ELABORATIVE AND MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL

• Elaborative rehearsal – the individual somehow elaborates on the items to

3 stages of Memory Processing be remembered
• Encode - Pinapalawak mo yung isang memory
- Iniintindi, deeper definition
• Storage – how we store information
• Retrieval – how we gain access to those that are store in the memory
• Maintenance rehearsal – the individual simple repeats the items to be
remembered
FORMS OF ENCODING
- by the book
• Short-term Storage – encoding appears to be primarily acoustic
- memorization
• Long-term Storage – encoding appears to be semantically
- Left parahippocampal place area
- Visual and acoustic information can also be encoded THE SPACING EFFECT
- Mas used sa pag recall and store of information
Hermann Ebbinghaus – noticed the distribution of study (memory rehearsal) sessions
TRANSFER OF INFORMATION FROM SHORT-TERM MEMORY TO LONG-TERM over time affects the consolidation of information in long-term memory
MEMORY ▪ Distributed practice – various sessions are spaced over time
• Interference – when competing information interferes with our storing - e.g. very lesson inaaral mo
information
• Decay – when we forget facts just because time passes ▪ Massed practice – sessions are crammed together in a very short space of
time
Declarative memory – facts and knowledge - e.g. cramming/procrastination
Nondeclarative memory – procedural memories (e.g. skills) - also called as mass learning or distributed learning
➢ Consolidation - isahang beses of learning lang
- making connections or associations between the new
information and what we already know and understand ▪ Spacing effect – to maximize the effects on long-term recall, the spacing
- process of integrating new information into stored information should ideally be distributed over month
- para hindi makalimutan yung isang bagay/information
REM Sleep
• Metamemory strategies – involve reflecting on our own memory processes ▪ Sleep stage characterized by dreaming and increased brainwave activity
to improve our memory ▪ Aids us in the formation of memory
▪ Plays an important role in synaptic consolidation – memories are
• Metacognition – ability to think about and control our own processes of strengthened that previously were organized in slow-wave sleep
thought and ways of enhancing our thinking ▪ Play a role in weakening memories of low value

• Rehearsal – technique people use for keeping information active

- The repeated recitation of an item
Hippocampus
▪ Acts as a rapid learning system
 ▪ Temporarily maintains new experiences until can be appropriately
assimilated -> more gradual neocortical representation system of the brain
▪ Dentate gyrus – important brain region for memory formation, and new cells
are generated there continuously
Reconsolidation – completed on previously encoded information
MNEMONIC DEVICES
Specific techniques to help you organize and memorize information
• Categorical clustering – organize a list of items into a set of categories
• Interactive images – links the isolated words in a list
• Acronym – devise a word or expression in which each of its letters stands for
a certain word or concept
• Acrostic – form a sentence rather than a single word to help you remember
new words
• Pegword system – associate each new word with a word on a previously
memorized list and form an interactive image between two words
• Method of loci – link the various landmarks to specific items to be
remembered
• Keyword system – form an interactive image that links the sound and
meaning of a foreign word with the sound and meaning of a familiar word
Free Recall
- imagery of isolated items
- random; in any order in recalling information
Serial Recall
- verbal rehearsal
- should be organized; not random
- e.g. memorization of phone number (09123..)
- mas need
• Reminders – external memory aids
e.g. to-do lists, alarms, reminders, calendar
• Forcing Function – physical constraints that prevents us from acting without
at least considering the key information to be remembered
e.g. bagay na sure kang hindi mo makakalimutan; may dadalahin ka, ilalagay
mo somewhere na di mo sya makakalimutan dalahin
Retrospective Memory – memory for the past
Prospective Memory – memory for things we need to do or remember in
the future
Specific sensory properties of a given experience appear to be organized across
various areas of the cerebral cortex
▪ Hippocampus – appear to be important for explicit memory of
experiences and other declarative information
▪ Basal Ganglia – procedural knowledge
▪ Cerebellum – key role in memory for classically conditioned
responses and contributes to many cognitive tasks in general
▪ Amygdala – emotional events memory consolidation
Gender Difference – women recall emotionally charged pictures better than men
The more emotionally charged the emotional memory > the greater probability the
memory will be later retrieved
▪ Long-term potentiation – repeated stimulation of particular neural
pathways tends to strengthen the likelihood of firing
▪ Brain oscillations – formation of memories
Neurotransmitters that enhance neural transmission:
▪ Serotonin
▪ Acetylcholine
▪ Norepinephrine
Korsakoff Syndrome – a memory disorder that results from Vitamin B1 deficiency and
is associated with alcoholism
Item-Recognition Task (Saul Sternberg, 1966)
RETRIEVAL FROM SHORT-TERM MEMORY
• Parallel processing – simultaneous handling of multiple operations
• Serial processing – simultaneous operations being done one after another
 ▪ Exhaustive serial processing – participant will check the test digit • Schemas – mental frameworks that represent knowledge in a meaningful
against all the digits in the positive set even though a match was way
found partway through the list
- Response time is always the same

▪ Self-terminating serial processing – participant will check the test

digit against only against those digits needed to make a response • Serial position curve – represents the probability of recall of a given word
- Response time increases as the test digit is located later in the • Primacy effect – superior recall of words at and near the beginning of a list
positive set • Recency effect – superior recall of words at and near the end of a list

RETRIEVAL FROM LONG-TERM MEMORY

• Free recall
• Constructive memory – memories may not fully recall real happenings or
• Cued recall events since they can be altered by new information
• Spatial position – activation of parietal and precentral cortex
• Facial association – activation of left prefrontal temporal cortex and • Autobiographical memory – the significant personal events and experiences
posterior cingulated cortex from an individual’s life. It is a constructive nature of memory
- it is an essential form of long-term memory
- includes various episodes and experiences that make up a human life
• Interference theory – occurs when competing information causes us to - may be in terms of: semantic memory and episodic memory
forget something
(e.g. Brown-Peterson Task) • Flashbulb memory – a vivid, enduring memory associated with a personally
significant and emotional event, often includes details as where the
▪ Retroactive interference individual was or what he or she was doing at the time of the event
- newly acquired knowledge impedes the recall of older material
- caused by activity occurring after we learn something but before • Memory distortions – happen when our brain creates false memories
we are asked to recall that thing (stored in the brain, and their validity is not considered)

▪ Proactive interference SEVEN SINS OF MEMORY (distortions)

- occurs when material that was learned in the past impedes the According to Schacter (2001)
learning of the new material • Transience
- occurs before learning of the to-be-remembered material • Absent-mindedness
• Blocking
• Decay theory – occurs when the passage of time causes us to forget • Misattribution
- we forget information because of the gradual disappearance • Suggestibility
rather than displacement of the memory trace • Bias
(e.g. Recent-Probes Task) • Persistence

EFFECTS OF PRIOR KNOWLEDGE ON MEMORY

• Prior knowledge – affects memory, sometimes leading to interference or
distortion

• Eyewitness testimony
- a legal term refers to an account given by people of an event they have
witnessed
- what happens when a person witnesses a crime (accident, or other legally
important event)
- later gets up on the stand and recalls for the court, all the details of the
witnessed event
• Repressed memories – memories that are alleged to have been pushed
down into unconsciousness because of the distress they cause
Knowledge Representation – form for what you know in your mind about things,
ideas, events, etc. in the outside world
2 KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES
• Declarative knowledge – facts that can be stated (birth date, mother’s
name, or the way a cat looks)
• Procedural knowledge – knowledge of procedures that can be implemented
2 MAIN SOURCES OF EMRIPICAL DATA
• Standard laboratory experiments – experimental work, researches
indirectly study knowledge representation because they cannot look into
people’s mind directly
• Neuropsychological studies – observe how the normal brain responds to
various cognitive tasks involving knowledge representation; observe links
between various deficits in knowledge representation and associated
pathologies in the brain
Knowledge can be represented in different ways in your mind: stored as a mental
picture, or in words, or abstract propositions
• External Representation – some ideas are better and more easily
represented in pictures, and other are words
• Symbolic Representation – the relationship between the word and what it
represents is simply arbitrary
PICTURE IN YOUR MIND: MENTAL IMAGERY
Imagery
- the mental representation of things that are not currently seen or sensed by the
sense organs
- can represent things that you have experienced
DUAL-CODE THEORY
Uses both pictorial and verbal codes for representing information
• Analog codes – resembles objects they are representing
• Symbolic codes – a form of knowledge representation that has been chosen
arbitrarily to 9 stands for something that does not perceptually resemble
what is being represented
• Propositional theory – suggests that we do not store mental representations
in the form of images or mere words
• Epiphenomena – secondary and derivative phenomena that occur as a
result of other more basic cog processes
USING PROPOSITIONS
Propositions – may be used to describe any kind of relationship (one thing on
another, attributes of a thing, positions of a thing, class membership of a thing, etc.)
LIMITATIONS OF MENTAL IMAGES
▪ An alternative and more plausible explanation are that a propositional may
override the imaginal code in some circumstances
▪ Suggested that visual images can be distorted through verbal information
LIMITATIONS OF PROPOSITIONAL THEORY
▪ Propositional codes may influence imaginal ones
▪ Participants may be unlikely to manipulate mental images spontaneously to
interpret ambiguous figures, such manipulations occur when participants
are given the right context
 ▪ Functional equivalent hypothesis – states that visual imagery is not identical
to visual perception, it is functionally equivalent to it
▪ Principles of visual imagery – suggested some principles of how visual
imagery may be functionally equivalent to visual perception
▪ Auditory hallucinations – are experiences of “hearing” that occur in the
absence of actual auditory stimuli. This hearing is the result of internally
generated material
▪ Mental rotations
- involves rationally transforming an object’s visual mental image
- Degraded stimuli – stimuli that are blurry, incomplete, less informative
than for intact stimuli
- Practice effects – improvements in performance associated with increased
practice
▪ Neuroscience and Mental rotation – one type of study involves the brain of
primates, animals whose cerebral processes seem most closely analogous to
our own
▪ Gender and Mental rotation – number of studies that have not found
gender differences have used characters (letters, numbers) for mental
rotation
IMAGE SCALING – zooming in on mental images; represent and use mental images
in ways that are functionally equivalent to our representations and uses of percepts
IMAGE SCANNING – examining objects; images can be scanned in much the same
way as physical percepts can be scanned
REPRESENTATIONAL NEGLECT – a person asked to imagine a scene and then describe
it ignores half of the imagined scene
▪ Adintons-Peterson (1983)
- Manipulated experimenter expectancies by suggesting to one
group of experimenters that task performance would be
expected to be better for perceptual tasks than for imaginal
ones
Johnson-Laird’s Mental Models
▪ An alternative synthesis of the literature suggests that mental
representations may take any of the 3 forms:
- Propositions
- Images
- Mental models
▪ Are knowledge structures that individuals construct to understand and
explain their experiences
• Visual Imagery – refers to the use of images that represent visual
characteristics such as colors and shapes
• Spatial Imagery – refers to images that represent spatial features such as
depth dimensions, distances, and orientations
Rats, Bees, Pigeons, and Humans
▪ According to Tolman, the rats were learning a cognitive map, an internal
representation of the maze
▪ Bees – not only can form imaginal maps for getting to food sources but also
can use a somewhat symbolic form for communicating that information to
other bees
▪ Homing Pigeons – noted for their excellent cognitive maps
▪ Landmark knowledge – information about particular features at a location
and which may be based on both imaginal and propositional
representations
 ▪ Route-road knowledge – involves specific pathways for moving from one
location to another. It may be based on both procedural knowledge and
▪ We may be able to create cognitive maps from a verbal description
declarative knowledge
▪ Tversky noted that her research involved having the readers envision
themselves in an imaginal setting as participants, not as observers in the
▪ Survey knowledge – involves estimated distances between landmarks
scene
much as they might appear on survey maps. It may be represented
imaginably or propositionally

HEURISTICS
▪ Rules of thumb for using our mental maps
▪ Suggests that propositional knowledge affects imaginal knowledge (when
use in manipulating cognitive maps)
▪ Semantic or Propositional knowledge (beliefs) – can influence our
imaginal representations of world maps

TYPES OF HEURISTICS

▪ Right-angle bias – people tend to think of intersections as forming 90-

degree angles more often than the intersections really do

▪ Symmetry heuristic – people tend to think of shapes as being more

symmetrical than they really are

▪ Rotation heuristic – when representing figures and boundaries that are

slightly slanted, people tend to distort the images as being either more
vertical or more horizontal than they really are

▪ Alignment heuristic – people tend to represent landmarks and boundaries

that are slightly out of alignment by distorting they mental images to be
better aligned than they really are

▪ Relative-position heuristic – the relative positions of particular landmarks

and boundaries is distorted in mental images in ways that more accurately
reflect people’s conceptual knowledge about the contexts in which the
landmarks and boundaries are located rather than reflecting the actual
spatial configurations