
Table 4: Curve Number for different drainage areas
Curve Number for

Land use description Hydrologic Soil Group
A B C D
Fully developed urban areas with lawns, open areas, parks, golf
courses, cemeteries, etc
Good condition: grass cover on ≥75% of the area 39 61 74 80
Fair condition: grass cover on 50 – 75% of the area 49 69 79 84
Poor condition: grass cover on ≤ 50 % of the area 68 79 86 89
Paved parking lots, roofs, driveways, (excluding right-of-way)
Streets and roads 98 98 98 98
Paved with curbs and storm sewers (no right-of-way) 98 98 98 98
Gravel (including right-of-way) 76 85 89 91
Dirt (including right-of-way) 72 82 87 89
Paved with open ditches (including right-of-way) 83 89 92 93
Average % impervious
Commercial and business areas 85 89 92 94 95
Industrial districts 72 81 88 91 93
Row houses, town houses, and residential with lot sizes 0.125 acre
or less 65 77 85 90 92

Residential: average lot size
1/4acre 38 61 75 83 87
1/3 acre 30 57 72 81 86
1/2 acre 25 54 70 80 85
1 acre 20 51 68 79 84
2 acre 12 46 65 77 82
Cultivated agricultural land
Straight row or bare soil 77 86 91 94
Conservation tillage (poor) 76 85 90 93
Conservation tillage (good) 74 83 88 90
Then, peak discharge qp is determines using:

q p = qu Ak Qd ……………………………………………………..5
Where qu = unit peak flow (m3/s/km2/mm)

Ak = area of the catchment (km2)
Qd = direct runoff (mm)
q u = 0 . 000431 × 10 C o + C1 log t c + C 2 [log (t c ) ] ………………………………..6

2
Co, C1and C2 are coefficients, which are functions of 24-hour rainfall distribution and the ratio of initial
abstraction Ia to depth of 24 hour precipitation P. The values are tabulated below (Table 5).
Table 5: Coefficient for Curve Number peak discharge determination method
Ia/P C0 C1 C2
0.10 2.30550 -0.51429 -0.11750
0.20 2.23537 -0.50387 -0.08929
0.25 2.18219 -0.48488 -0.06589
0.30 2.10624 -0.45695 -0.02835
0.35 2.00303 -0.40769 -0.01983
0.40 1.87733 -0.32274 0.05754
0.45 1.76312 -0.15644 0.00453
0.50 1.67889 -0.06930 0.0

Illustrative Example #3
Determine 10- year peak flow for a watershed with 10 hectares good condition, 7 hectares fair
condition and 2 hectares degraded (poor condition) using CN method if the soil of the catchment
has hydrologic group C, the time of concentration is 30 minutes and maximum 24-hour rainfall in
the catchment is 60mm.
Solution:
Step #1: Compute average curve number for the entire watershed
This time, the value of CN for each catchment division is obtained from Table 4 above. Therefore,
goodcondition open space type C soil has CN = 74, fair (CN = 79)and poor (CN = 86)
Then the combined CN =

(74 × 10) + (79 × 7) + (86 × 2) = 77
(10 + 7 + 2)
Step #2: Determine soil moisture retention S using eq. 4

1000 1000
S = 25.4 × − 10 = 25.4 × − 10 = 76mm
CN 77
Step #3: Calculate direct runoff depthQd
Qd =
(P − 0.2S )2 =
(60 − (0.2 × 76))2 = 16mm
(P + 0.8S ) (60 + (0.8 × 76))
Step #4: Determine the ratio of initial abstraction Ia to rainfall depth P
Initial abstraction is usually taken as 20% of the soil moisture retention S. So, Ia = 0.2×76 =
15.2mm
Ip
= 15.2mm = 0.25
P 60mm
Ip
Step #5: Find the coefficients Co, C1 and C2 for = 0.25 from Table 5.
P
Accordingly, Co = 2.182, C1 = -0.504 and C2 = -0.0659
Step #6: Calculate unit peak flow qu
q u = 0 .000431 × 10 Co + C1 log tc + C 2 [log (tc ) ]

2
q u = 0 .000431 × 10 2.182 + ( − 0.504 log (0.5 ))+ (− 0.0659 log (0.5 )) = 0 .13 m 3 s −1 ha −1 mm −1
2
This means, 130 liters of runoff is generated from each hectare of the catchment every second for

every millimeter depth of rainfall.
Step #7: Calculate peak runoff
3
q p = qu Ak Qd = 0.13 × 19 × 16 = 39.52 m
s
4.2.2. Drainage coefficient

The required capacity of a drainage channel is based on the drainage coefficient, which in turn
depends on the peak flow (recharge rate).
Drainage coefficient (q)is the depth of water that is removed from the field within 24 hours. It is a
function of the rainfall/irrigation, soil type, crop type, etc. In rain-fed agriculture, it is assumed that
1% of the average rainfall to be removed per day whereas, In irrigated area,the recommendation is 1
to 2.5cm/day for mineral soils and 1.25 to 10cm/day for organic soils.
Usually, the experience of the British Ministry of Agriculture and Hudson are taken as guideline
for deciding the value of the drainage coefficient (Table 6)
Table 6: Drainage Coefficient for rainfed agriculture
Mean annual rainfall (mm) Drainage coefficient (mm/day)

British Ministry of Agriculture Hudson
2000 25 20
1950 25 19.5
1500 19 15
1000 13 10
875 10 10
< 875 7.5 10
There are also other options to estimate the drainage coefficient for rainfed agriculture. Some of
them are:
Hudson suggests:
 Mean Annual RF 
 if mean annual RF > 1000mm
Drainage coefficient (q ) =  1000 
10 mm if mean annual RF < 1000mm 
 day 

Divide the rainfall of the heaviest rainfall month by the days of the month. For example,
August is the month of heaviest rainfall at Ambo. If the total rainfall in that month is
230mm, then the drainage discharge (coefficient) can be taken to be
Drainage coefficient (q ) =
230mm
= 7.4 mm
31days day
This method is used as a last resort.

In irrigated agriculture, drainage coefficient is the function of deep percolation, leaching
requirement, seepage loss, conveyance loss and rainfall.
The soil of an irrigated field has field capacity and permanent wilting points of 28% and 17% by
weight respectively. The bulk density of the soil is 1.36 g/cm3; root zone depth is 1m; and peak
PET is 5mm/day. Irrigation application efficiency of the system is 60% whereas conveyance
efficiency is 80%. It was also found that about 50% of the water lost in the canal percolates in to
the ground. Salinity of the irrigation water is 0.80mmhos/cm while the allowable salinity level is
4mmhos/cm. Determine the drainage coefficient in the month of January if rainfall in January is
69mm and ET of the month is 100mm.
Solution
Readily Available Moisture (net irrigation depth):
RAM = 1
2
(FC − PWP )× sp.gr × Z = 1 2 (28 − 17 )× 1.36 × 1000 mm = 74 .8mm
RAM 74.8mm
Shortest irrigation interval to meet the peak ET = = = 15days
ETpeak 5 mm
day
With 60% irrigation efficiency the gross application depth per irrigation will be:
RAM 74.8mm
I gross = = = 124.7mm
ηa 0.6
Water Losses = gross irrigation depth – net irrigation depth = 124.7mm – 74.8mm = 49.9mm
In irrigation, it is generally assumed that 70% of water loss goes to deep percolation and the
remaining 30% remains in soil. Therefore,
Deep percolation = 0.7 x 49.9mm = 34.91mm
The amount of water diverted from the source to the farm is:

I gross 124.7mm
I delivered = = = 155.9mm
ηc 0.80
Water lost in the canal = Idelivered – Igross = 155.9mm – 124.7mm = 31.2mm
Seepage: in the problem, it is given that 50% of the water loss in the canal is seepage
(percolation in to the ground). Therefore,
Seepage = 50% of the water lost in the canal = 0.5 x 31.2mm = 15.6mm
Leaching requirement:
ECiw
LR = whereECiw and ECdw are electrical conductivity of irrigation water and drainage
ECdw
water respectively. In this problem the EC of the irrigation water is by far less than the critical
value and hence the leaching requirement is also less. For example, if the EC of the drainage
water is 4mmhos/cm, which is equal to the critical drainage water quality level, the LR would be:
mmhos
ECiw 0.80 cm = 0.20 implying that the amount of water required for leaching
LR = =
EC dw 4 mmhos
cm
purpose is = LR (ET – RF)
= 0.2 (100mm – 69mm) = 6.2mm in Jan.
As irrigation interval is 15 days (half a month), the depth of water required for leaching will be
half of the monthly depth required for leaching = 3.1mm.
Note: In surface irrigation systems, deep percolation is much higher than leaching requirement.
It is therefore assumed that excess water going down the soil as a result of deep percolation can
be used for leaching. In pressurized irrigation system, leaching requirement may be greater than
deep percolation and leaching water is needed.
Rainfall: of the month of January is 69mm. Rainfall during the irrigation interval (half a month)
is therefore 34.5mm.
Now the drainage coefficient is the sum of all these components (deep percolation, seepage,
leaching requirement and rainfall)
The total excess water = percolation + seepage + LR+ RF
= 34.9mm + 15.6mm + 3.1mm + 34.5mm = 88.1mm
This is the quantity that is required to be drained within 15days.

88.1mm
Drainage coefficient q = = 5.9 mm
15days day
4.2.3. Design of drainage channels

In surface drainage system, there are two kinds of drainage canal systems handling the drainage
water: One is a system to intercept, collect, and carry away water from sloping land adjacent to an
agricultural area. Most of the water in this system originates from surface runoff. Such system is
important when there is heavy rainfall and therefore runoff from the adjacent catchment with high
flow volume, velocity and sediment load. They are constructed on the head of the agricultural
fields. The second type of drainage canal system is system to collect and carry away water from a
relatively flat agricultural area. Here, the main source of water is precipitation on the area or
irrigation. Because of surface detention and groundwater storage, water is discharged over a
longer period than above. Furthermore, the flat gradient canals have little or no sediment transport
capacity.
The drainage channels are normally designed using the Manning formula and continuity equation
simultaneously. The required capacity of a drainage channel is based on the drainage coefficient,
which is obtained from the water balance computation.
Manning’s formula and continuity equation can be expressed as:
1 2 1
Q= AR 3 S 2 ………(Manning equation) Q = AV ………(Continuity equation)
n
Where Q = Discharge (m3/s)
n = manning’s coefficient
R = hydraulic radius (m)
S = canal gradient (longitudinal slope) (m)
A = wetted area of the channel
V = flow velocity
In this context Q is the drainage discharge for which the canal is designed.
Field drains and main drains can have rectangular, triangular, and usually trapezoidal cross-
section (Table 7).
Table 7: Geometric functions of different channel sections
Section Rectangular Trapezoidal Triangular

Area A = bd A = (b + zd )d A = zd 2
Wetted P = b + 2d P = b + 2d 1 + z 2 P = 2d 1 + z 2
perimeter
Hydrauli
R=
bd
R=
(b + zd )d zd
R=
c radius b + 2d b + 2d 1 + z 2
2 1+ z2
The cross-section of these channelsis designed to meet the required design discharge. The depth
and side slope of the channels are also important design parameters (Table 8).
Table 8: Recommended side slope of irrigation/drainage channels for different depth and crossection
Type of drain Depth (m) Recommended side slope Maximum side slope
(x:1) (x:1)
V-shaped 0.3 to 0.6 6:1 3:1
V-shaped >0.6 4:1 3:1
Trapezoidal 0.3 to 1.0 4:1 2:1
Trapezoidal >1.0 1.5:1 1:1

A trapezoidal drainage channel has 70cm depth and 80cm width with side slope of 2:1. If the flow
velocity in this channel is not to exceed 0.5 m/s to be safe against scouring what should be the
longitudinal slope of the channel if roughness coefficient is 0.04?
Solution:
1 2 1
Q= AR 3 S 2 Q = AV
n
Equating the Manning and continuity equations we have expression for flow velocity
(b + zd )d (0.8 + 2 × 0.7 )× 0.7

2 1
R 3S 2
1.54
V= where R = = = = 0.39m
n b + 2d 1 + z 2
0.8 + 2 × 0.7 1 + 2 2 3.93
Now rearranging for longitudinal slope S we get
2 2
 nV   0.04 × 0.5 
S =  2  =   = 0.0014 = 0.14%
2 
R 3  (0.39 ) 
Therefore, the channel should be laid such that the slope is 14cm fall for every 100m horizontal
length to handle the drainage water under the given hydraulic and geometric condition.
Design a trapezoidal channel to pass a drainage water at 1.60m3/s if the channel is to be dug using
a machinery having a working width of b = 0.4m. The soil of the area allows side slope z of up to
1:1, Manning coefficient n is 0.03 and bed slope S is 0.5%.
Solution:
2 1
AR 3 S 2
Qn 2
Q= = 1
= AR 3
n S 2
2 Qn
AR 3 is the hydraulic section of the channel which is to be specified, whereas 1
can be
2
S
calculated using the given data.

3
Qn 1.60 m × 0.03
= s = 0.6788
1 1
2
S 0. 5 2
2
Now, AR 3
= 0.6788 .
For a trapezoidal channel, A = (b + zd )d P = b + 2d 1 + z 2 R =

A
=
(b + zd )d
P b + 2d 1 + z 2
2
3
Let’s now calculate A, P, R and then AR until we get a value that nears 0.6788 by assuming
values for d.
Assumed of A = (b + zd )d P = b + 2d 1 + z 2 A
R= =
(b + zd )d AR
2
3 Remark
d value (m) P b + 2d 1 + z
0.4 0.56 1.53 0.37 0.2864 Increase d

1.0 1.40 3.23 0.43 0.8020 Decrease d
0.9 1.17 2.95 0.40 0.6352 Increase d
0.95 1.28 3.09 0.42 0.7141 Decrease d
0.93 1.24 3.03 0.41 0.6820 Acceptable
0.92 1.21 3.00 0.40 0.6602 Increase d
Therefore, the depth of the channel is 0.93m.

With this hydraulic and geometric section the flow velocity will be
m3
Q 1.60 s
V= = = 1.29 m
A 1.24m 2 s
When designing drainage or irrigation canal the designed velocity should be compared to the
critical velocity (the value for which the flow causes scouring).
4.3.Design of subsurface drainage system

Subsurface drainage system takes care of waterlogging and salt accumulation in the root zone of
the soil. The water that infiltrates from surface (rainfall and irrigation) and ground water rise
cause rise in watertable up to the root zone affecting the crop growth. To design the drainage
system by which the drainage water is safely collected and disposed, recharge condition has to be

known. In real case, ground water recharge follows unsteady state fashion. This is associated with
soil hydraulic conductivity; that varies due to soil heterogeneity.
Watertable is assumed to have curved feature with the maximum elevation being midway of the
curvature between the two consecutive drains (Figure 17). The curve is symmetrical about the
axis at the elevation point.
4.3.1. Steady state drainage equations
In section 4.1.3 of this syllabus, we have defined the steady state flow as the type of flow in
which the rate of recharge and discharge is in balance. In drainage engineering, we can
analytically express such flow as:
∆h
q d = Rd = −µ
∆t
Where qd is drain discharge (mm/d), Rd is net recharge (mm/d), µ is drainable porosity, ∆h (m) is
change in watertable depth in time interval ∆t (day).
Donnan Equation
Donnan equation considers parallel drains in an isotropic and homogenous unconfined aquifer
with the drain depth equal to the depth of the impervious layer of the aquifer (fully penetrating). If
q is vertical recharge per unit area, K is hydraulic conductivity of the soil and, if flow toward the
drains is horizontal and unidirectional, then the flow in to the drain per unit length qxcan be
determined.
Figure 18: Subsurface drainage system (fully penetrating)

Let’s consider point P (x,y) on the watertable curve as shown in Figure 17 above. The horizontal
discharge per unit length passing through the point is given as:
(
qx = q L − x
2
)………………………………………………………7
From Darcy’s law again,
qx = KiA where i = dy and A = y × 1 , then,

dx
 dy 
q x = K   × y ×1 ………………………………………………...8
 dx 
Equating equation 7 and 8 we get,
( )
 dy 
q L − x = K   × y ×1 ……………..…………………………9
2  dx 
Rearranging the equation 9 and integrating,
x= L
( ) ( )
2 y=D+h
q L
2
− x dx = Kydy ⇒ ∫q L
x =0
2
− x dx = K ∫ ydy
y=D
Now, for x = 0, y = D and x = L , y = D+h where D is the thickness of the aquifer below the
2
waterlevel in the drain, h is the elevation of the watertable at the midway on the water table curve, L is
drain spacing then,
L D+h
 Lx x 2  2  y2 

⇒ q − 
 = K  
 2 2 0  2 D
 L2 L2   ( D + h )2 D 2 
⇒ q −  = K  − 
 2 
 4 8   2
 L2   D 2 + 2 Dh + h 2 D 2 
⇒ q  = K  − 
 8   2 2 
qL2 Kh 2
⇒ = KDh +
8 2

4 Kh 2 + 8KDh
⇒ L2 = ……………………..10 (Donnan equation)
q
If equation 10 is simply written for recharge q, we get:
8KDh 4 Kh 2
q= + 2 ……………………………….………………11
L2 L
8 KDh
In expression 11, the first term, ( q1 = )represents horizontal flow contribution from the
L2
4 Kh 2
aquifer section below the water level in the drain whereas the second term ( q 2 = ) stands
L2
for the horizontal flow in the section above the water level in the drain. The relative contribution
q1 8KDh 2 D
of the section below and above the water level is then given as: = = .
q2 4Kh2 h
Hooghoudt Equation
Donnan Equation (eq.10) gives solution to the drain spacing based on the soil hydraulic
conductivity K, aquifer thickness D, watertable elevation (head drop) h and recharge per unit area
q assuming that the drain is fully penetrating and flow is totally horizontal. In practical world
however, the depth of the impervious layer may be too deep to bury pipes or construct ditches to
that depth. For deep impervious layer where it is difficult to install drains at the impervious layer,
non-fully penetrating drains are constructed/ installed (Figure 18).If the drain does not coincide
with the imperious layer, flow to the drains would consist vertical, horizontal and radial
components and in such case equation 4* no longer represent the drain spacing.
Hooghoudt therefore modified the Donnan equation by substituting the D value with equivalent
depth d. The hooghoudt drainage equation for drains not reaching the impervious layers is written
8Kdh 4Kh2
as: q = + 2 ………………….……………12 (Hooghoudt equation for isotropic soil)
L2 L
Equation 12 assumes as if the soil is homogenous and isotropic. However, if the soil has two
layers and the drain water level coincides with the boundary between the layers, the following
equation can be used where Kb and Ka are hydraulic conductivity of the layers below and above
the drain water level respectively.

8K b dh 4 K a h 2
q= + ………………13(Hooghoudt equation for two layered soil)
L2 L2
Hooghoudt equation is complicated to solve for design purpose. Therefore, trial and error method
is used for optimizing the drain spacing. For this the value of the equivalent depth d is tabulated
for the pipe diameter ro = 0.1m, D (m) and L (m) (Table 9). For pipe drains with half full flow and
open drains the equivalent radius r is determined as r = u where u is wetted perimeter.

π
For other pipe radius or the equivalent depth d can also be calculated.
L
d= 8 ………………………………………………...14
( )
1  D 
2
L − D 2 + ln
π  ro 2 

Figure 19: Non fully penetrating subsurface drains

Table 8: Hooghoudt table of equivalent depth for ro = 0.1m, D (m) and L (m)

For the drainage design of an irrigated area, drain pipes with a diameter 0.20 m are used. They
are placed at a depth of 2.0 m below the soil surface. A relatively impermeable soil layer was
found at a depth of 4.5 m below the surface. From auger hole tests, the hydraulic conductivity
above the impervious layer was estimated to be 0.6 m/day. The average irrigation losses, which
recharge the groundwater, are 30 mm per 15 days. Estimate the drain spacing, if the depth of the
water table is 1.5 m.
Solution
To estimate the spacing L between the drains Hooghoudt formula is used. All the parameter
values are shown on the figure below
8Kdh 4 Kh 2
q= 2 + 2
L L
Rearranging the equation for L and substituting the values and simplifying we get the following
equation with two unknowns L and d.
8 × 0.6 × 0.5 × d 4 × 0.6 × 0.5 2
L2 = +
0.002 0.002
L = 1200d + 300...........................................1
2
Now we have to iterate to find the appropriate value of L

Trial #1: Let L = 75m. (Obtained by interpolation for D = 2.5m). As we cannot get the value of
the equivalent depth d directly from the table for D = 2.5m, we do interpolation.
d = 1.80 + 5
10
(2.49 − 1.80) = 2.14 ………………( 510 shows proportion of the location of D between 2

and 3.)
L2 = 1200 × 2.14 + 300 ⇒ L = 53.6m (much less than the assumed value; 75m), so smaller L has
to be tried
Trial #2: let L = 50m then d = 2.005m, then, L2 = 1200 × 2.005 + 300 ⇒ L = 52.0m. This value
is slightly greater than the assumed value 50m. But the value lies between 50 and 52.19m.
Trial #3: let L = 51m, then d = 2.005 + 1

24
(2.14 − 2.005) = 2.01 (1/24 shows the proportion of the
location of 51 between 50 and 75. i.e.,51 is found on the first point of the 24 divisions between 50 and 75.
L2 = 1200 × 2.04 +300 ⇒ L = 52.4m; which is nearer to the assumed value than before.
Therefore, the drain spacing is 51m
Care has to be taken about the recharge q, by calculating the value for the designed spacing L
and comparing the given q with the calculated q.
In this case,
8 × 0.6 m × 2.05m × 0.5m 4 × 0.6 m × (0.5m )

2
8 Kdh 4 Kh 2 day day
q= 2 + 2 = + = 0.00212 m
L L (51m)2 (51m)2 day
The spacing therefore allows safe drainage for recharge of 0.00212m/day, which is greater than
or equal to the given recharge 0.002m/day. Therefore the designed spacing is safe.
4.3.2. Unsteady state drainage equation

In steady state condition, it was assumed that there is constant recharge from top and it has
attained equilibrium with the discharge received by the drain. In areas with periodic irrigation and
high intensity rainfall, such assumption no longer works, and flow is primarily unsteady.
Glover-Dumm equation
Glover-Dumm equation is one dimensional unsteady state flow in homogenous isotropic aquifer
under the Dupuit assumption that assumption that recharge is zero. The Glover-Dumm equation is
given as:
1 −1
 KDt  2
 1.16ho  2
L = π    ln  …………………………………………15
 µ   ht 
ht is hydraulic head (m) at time t and is given as:
ht = 1.16ho e −αt . Here, ho is hydraulic head at time t = 0, α is reaction factor (given as)

π 2 KD
α= ……………………..……………………………………16
µL2
KD is transmisivity of the aquifer (m2/day)
µ is drainable porosity (m/m)
Glover-Dumm equation also assumes fully penetrating drains. To apply this equation for drains,
which are not fully penetrating, the saturated thickness D can be replaced by the Hooghoudt
equivalent depth d.
1 −1
 Kdt  2
 1.16ho  2
L = π    ln 
 µ   ht 
In unsteady state drainage situation, the design criterion is the rate of water drawdown (ho/ht)
unlike in steady state criteria where elevation-discharge (q/h) is criteria. Combining both unsteady
and steady state drainage criteria gives us better criterion.
Under steady state condition, flow in saturated depth (below the drain level) is dominant
8 Kdh
q= ……………………………………………………17
L2
Combining equation 16 and 17 with the reaction factor (equation 10*) i.e.,
π 2 KD 8 KDh
L2 = and also, L2 =
µα q
h π2
⇒ = ……….…………………………………………18
q 8µα
Equation 18 enables to establish unsteady state criteria by doing experiment on plots; and then
establish steady state criteria, which can practically be applied.
A drainage system of 0.2m diameter pipes is installed for an agricultural field with aquifer
hydraulic conductivity of 1m/day and drainable porosity of 0.05m/m. The impervious layer is
found at about 7.7m below the drain level. On a certain day, the elevation of the watertable was
found to be 0.8m; but fell to 0.3m after 10 days. Determine the drain spacing of the system.
Given: ro = 0.1m, K = 1m/day, µ = 0.05m/m, D = 7.7m, ho = 0.8m, ht = 0.3m, t = 10 days

Solution:

1 −1 1 −1
 KDt   1.16ho   1 × 7.7 × 10  2  1.16 × 0.8 
2 2 2
L = π    ln  = π   ln  = 116m
 µ   ht   0.05   0.3 
Now, this is the drain spacing L that is determined by assuming a fully penetrating drain. We
have to try an equivalent depth to get the appropriate spacing.
1 −1 1 −1
 Kdt   1.16ho   1 × d × 10  2  1.16 × 0.8 
2 2 2
This time, L = π    ln  ⇒ L = π   ln  ⇒ L = 41.74 d
 µ   ht   0.05   0.3 
Let’s do the trial now.
Trial 1: L = 116m, D = 7.7m ⇒ d = 5.05m
L = 41.74 5.05 = 94m

Trial 2: L = 94m, D = 7.7m ⇒ d = 4.7m
L = 41.74 4.7 = 91m

Trial 2: L = 91m, D = 7.7m ⇒ d = 4.6m
L = 41.74 4.6 = 90m

The values obtained in trial #2 and #3 is almost same. Therefore, L = 90m
Approximate method of drain spacing determination

Figure 19 below shows a homogenous soil having hydraulic conductivity K, saturated thickness a,
and the depth from the highest point of on the watertable to the impervious layer b.
Figure 20: Drainage water flow in homogenous soil

Darcy’s law gives us that Q = KiA . If we consider discharge entering in to a unit length drain at point x
away from the drain we can quantify that discharge per unit length as:
dy
qx = K y ………………………..…………………………….19
dx
Assuming that q is inversely proportional to distance from the drain, theqx can be expressed as:
1 L  1  x 
q x = q −  − x q = q 1 −
2 2  2  L 
 2
⇒ qx =
q
(L − 2 x ) ………………………..………………………..20
2L
Equating eq. 19 and 20, rearranging and integrating we obtain,
∫ 2 L (L − 2 x )dx =K ∫ ydy
q
⇒
q
2 KL
( )
 y2 
Lx − x 2 =   + C ………………………………………….21
 2 
a2
When x = 0, y = a, and this implies C = − . Then, substitute this value for C and simplify
2
 y2 − a2 
⇒
q
2 KL
(
Lx − x = 
2
2
)  ……………………………………………….22
 
Again, when x = L/2, y = b, then eq. 22 simplifies to
L=
q
(
4K 2 2
)
b − a ………………….……………………………………….23
Therefore, equation 23 also gives estimate of drain spacing for homogenous isotropic soil.
In a drainage system, the drains are laid with their centers 1.5m below the ground level. The
impervious layer is 9.0m below the ground level and the average annual rainfall in the area is

80cm. If 1% of the annual rainfall is to be drained in 24hrs to keep the highest position of the
water table to 1meter below the ground level, determine the spacing of the drain pipes.
Coefficient of permeability may be taken as 0.001cm/sec.
Solution:
The drain spacing is given by eq. 23
L=
4k 2
q
(
b − a2 )
First, let’s determine discharge per unit length of the drains. The rate of rainfall is 0.8m/day and
1% of this amount is to be drained. Therefore discharge per unit length q will be:
0.01 × 0.8 × L × 1
q= = 9.26 × 10 −8 × L ………………………………………………………..*
24 × 60 × 60
On the other hand,
4 × 1 × 10 −5 3.1 × 10 −4
q=
L
(
4k 2
b − a2 = ) L
(
× 8 2 − 7.5 2 = ) L
………………………………….**
Solving equation * and ** simultaneously, we can get the value of L

3.1× 10−4 3.1× 10−4
9.26 × 10 −8 × L = ⇒ L2 = ⇒ L = 58m
L 9.26 × 10−8
4.3.3. Subsurface drains (pipe) diameter
Corrugated polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE), and polypropylene (PP) pipes are the
drainage materials most frequently used because of their flexibility, low weight, and suitability for

trenchless drainage machines, even if the drain depth reaches 2.5 m. Nevertheless, clay and
concrete pipes are still utilized, the latter mostly for collector drains. Pipes 80–100mm in outer
diameter are common for wide drain spacing 60- to 80-mm pipes frequently are used in systems
in the temperate regions and 50- to 60-mm pipes are required in tight drainage systems for
draining clay soils. The diameter of the lateral required to convey the subsurface drainage flow at
full capacity can be calculated with the following formulas for non-uniform flow.
Q = 89d 2.714s 0.572 …………………………….24 (for smooth (clay, concrete & plastic pipes)
Q = 38d 2.667s 0.5 ………………………………25 (for corrugated PVC pipes)
Q = 27d 2.667s 0.5 ………………………...…….26 (for polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene pipes (PP))
Where Qis the maximum drainage flow (m3/s) at the lateral outlet into the collector drain, which
is given as:
qA
Q =
86400
……………………………………………………………….……………………….27
qis maximum specific discharge (m/day) and A = L × B, and L is drain spacing, B is drain length
d is the internal pipe diameter (m), and s is the drain slope.
If the system is designed assuming that the flow is steady state, the specific discharge q is equal to
recharge (drainage coefficient) which is used as drainage criteria. Otherwise q has to be
calculated. For example if the drain is situated on the impervious layer,Boussinesq equation gives:
3.46 K 2
q= ho …………….………………………………………………………………………28
L2
The drain diameter d that is calculated using eq 24 – 26 above considers clean pipe to discharge at
full capacity. However, if siltation of the drain pipe is a hazard, a higher hydraulic section could
be required the diameter of which can be calculated with the following formula.
d ' = d e …………………………………………………...…………………………………….29

d ' is corrected diameter and e is efficiency coefficient and is usually taken to be 0.6.

In an agricultural field where smooth concrete pipe is installed right on the impervious layer with
spacing of 60m at slope of 0.8%, it desired to drain 0.25m depth of excess water from the root
zone within half a day.If the drain length is 40m, what should be the diameter of the drain?
Assume no siltation in the pipe.
Solution:
0.368
 Q 
Q = 89d 2.714
s 0.572
⇒d = 0.572 
 89s 
qA 0.5 × 65 × 30 3
But Q = = = 0.011 m
86400 86400 s
(0.011) 
0.368
 Q 
0.368

Then, d =  0.572 
=  0.572 
= 0.10m
 89s   89 × (0.008) 
Use standard pipe size and recheck the discharge Q whether it is safe to bypass the water or not.
4.4.Design of Tubewells Drainage System

4.4.1. Introduction
Tubewells drainage is a technique of controlling watertable level and salinity in agricultural

fields. It differs from subsurface drainage in that is uses pump to remove the excess water unlike
the subsurface drainage system that operated under gravitational effect. A series of pumps are
used in the field to remove the excess water which equals the drainable surplus.
The success of tubewells drainage depends on many factors, including the hydrogeological
conditions of the area, the physical properties of the aquifer to be pumped, and those of the
overlying fine-textured layers.Enough water has to be removed from the aquifer to produce the
required drop in hydraulic head, and, for vertical downward flow, the hydraulic conductivity of
the overlying layers must be such that the watertable in these layers responds sufficiently quickly
to the reduced head in the pumped aquifer.For unconfined aquifers, this meansthat both the
hydraulic conductivity and the thickness of the aquifer (whose product is the aquifer’s

transmissivity, KH) must be high enough to ensure an economic spacing and yield of the
wells.The economics of tubewells drainage becomes questionable for poorly transmissive aquifers
(i.e. aquifers whose transmissivity is less than approximately 600m2/d).
When wells are pumped, gradient increases hence, water flows radially towards the wells. The
effect covers only some radial distance from the well which is termed as radius of influence. Two
patterns of well arrangements (Fig. 21) are used in a well field. They are:
Triangular pattern, which is hydraulically the most favorable well-field configuration,

with a maximum area to be drained by one well and with no extra drawdown induced by
neighboring wells. The disadvantage of a triangular configuration is that more length of
collector drains is required to transport the water to the main collectors.
Rectangular pattern, in which the wells are placed along parallel collector drains. For this
well-field configuration, a minimum length of collector drains is required. The
disadvantage of a rectangular configuration is that interference from neighboring wells
will cause extra drawdown to occur in the wells, leading to somewhat higher pumping
costs.
Figure 21: Tubewells pattern in well fields

4.4.2. Well hydraulics (unconfined aquifer with steady state flow)in Triangular pattern
The aquifer that results in root zone waterlogging due to rise in water table is unconfined aquifer.
In such condition there is relationship between discharge (well pumping) and recharge (flow of
water in to the well from the strata within the radius of influence). In an unconfined aquifer, the
steady-state flow Q through an arbitrary cylinder at a distance r (Fig. 22) from the well is given by
given as:
( )
Qr = π re2 − r 2 R …………….…………………………………………………………………30
Where R = recharge from the aquifer per unit area (m/day)

re= radius of influence (m)

Figure 22: Well in unconfined aquifer
On the other hand, Darcy’s equation relates flow through a cross sectional area at r distance from
the well with some velocity under the prevailing soil hydraulic property and gradient.
δh
Q r = 2 π rhK …………….………………………………………………………………31
δr
δh
K is hydraulic conductivity (m/day) and is hydraulic gradient in the aquifer at distance r
δr
In steady state condition discharge Q is equal to the vertical recharge in the aquifer within the
radius of influence reand therefore the following relation also holds true.

Q = π r e2 R ………………………………...………………………….………………………..32
Combining eq. 30 and 32, the following relationship is established
Q r = Q − π r 2 R ……………...……………..……………………….………………………..33
Again combining eq. 31 and 32 and then rearranging,
 Q 
2 π Kh δ h =  − 2 π rR  δ r ……………...………………….………………………..34
 r 
Integrating eq. 34 and evaluating betweenr = rw, h = hw and r = re, h = H
 r
Q ln  e

 −
1
(
π R r e 2 − r w2 )= π K (H 2
)
− h w2 ……………………………………35
 rw  2
The flow quantity 1 πRrw2 is less as compared to 1 πRre2 and therefore can be neglected. On the
2 2
other hand, if drawdown is less in the well compared to the original hydraulic head, the right hand
side of eq. 35 can be simplified
π K (H 2
− h w2 ) = π K (H + h w )(H − h w ) , if drawn small, H + hw = 2H
π K (H 2
)
− h w2 = 2 H π K (H − h w ) = 2 H π K ∆ h r
Where H = aquifer thickness (m) and ∆hr is drawdown due to radial flow to pumped the well. H
also nearly corresponds to the depth of the saturated zone at distance which radius of influence re.
r  1  r 1
The left hand side of eq. 35 will be, Q ln e  − πRre2 = Q ln e − 
 rw  2  rw 2 
Now expression 35 is simplified and solved for the drawdown ∆hr
Q  r 1 1
∆hr =  2.303 log e −  But if 10% error is tolerated and re > 100, then can be
2πHK  rw 2  rw 2
.
ignored. Then the drawdown will be,

2.303Q r
∆hr = log e ……………………………………………………………………………..36
2πHK rw
4.4.3. Design Considerations

Design discharge
Tubewells design discharge depends on autonomous factors and design factors.
Autonomous factors are:
The design should be based on the most economic pump capacity. If larger pumps are
installed, fewer pumps will be required, which generally results in lower investment costs.
On the other hand, larger capacity pumps result in higher drawdowns and thus higher
energy costs.
Pump and engine selection is based on its availability on market and spare parts
If the water is also used for irrigation, pump capacities are often limited by the
requirements of the farmers
Design factors are:
Annual drainable surplus determines the discharge rate of the wells
The horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivity and aquifer thickness determines
drawdown at a given discharge rate
Well screen and casing affects the entrance velocity and hence the discharge rate.
Number of wells
The operating factor and the discharge rate determine how much water will be pumped by one
tubewells. In combination with the drainable surplus, they determine the drainage area per
tubewells and thus also the number of tubewells required for the total drainage area. This can be
expressed by equation 37 below.
0 . 1Qt
Aw = w
………………………………………………………………………………….37
q
Where: Aw = drainage area per well (ha)
Q = discharge rate of the well (m3/day)
tw = tubewell operating factor (number of actual operating hours of a well per 24 hours)
q = drainable surplus (mm/day)
The total number of wells N required can be found by dividing the total drainage area A by the
drainage area per tubewell Aw.

A
N= …………………………………………………………………………………………..38
Aw
Well spacing (Configuration)
For triangular well-field configuration, the distance L between the wells for a selected discharge
rate can be calculated by:
3 Aw
L= ……………………………………………………….……………………………….39
π
Pump Capacity
For successful and efficient tubewell drainage system operation, the pump capacity should be
sufficient. The power requirement at pump shaft is given by equation 40.
ρ gQH
Ps = …………………………………………………………………………………40
η
Where: Ps = power to be delivered to the shaft of the pump (W)
Q = pump discharge (m3/s)
H = head to be delivered by the pump
g = gravitational acceleration (m2/s)
ρ = density of water (kg/m3)
η = pump efficiency
In an irrigated area, it has been estimated that the average deep percolation losses resulting from
excess irrigation water amount to 2 mm per day. The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is K =
25 m/day; the thickness of the water-bearing layer is H = 25 m. The radius of each well is rw =
0.1m. Suppose the wells are to be placed in a triangular pattern, 1000 m apart. Whatwill be the
required pumping rate of each well and what will be the drawdown in each well?
Solution:
The pumping rate Q is given by:
Q = π r e2 R
But, for triangular well pattern,
L = re 3 ⇒ re = L = 1000m = 577.4m ≈ 578m

3 3

Then,
Q = π re2 R = π × (578 m )2 × 0 . 002

3
m = 2098 m
day day
The drawdown due to pumping under this condition will be
2.303Q r 2.303 × 2098 578
∆hr = log e = log = 4.63m
2πHK rw 2π × 25 × 25 0.1
Illustrative Example #12:An irrigated area of 2500 ha is to be drained by tubewells. The
drainable surplus is thus 1.5 mm/day. The maximum running hours of the pump per day are taken
to be 15 hours. If the well is to be pumped at 200 m3/hr delivering the water through a head of 25
m at pump efficiency of 90%. Determine:
a. Area drained per pump
b. Number of pumps required
c. Well spacing
d. Pump power requirement

Solution:
a. Area drained per pump

0 . 1Qt 0 . 1 × 200 × 24 × 15
Aw = w
= 24 = 200 ha
q 1 .5
b. Number of pumps required to drain the entire area

A 2500
N= = = 13
Aw 200
c. Well spacing L
3 Aw 3 × 200 × 10 4
L= = = 1382m
π 3.14
d. Pump capacity P

Ps =
ρ gQH
=
(
1000 × 9 . 81 × 200
3600
)× 25 = 15 ,139 W ≈ 15 kW
η 0 .9
5. DRAINAGE FOR SALINITY ALKALINITY CONTROL

5.1.Salinity and Alkalinity in soil
The major cations and anions making up salinity and alkalinity (sodicity) are sodium, calcium,
magnesium, potassium, bicarbonate, sulphate, chloride and nitrate. These are found in the form of
slightly soluble salts like lime and gypsum. They may also be highly soluble types such as sodium
chloride and sodium sulphate. These salts are either available naturally in the soil as parent
material due to the geologic nature of the area causing soil salinity (primary salinization), or
transported from other place in dust form or solution form (eg. surface runoff and irrigation
water). Salts and alkali from such transport are accumulated in the soil (secondary salinization)
gradually causing reduction in land productivity. The conventional salinity level of a soil has been
given in Table 9 below.
Table 9: Soil salinity level
Salt concentration of the soil water (saturation extract) Salinity level

TDC (g/l) EC (mmhos/m)
0–3 0 – 4.5 Non saline
3–6 4.5 – 9 Slightly saline
6 – 12 9 – 18 Medium saline
>12 >18 Highly saline
Salinity is usually expressed in terms of Electrical Conductivity (EC) in decisiemens per meter
(dS/m), or Total Dissolved Solid in mg/l. The total dissolved solids (TDS) can be assessed by
measuring the electrical conductivity (EC). The EC-value and TDS are linearly related and given
by:
TDS = 640EC …………………………………………………..30
The electrical conductivity of the soil extract is usually determined in a soil paste saturated with
water up to the liquid limit. This conductivity (ECe) is comparatively easy to measure. For most
soils the EC of the soil solution at field capacity (ECs), sometime after a rain or irrigation, is about
twice the ECe value.

The chemical composition of a soil largely depends on the quality of the irrigation water, the
amount of rainfall and chemical composition of the groundwater. The latter may be recharged by
irrigation water, rainfall or seepage, causing the water table to rise far enough to influence the
soil.
Deep percolation displaces salts accumulated in the soil profile from natural chemical weathering,
blown in by salt dust, as well as concentrated salts derived from the applied irrigation water.
Thus, the salt content of the collected subsurface drainage water mainly reflects the salinity
characteristics of the soil solution, which in turn is influenced by soil parent material, salinity of
the shallow groundwater and salts brought into the soil with irrigation water. In many places, the
drainage water composition is further influenced by the mineral composition of deep
groundwater, which is intercepted by the drains.
5.2.Agronomic impacts of salinity
a. Osmotic effect
The total concentration of salts in drainage effluent is of major concern for irrigated agriculture.
Salinity in the root zone increases the osmotic pressure in the soil solution. This causes plants to
exert more energy to take up soil water to meet their evapotranspiration requirement. At a certain
salt concentration, plant roots will not be able to generate enough forces to extract water from the
soil profile. Water stress will occur, resulting in yield reduction. The extent to which the plants
are able to withstand such stress to obtain soil moisture differs between crop species and varieties.
b. Toxicity effect
Plant growth can be directly affected by high levels of toxic ions such as sodium and chloride.
Excess sodium accumulation in leaves can cause leaf burn, necrotic (dead) patches and even
defoliation. Plants affected by chloride toxicity exhibit similar foliar symptoms, such as leaf
bronzing and necrotic spots in some species. Defoliation can occur in some woody crops.
c. Ionic imbalance
An excess of some salts can cause an imbalance in the ideal ratio of salts in solution and reduce
the ability of plants to take up nutrients. For example, relatively high levels of calcium can inhibit
the uptake of iron (‘lime induced chlorosis’), and high sodium can exclude potassium. In the
solid phase, soils have a net negative surface charge. The magnitude of the cation exchange
capacity (CEC) depends on the amount and type of clay and the organic matter content. Cations
such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and hydrogen are adsorbed on the exchanger

sites. Normally, a large fraction of the adsorbed cations is divalent calcium and magnesium.
Divalent cations adsorbed to clay minerals provide structure and stability. In case monovalent
cations dominate the exchangeable cations (sodium in particular), the soil structure loses its
stability and structural degradation occurs easily. As cations are mutually replaceable, the
composition of the exchangeable cations is related to the proportion of cations present in the soil
solution.
5.3.Irrigation water quality and crop tolerance
Irrigation water is not totally pure; it has salt. The salt content however is limited to a maximum
allowable value that the crop can resist. After irrigation, the water which is added to the soil is
used by the crop or evaporates directly from the moist soil. The salt, however, is left behind in the
soil. If not removed, it accumulates in the soil; this process is called salinization (see Figure 20).
Very salty soils are sometimes recognizable by a white layer of dry salt on the soil surface.
Figure 23: Salinization by irrigation water

Even when irrigation water is pure enough, excess irrigation water application may cause ground
water rise. In such case, if the aquifer has high salt content, then the salt rises up to the root zone
causing soil salinity (Figure 21).
Figure 24: Salinization caused by ground water
Different crops have different response to salinity of the soil. Crops like barley, cotton, sugarbeet,
spinach and asparagus are highly tolerant to salinity whereas maize, wheat, rice, tomato, potato,
onion and grape are moderately tolerant. Peas, beans, orange, sugarcane and apple are very
sensitive to salinity. When generalized, irrigation water quality that is tolerated by crops is
salinity level with salt concentration less than 0.5 g/l (Table 10).

Table 10: Salt concentration and its risk on crops
Salt concentration of Soil salinization risk Restriction on use

the irrigation water in
g/l
Less than 0.5 g/l no risk no restriction on its use
0.5 - 2 g/l slight to moderate risk should be used with appropriate water
management practices
more than 2 g/l high risk not generally advised for use unless
consulted with specialists
This salt accumulation in the root zone has to be strictly controlled by leaching the soil with
sufficient amount of irrigation water, and drain it out.
5.4.Leaching requirement
For soils in arid regions when there is a presence of salt in the irrigation water, leaching is
required to maintain a favorable salt balance in the root zone. This requires that an equal or
greater amount of salt to be leached from the soil by the drainage water than is introduced in to
the soil by irrigation water. It further requires that the drainage system design consider the
removal of the leaching water from the substrata. In most cases, the deep percolation inherent
with standard irrigation practices will maintain a favorable salt balance and an acceptable
concentration in the soil-water solution in the root zone.
Leaching requirement is defined as the percentage of the irrigation water and precipitation that
must pass through the root zone to control salt a specified level.
For planning purpose leaching requirement is given as:

ECiw D
LR = ×100 = dw ×100
ECdw Diw
………………………………………………………………………31
LR = Leaching requirement in %
ECwi = electrical conductivity of irrigation water and effective rainfall (mmhos/cm)
ECdw= electrical conductivity of the drainage water (mmhos/cm)
Diw = depth of irrigation water including effective rainfall (m)

Ddw = depth of drainage water (m)
The value for ECdw is determined from the relative salt tolerance of the least salt-tolerant crop to
be grown in the area.
Illustrative Example 13:
The E.C. of irrigation water is 1.3 mmhos/cm. Assume a consumptive use of 3.5 in/day, a crop
tolerance of 6 mmhos /cm. How much percent of the irrigation water should be leached?
Solution:
ECiw 1.3
LR = × 100 = × 100 = 21.6%
EC dw 6
Further Readings
1. U.S. Department of the Interior Bureau of Reclamation. (1993). Drainage Manual: a
water resource technical publication. USA
2. FAO. (1999). Soil Salinitty Assessment: Methods and interpretation of electrical
conductivity measurements. FAO irrigation and drainage paper 57. Rome.
3. R.J. Oosterbaan. (1994). Drainage Criteria. Chapter 17 in: H.P.Ritzema (Ed.), Drainage
Principles and Applications. International Institute for Land Reclamation and
Improvement ( ILRI), Publication 16, second revised edition, 1994, Wageningen, The
Netherlands. ISBN 90 70754 3 39
4. Bhattacharya, A.K. and A.M. Michael. (2003). Land Drainage: Principles Methods and
Applications
5. FAO. (2002)Agricultural drainage water management in arid and semi-arid areas. FAO
irrigation and drainage paper 61. Rome

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AMBO UNIVERSITY

Department of Agricultural Engineering (AGEN)

Drainage Engineering Course

Course Number AGEN 5214

Course Title Drainage Engineering

Degree Program B.Sc. in Agricultural Engineering

Module Drainage Engineering

The credits in ECTS 4 CP

Pre-requisites Soil Phhsics and Mechanics and Irrigation Engineering

Semester Year 5, Semester I

Status of Course Compulsory

Teaching & Learning Methods Lectures, tutorials

Assessment/Evaluation & Mid-semester exam-30%, Final exam-50%, Assignments-20%

Attendance Requirements A student must attend at least 80 % of the classes

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

References 1. Land and Drainage Principles Methods and Applications. Bhatta

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Figure 1: Agronomic water balance

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Figure 4: Infiltration pattern in the soil

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Now, if we assume recall a porous soil mass

Figure 5: Soil components and pore space

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Figure 6: Ground water natural recharge and location of watertable

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Figure 10: surface drainage system to control ponding

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Figure 13: Parallel field layout for surface drainage system

Subsurface drainage system layout

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Figure 14: Subsurface drainage layout A) Random B) Parallel C) Herringbone

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

3.2.Field drainage system

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Bedding is suitable in grassland. In modern agriculture however, bedding is not accepted as

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

3.2.3. Combined drainage system

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Type of Drainage catchment Area Runoff Coefficient

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Figure 17:: Intensity-Duration-

Department of Agricultural Engineering Drainage Engineering for 5th Year

Then, Tc = 0.0195× (1826.5) = 6.3 min