Chapter 3 Lecture 3 Small Signal Analysis of BJT and BJT As Aswitch

11/29/2020
Small signal
analysis of BJT
 For BJT to operate as an amplifier, EB junction is

forward biased by a dc voltage source 𝑽𝑩𝑬 and
CB junction is reverse biased by connecting
collector to 𝑽𝑪𝑪 through Collector resistance 𝑹𝑪
as shown in Fig 1. Fig 1:conceptual circuit of
 The input voltage signal ( small signal voltage ) BJT operating in active
𝒗𝒃𝒆 is superimposed with dc voltage source 𝑽𝑩𝑬 region
and output voltage is 𝒗𝑪𝑬 as shown in Fig 1.
 Assuming 𝑽𝑪 > 𝑽𝑩 by an amount allowing
sufficient signal swing at the collector through
biasing which makes transistor in active mode at
all times i.e. BJT does not go into saturation or
cutoff mode operation .
 From the circuit shown in Fig 2, DC collector
current is given by
𝑽𝑩𝑬
ൗ𝑽
𝑰𝑪 = 𝑰𝑺 𝒆 𝑻 Fig 2:the circuit of Fig 1 with
the signal source 𝒗𝒃𝒆
eliminated for DC analysis
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Since small signal voltage 𝒗𝒃𝒆 and dc supply voltage

𝑽𝑩𝑬 are superimposed, the total instantaneous base
to emitter voltage is given by
𝒗𝑩𝑬 = 𝑽𝑩𝑬 + 𝒗𝒃𝒆
Correspondingly, instantaneous collector current is

given by
𝒗𝑩𝑬
ൗ𝑽
𝒊𝑪 = 𝑰𝑺 𝒆 𝑻
(𝑽𝑩𝑬 +𝒗𝒃𝒆 )
ൗ𝑽
𝒊𝑪 = 𝑰𝑺 𝒆 𝑻
𝑽𝑩𝑬 𝒗𝒃𝒆
ൗ𝑽 ൗ𝑽
𝒊𝑪 = 𝑰𝑺 𝒆 𝑻𝒆 𝑻
𝒗𝒃𝒆
ൗ
𝒊𝑪 = 𝑰𝑪 𝒆 𝑽𝑻
 The series expansion of exponential function is given by

𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒
𝒆𝒙 = 𝟏 + 𝒙 + + + + ⋯……
𝟐! 𝟑! 𝟒!
 For small 𝒗𝒃𝒆 ,𝒗𝒃𝒆ൗ𝑽𝑻 ≪ 𝟏, so truncating series to first two terms and excluding other terms,
we get
𝒗𝒃𝒆
𝒊𝑪 = 𝑰𝑪 (𝟏 + )
𝑽𝑻
𝑰𝑪 𝒗𝒃𝒆
𝒊𝑪 = 𝑰𝑪 + = 𝑰𝑪 + 𝒊𝒄
𝑽𝑻
𝑰𝑪
Where small signal current(𝒊𝒄 ) = 𝒗𝒃𝒆
𝑽𝑻
This is valid for 𝒗𝒃𝒆 < 𝟏𝟎𝒎𝑽 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒙.
𝑰𝑪
 We have, small signal current(𝒊𝒄 ) = 𝒗
𝑽𝑻 𝒃𝒆
∴ 𝒊𝒄 = 𝒈𝒎 𝒗𝒃𝒆
𝑰𝑪
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒈𝒎 = 𝒔𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒊𝒈𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝑱𝑻 𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝑺𝒊𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔
𝑽𝑻
∴ 𝒈𝒎 ∝ 𝑰𝑪
 Hence, predictable dc collector current can obtain a constant predictable 𝒈𝒎.

 (note:- BJT have relatively high trans-conductance as compared to MOSFET. At 𝑰𝑪 =
𝟏𝒎𝑨 , 𝒈𝒎 = 𝟒𝟎𝒎𝑨/𝑽)
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 A small signal 𝒗𝒃𝒆 with the triangular

waveform is superimposed on dc voltage
𝑽𝑩𝑬 which gives triangular collector signal
current 𝒊𝒄 superimposed with dc current 𝑰𝑪 .
 𝒊𝒄 = 𝒈𝒎 𝒗𝒃𝒆 where 𝒈𝒎 is the slope of
tangential line drawn at Q-point in 𝒊𝑪 _𝒗𝒃𝒆
curve.
𝜹𝒊𝑪
From figure, 𝒈𝒎 = ቚ
𝜹𝒗𝑩𝑬 𝒂𝒕 𝒊 =𝑰
𝑪 𝑪
𝑽𝑩𝑬
ൗ𝑽
𝜹𝒊𝑪 𝑰𝑺 𝒆 𝑻 𝑰𝑪
= = = 𝒈𝒎
𝜹𝒗𝑩𝑬 𝑽𝑻 𝑽𝑻
Observations
 The small signal 𝒗𝒃𝒆 restricts the operation of
BJT to nearly linear region of 𝒊𝑪 _𝒗𝑩𝑬
characteristic curve.
 Transistor (BJT) behaves as a voltage controlled
current source for small signals i.e. small signal
𝒗𝒃𝒆 controls the small signal current 𝒊𝒄.
Base current and input resistance at base
𝒊𝑪 𝑰 𝑪 + 𝒊𝒄 𝑰 𝑪 𝟏 𝑰 𝑪
𝒊𝑩 = = = + 𝒗
𝜷 𝜷 𝜷 𝜷 𝑽𝑻 𝒃𝒆
𝒊𝑩 = 𝑰 𝑩 + 𝒊𝒃
𝟏 𝑰𝑪 𝟏
Where 𝒊𝒃 = 𝒗 = 𝒈𝒎 𝒗𝒃𝒆
𝜷 𝑽𝑻 𝒃𝒆 𝜷
 The small signal input resistance between base and emitter looking into
base is denoted by 𝒓𝝅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝒂𝒔
𝒗𝒃𝒆 𝜷 𝑽𝑻
𝒓𝝅 = = =
𝒊𝒃 𝒈𝒎 𝑰 𝑩
 Hence,
𝒓𝝅 𝒊𝒔 𝒅𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒍𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒔 𝒐𝒏 𝜷 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝑰𝑪 .
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Emitter current and input resistance at emitter

𝒊𝑪 (𝑰𝑪 + 𝒊𝒄 )
𝒊𝑬 = =
𝜶 𝜶
𝑰𝑪 𝟏 𝑰𝑪
𝒊𝑬 = + 𝒗
𝜶 𝜶 𝑽𝑻 𝒃𝒆
𝟏 𝑰𝑪 𝑰𝑬
𝒊𝑬 = 𝑰𝑬 + 𝒊𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒊𝒆 = 𝒗𝒃𝒆 = 𝒗
𝜶 𝑽𝑻 𝑽𝑻 𝒃𝒆
 The small signal input resistance between base and
emitter looking at emitter side 𝒓𝒆 is given by
𝒗𝒃𝒆
𝒓𝒆 = 𝒊𝒆
𝜶 𝑽𝑻 𝑽𝑻 𝟏
∴ 𝒓𝒆 = = =𝜶 ≅
𝒈𝒎 𝑰 𝑬 𝑰𝑪 𝒈𝒎
Relation between 𝒓𝝅 and 𝒓𝒆

𝒗𝒃𝒆 = 𝒊𝒃 𝒓𝝅 = 𝒊𝒆 𝒓𝒆
𝒊𝒆
∴ 𝒓𝝅 = 𝒓𝒆 = (𝟏 + 𝜷) 𝒓𝒆
𝒊𝒃
Voltage gain
 Transistor (BJT) senses base emitter signal 𝒗𝒃𝒆 and causes proportional
collector current 𝒈𝒎 𝒗𝒃𝒆 to flow in the collector lead at a high impedance
load. Hence, transistor acts as a voltage controlled current source.
 From the circuit
𝒗𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝒊𝑪 𝑹𝑪
𝒗𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑰𝑪 + 𝒊𝒄 𝑹𝑪 = (𝑽𝑪𝑪 −𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪 ) − 𝒊𝒄 𝑹𝑪
𝒗𝑪𝑬 = 𝑽𝑪𝑬 − 𝒊𝒄 𝑹𝑪
∴ 𝒗𝒄𝒆 = −𝒊𝒄 𝑹𝑪 = −𝒈𝒎 𝒗𝒃𝒆 𝑹𝑪
𝒗𝒄𝒆 𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑪
Hence, Small signal voltage gain (𝑨𝒗 )= = −𝒈𝒎 𝑹𝑪 = −
𝒗𝒃𝒆 𝑽𝑻
Negative sign indicates that input and output signals are 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝒐 out of
phase.
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BJT operating in active mode can be

modelled using two families of small signal
equivalent circuits i.e.
1. Hybrid π-model
2. T-model
Both models are equally valid model but

choosing one over another sometimes leads
to simpler analysis of certain circuits.
 Hybrid π-model of BJT describes the BJT as current source having

two different versions as shown in figure below
Hybrid π-model of BJT as a voltage Hybrid π-model of BJT as a current

controlled current source (Trans- controlled current source (Current
conductance amplifier amplifier)
 These two models of Hybrid π-model of BJT are simplified versions of
modelling small signal operation which utilizes base resistance 𝒓𝝅
 Widely used small signal model of BJT
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Hybrid π-model of BJT as a voltage controlled Hybrid π-model of BJT as a current

current source (Trans-conductance amplifier) controlled current source (current
with early effect included amplifier) with early effect included
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 Alternate method of modelling BJT

 Much more convenient to use
 T-model of BJT explicitly use emitter resistance 𝒓𝒆 in place of base resistance 𝒓𝝅
T-model of BJT as a T-model of BJT as T-model of BJT as a T-model of BJT as a

voltage controlled a current voltage controlled current controlled
current source controlled current current source (Trans- current source
(Trans-conductance source (current conductance (current amplifier)
amplifier) amplifier) amplifier) with early with early effect
effect included included
1. Determine the DC operating point of BJT and in particular 𝑰𝑪 .
2. Calculate the values of small signal model parameters

𝑰𝑪 𝜷 𝑽𝑻 𝑽𝑻 𝜶 𝑽𝑨
𝒈𝒎 = , 𝒓𝝅 = = , 𝒓𝒆 = = , 𝒓𝒐 =
𝑽𝑻 𝒈𝒎 𝑰𝑩 𝑰𝑬 𝒈𝒎 𝑰𝑪
3. Eliminate the DC source by replacing each DC voltages with short

circuit and each dc current source with an open circuit. Similarly,
replace capacitor with short circuit equivalent and inductor with open
circuit equivalent.
4. Replace BJT with one of its small signal equivalent circuit model
5. Analyze the resulting circuit to determine the required circuit

quantities(i.e. voltage gain, current gain, input resistance, output
resistance etc)
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 To operate BJT as a switch , we should

operate the transistor in cutoff and
saturation mode of operation
simultaneously
Cutoff-both CB junction and EB junction are
reverse biased
Saturation- both CB junction and EB junction
are forward biased.
 The forward biased voltage for EB junction
is approximately 0.7V i.e. 𝑽𝑩𝑬 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽 for
npn and 𝑽𝑬𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽 for pnp transistor
and CB junction forward biased voltage
𝑽𝑩𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑽 for npn and 𝑽𝑪𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝑽 for
pnp transistor.
 The forward voltage drop across the EB
junction and CB junction are different due
to assymmetrics in device fabrication.
Cut-off region
 If 𝒗𝒊 < 𝟎. 𝟓𝑽, BJT will operate in cutoff
region as it makes both EB junction and CB
junction are reverse biased which conducts
negligibly small current and thus acts as an
open switch effectively disconnecting
collector node from ground due to presence
high resistance or impedance between
emitter and collector terminal.
 Mathematically, for EB junction to be Circuit for BJT as a switch

forward biased, 𝑽𝑩𝑬 ≥ 𝟎. 𝟓𝑽 and CB
junction will be reverse biased due to large
𝑽𝑪𝑪 .
 Hence 𝒊𝑩 ≅ 𝟎, 𝒊𝑪 ≅ 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝑬 ≅ 𝟎 𝒔𝒐 𝒗𝒐 =
𝒗𝑪 = 𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝒊𝑪 𝑹𝑪 ≅ 𝑽𝑪𝑪 .
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Saturation region
 To operate BJT in saturation region, both EB junction and CB junction
must be forward biased.
 When 𝒗𝒊 > 𝟎. 𝟓𝑽 and 𝒗𝑩 > 𝒗𝑪 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝑽 𝒐𝒓 𝒗𝑩 < 𝒗𝑪 − 𝟎. 𝟒𝑽 ,transistor
leaves active region and enters into saturation region.
 The point at which transistor leaves active region and enters into
saturation region is called edge of saturation(EOS).
𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝟎. 𝟑𝑽
𝑰𝑪(𝑬𝑶𝑺) ≅
𝑹𝑪
𝑰𝑪(𝑬𝑶𝑺)
𝑰𝑩(𝑬𝑶𝑺) =
𝜷
𝑽𝑩𝑬 ≅ 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽
 𝒗𝒊 required to drive transistor to edge of saturation is given by
𝒗𝒊(𝑬𝑶𝑺) = 𝑰𝑩(𝑬𝑶𝑺) 𝑹𝑩 + 𝑽𝑩𝑬
 Increasing 𝒗𝒊 above 𝒗𝒊(𝑬𝑶𝑺) increases base current which drives
transistor into saturation region and collector emitter voltage 𝑽𝑪𝑬
decreases very slightly only.
 Normally, 𝑽𝑪𝑬 ranges from 0.1V to 0.2V. Hence 𝑽𝑪𝑬𝒔𝒂𝒕 ≅ 𝟎. 𝟐𝑽

𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑽𝑪𝑬𝒔𝒂𝒕
𝑰𝑪𝒔𝒂𝒕 =
𝑹𝑪
 BJT in saturation region will have very low or small resistance between its
collector and emitter terminal(𝑹𝑪𝑬𝒔𝒂𝒕 ) so it provides low impedance path
between collector and emitter node connected to ground for flow of
current i.e. closed switch.
𝒗𝒐 = 𝑽𝑪𝑬𝒔𝒂𝒕
𝒗𝒊 − 𝟎. 𝟕𝑽
𝒊𝑩 =
𝑹𝑩
𝑽𝑪𝑪 − 𝑽𝑪𝑬𝒔𝒂𝒕
𝒊𝑪𝒔𝒂𝒕 =
𝑹𝑪
𝒊𝑬 = 𝒊𝑩 + 𝒊𝑪𝒔𝒂𝒕
 In saturation region of operation

𝒊𝑪 ≠ 𝜷𝒊𝑩
𝒊𝑪𝒔𝒂𝒕
∴ 𝜷𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒅 = <𝜷
𝒊𝑩
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Chapter 3 Lecture 3 Small Signal Analysis of BJT and BJT As Aswitch

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Chapter 3 Lecture 3 Small Signal Analysis of BJT and BJT As Aswitch

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11/29/2020

 For BJT to operate as an amplifier, EB junction is

Since small signal voltage 𝒗𝒃𝒆 and dc supply voltage

Correspondingly, instantaneous collector current is

 The series expansion of exponential function is given by

 Hence, predictable dc collector current can obtain a constant predictable 𝒈𝒎.

 A small signal 𝒗𝒃𝒆 with the triangular

Base current and input resistance at base

Emitter current and input resistance at emitter

Relation between 𝒓𝝅 and 𝒓𝒆

BJT operating in active mode can be

Both models are equally valid model but

 Hybrid π-model of BJT describes the BJT as current source having

Hybrid π-model of BJT as a voltage Hybrid π-model of BJT as a current

Hybrid π-model of BJT as a voltage controlled Hybrid π-model of BJT as a current

 Alternate method of modelling BJT

T-model of BJT as a T-model of BJT as T-model of BJT as a T-model of BJT as a

1. Determine the DC operating point of BJT and in particular 𝑰𝑪 .

2. Calculate the values of small signal model parameters

3. Eliminate the DC source by replacing each DC voltages with short

5. Analyze the resulting circuit to determine the required circuit

 To operate BJT as a switch , we should

 Mathematically, for EB junction to be Circuit for BJT as a switch

 Normally, 𝑽𝑪𝑬 ranges from 0.1V to 0.2V. Hence 𝑽𝑪𝑬𝒔𝒂𝒕 ≅ 𝟎. 𝟐𝑽

 In saturation region of operation

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