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Recent Trends on Drivetrain Control Strategies and Battery Parameters of a

Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Conference Paper · October 2019

DOI: 10.4271/2019-28-0155

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Recent Trends on Drivetrain Control Strategies and
Battery Parameters of a Hybrid Electric Vehicle
Pavan Bharadwaja Bhaskar VNR VJIET
Sandip Deshmukh BITS Pilani
Prashanth Khannan and Amjad Shaik VNR VJIET
Citation: Bhaskar, P.B., Deshmukh, S., Khannan, P., and Shaik, A., “Recent Trends on Drivetrain Control Strategies and Battery
Parameters of a Hybrid Electric Vehicle,” SAE Technical Paper 2019-28-0155, 2019, doi:10.4271/2019-28-0155.
Abstract
E
nvironmental consciousness is being developed in each
and every sector, automotive industry has concentrated
in a greater manner. Reduction of tail pipe emission
was concentrated and found that hybridization can ensure
better results. Hybrid electric vehicle operates on electric
motor as well as internal combustion engine. Battery power
is one the major source of energy for driving electric motor
and different battery technologies have been developed.
Battery management system (BMS) controls battery param-
eters like State of Charge (SoC), State of Health (SoH) and
Depth of Discharge (DoD) which definitely has an impact on
power-torque ratings. Various drive train configurations are
developed based on the power-torque requirements and size
of engine/electric motor. Maintaining proper flow of energy
Introduction
T
ransportation was and still is the major need in the
society, better and better transport systems were
­developed to reduce the time taking to cover the distance.
Roadways came out to be more prominent and it can be consid-
ered as one of the major mode of transport. Most of the vehicles
are powered by fossil fuels which always contribute in rise of
environmental pollution. More and more depletion of fossil
fuels and environmental changes have triggered all automotive
bodies to work aggressively in reduction of fuel consumption
and emission levels. Several advancements and technologies
have been evolving to reduce pollutants. Intervention of govern-
ment bodies over emissions norms is also affecting in very
positive direction. In spite of all these technologies and stringent
norms depletion of fossil fuels is alarming automotive industry
in search of alternate sources. This has energised the use of
electric motors in automotive industry [1].
Use of direct electric motors can have lot of advantages
when compared to conventional I.C engines. Electric vehicles
seemed to be a promising alternative source. Zero tail pipe
emissions can be achieved with the use of electric motor. High
© 2019 SAE International. All Rights Reserved.
2019-28-0155 Published 11 Oct 2019
can have better reduction in emissions, more battery life, less
fuel consumption and optimum power-torque ratings. Power
and torque has to be varied based on the driver’s requirement,
maximum power and torque may not be required all the time
and that is the area to capitalize some efficiency. Higher fuel
efficiency lies in managing energy flow from various power
sources to final drive. Energy flow can be  controlled by
deploying certain logical constraints on battery management
system along with drive train which optimises the losses,
optimization techniques have shown better results in control
of power-torque ratings. This paper explains about the various
drive train configurations, battery technologies and their
control techniques. Wide range of future scope has been
explained by routing each and every technology involved in
hybrid vehicles.
initial torque of electric motors can clearly knock out engines
in automotive sector, locomotives can be taken as the best
example. Energy source is one of the major issue, battery
energy looks to be one of the best way to power electric vehicle.
Even rapid development in battery technologies was not able
to ensure the range that is provided by engine operated
vehicles. Range excitement can be increased but weight of
batteries has to be taken as the penalty. Well established fuel
stations can definitely knock down the electric charging infra-
structure, comparison of fuel filling time and charging time
is ought to be a challenging task.
Meanwhile, combination of electric drive train and
mechanical drive trains has gained attention which takes the
advantage of both motor and engine power-torque character-
istics [2]. Hybridization can be achieved in different ways by
coupling internal combustion (I.C) engine and electric motor
[3]. Series, parallel and series-parallel hybrid drive train are
the major classifications of electric hybrid drive train. Sizing
of engine and motor seemed to be the preliminary task for
configuring the drive train [4]. Drive train can be configured
based on the power-torque requirements.
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2 RECENT TRENDS ON DRIVETRAIN CONTROL STRATEGIES AND BATTERY PARAMETERS OF A HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

Drive Train Classification  FIGURE 2   Series hybrid drive train

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Parallel Hybrid
Power flow will be combined from I.C engine and electric
motor in parallel hybrid combination, mechanical and electric
output are connected to the transmission system, Figure 1
depicts parallel hybrid drive train. Mechanical coupler is used
to couple the output from motor and engine. Direct torque is
supplied to wheels with the help of electric motor as well as
with I.C engine. Pre-transmission and Post-transmission are
the major two configurations that come in parallel hybrid
drive train. In pre-transmission configuration mechanical
coupler is placed before the gearbox, where the gear ratios
doesn’t affect the engine and electric motor. In post-transmis- from other components. Power source for series hybrid drive
sion configuration gearbox is placed on the engine shaft, train can be in two ways. One is generating all power source
before mechanical coupler. In this only engine torque can with battery pack and I.C engine to power traction motor, in
be multiplied with the help of gearbox and torque from the this condition vehicle can operate solely on battery pack or
electric motor is directly coupled at mechanical coupler [20]. on I.C engine. Another one is, battery pack and I.C engine
Honda’s Insight, Civic, Accord, Chevy’s Mali, are some of the providing simultaneous energy to traction motor, absence of
examples for parallel hybrid drive train [21]. As there’s no any one of the energy source can become huge shortage of
need of any generator weight reduction and compactness can energy to run the traction motor [26]. Orion bus Renault
be achieved. Complex structure and mapping of speed and Kangoo, Opel Flextreme, Swiss auto REX VW Polo are some
torque with engine and motor are the major disadvantages [22]. of the vehicles which use series hybrid drive train. Figure 2
represents series hybrid drive train.

Series Hybrid
Series hybrid drive train has the major advantage of elimi-
Series-Parallel
nating all the mechanical linkages and energy will flow from Series-parallel hybrid drive train has an advantage of having
engine to generator then to electrical coupler, motor controller, as torque-speed coupling, both torque and speed are coupled
traction motor and finally to wheels through differential gear based on the operational modes. A planetary gearbox having
box [23,24]. Significant amount of energy can be regained two degrees of freedom is used to connect both the engine
with the help of regenerative braking. Referring regenerative and electric motor there by maximizing the advantage of
braking indicates that energy flow is in bidirectional manner. torque and speed coupling [27]. Making a design for selecting
Electric coupler is mounted between generator and motor and control of coupling is the crucial and foremost task.
controller. It contains rectifier and DC/DC converter which Operating modes vary from manufacturer to manufacturer,
allows the flow of energy with respect to operating conditions. taking example of Prius which has no clutch and only one
Engine can be  operated at steady state condition so that operating mode and Chevy volt uses four clutches and has
maximum fuel efficiency and minimum emissions can four operating modes [28]. Even a slight change in configura-
be achieved [25]. Whole and sole purpose of engine in this is tion of planetary gear set can affect the fuel efficiency and
to operate the generator which generates electricity for battery. performance of vehicle in radical manner [29].
Vehicle controller governs the electric coupler, engine and
power flow with response to accelerator, brake pedals and
 FIGURE 3   Series-parallel hybrid drive train

 FIGURE 1   Parallel Hybrid drive train

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RECENT TRENDS ON DRIVETRAIN CONTROL STRATEGIES AND BATTERY PARAMETERS OF A HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE 3

Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle coupling. This mode again has two sub modes of
operation and it is based on the commanded
(PHEV) by driver.
Major concept of PHEV is to achieve better mileage and a. When commanded vehicle speed is high motor/
extended range, it has two energy sources one is fuel based generator, engine and traction motor all together
engine and another is with battery which has provision of works in propelling wheels. PPS is used to run
charging through external source [30]. Basically PHEV’s have traction motor and motor/generator.
larger batteries than HEV so as to increase potential for petro- b. When commanded vehicle speed is less engine is
leum displacement. Different companies came up with used to run motor/generator so that PPS is charged
different cost effective strategies. Use of battery power supply and traction motor is used to power wheels.
with electric motor for short range commutations, here there’s
no use of I.C engine and use of battery power and fuel power Regenerative braking is another mode of operation,
for electric motor and I.C engine respectively for long range concept of regenerative braking is to capture braking energy
commutations is one of the effective control strategy. All the which can be used to charge PPS. This can be achieved by
above mentioned hybrid drive trains can be employed with producing braking torque either by motor/generator or by
plug-in technology. traction motor, in some cases both can be used. Combination
of battery, electric motor, engine and regenerative braking
have shown far better results in improving fuel efficiency [6].
Modes of Operation
Operational modes of hybrid drive train is purely based on
the type of drive train that is used. Advantages of series-
Energy Consumption of
parallel configuration has led to various number of opera- Hybrid Drive Train
tional modes which are based on torque-speed coupling. Big boost in the power and torque outputs, less fuel consump-
Speed coupling mode has very limited modes of opera- tion can be observed with reference to the figure 5. Literature
tion, tractive force has to be supplied by engine or motor or conveys that strong results showing that hybrid drive trains
both. Six modes of energy flow can be attained in torque can have effective output in all aspects. From the figure 5 it is
coupling mode which are: to be observed that fuel consumption was minimal when the
a. Engine and traction motor motoring mode: This distance is around 31.5 to 42.5km. Electric motor is been
mode is very much similar to parallel hybrid mode. operated in this case, as the battery discharges engine is used
Both engine and motor tractive force is supplied to drive the vehicle and fuel consumption rises.
to wheels It can be observed from figure 6 that at low speeds electric
b. Engine and traction motor generating: Tractive force motor is operated and engine is shutdown.
from the engine is diverted to charge the PPS and
motor is used to run the vehicle
c. Motor/generator and traction motor: When PPS of
SOC reaches its critical point, engine is turned off and
Drive train Control
motor alone is used to run the vehicle. Strategies
d. Speed coupling traction mode: Advantage of this
mode is it utilises full functions of speed and torque Energy management in hybrid electric vehicle plays a vital
role, it effects power, torque, vehicle speed and regenerative
braking. Different control strategies have been developed by
 FIGURE 4   Drive train configuration [56] researchers. A specific control of each component can
be attained with help of driver’s feedback. Control strategies

 FIGURE 5   Electrical energy and fuel consumptions [87]

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4 RECENT TRENDS ON DRIVETRAIN CONTROL STRATEGIES AND BATTERY PARAMETERS OF A HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

 FIGURE 6   Electric motor power, engine power and battery Pe/g-Engine power
energy utilized on basis of FTP75 urban driving cycle [87] Ppps-max-Maximum PPS power available
B- Engine/Generator alone traction or PPS
charging mode
Pe/g-full-Available engine power
Ppps-cha-PPS charging power

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Pe/g-part-Engine running with partial power
C- Hybrid braking mode
Pcom-Commanded braking power
Pregn-Maximum available regenerative braking power
Pb-mech-Mechanical braking power
D- Regenerative braking mode
Pcom-Commanded braking power
Pregn-Regenerative braking power

Power and vehicle speed are plotted with respect to

maximum traction motor power and maximum regenerative
braking power. Power requirement was broken down into 4
can be classified into two classes, rule based approach and points identifying as A, B, C and D. Point A is hybrid traction
optimization approach [31]. mode where driver’s commanded power(Pcom) is way higher
than the engine power (Pe/g), in this case requirement is meet
Rule Based Approach by combining engine power and traction motor power i.e.
power from PPS (Ppps). Ppps-max is the maximum power that
Deterministic (Engine on-off or Thermostat on-off) and fuzzy can be generated with help of PPS, at part of it is used in this
rule based methods are the two classification of rule based case. At point B power commanded is less than the full engine
control strategy [32]. Efficiency of vehicle purely depends on power, in this case partial engine power(Pe/g-part) is used to
optimizing control strategies in effective manner. Increase of drive the vehicle and rest (P pps-cha) is used to charge PPS.
fuel efficiency is a major concern rather than emissions [33]. Engine is made to run in maximum fuel efficiency range and
any energy available at braking can be regenerated and used
Max. SOC-of-PPS Maximum state-of-charge (SOC) of to charge PPS [34]. This regeneration of braking is called
peaking power source (PPS) is one of the conventional strategy, regenerative braking which applied for C and D points. Point
aim of this strategy is to maintain the demanded power by C is hybrid braking mode, as commanded braking power
keeping SOC of PPS at maximum level. This control strategy (Pcom) is higher than the regenerative braking power (Pregn)
basically depends on the power demand and state of charge mechanical braking (Pb-mech) is used to meet the requirement.
present in battery, engine operates consequently. Figure 5 Only regenerative braking can be applied when the demanded
illustrates the control strategy of Max. SOC-of-PPS. power is less than maximum regenerative braking power
which is shown at point D.
A- Hybrid traction mode
Pcom-Commanded Power
Engine On-Off Control Strategy This is one of the
Ppps-Power from PPS
common technique to supervise the real-time control of HEV.
Design of this strategy is based on the iterations performed
on engine performance parameters, heuristics and powertrain
 FIGURE 7   Illustration of maximum PPS-SOC characteristics. Engine on-off control strategy is completely
control strategy. based on the predestined boundaries set and it lacks in
accuracy [35]. Engine on-off control strategy is totally based

 FIGURE 8   Illustration of maximum engine on-off control

strategy. [56]
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RECENT TRENDS ON DRIVETRAIN CONTROL STRATEGIES AND BATTERY PARAMETERS OF A HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
on the demand of torque, speed and fuel consumption. Engine
on-off is controlled based on the SOC levels, if SOC is
maximum engine is turned off and electric motor is used to
run the vehicle. When SOC levels comes down engine is
turned on until SOC reaches maximum [36]. Figure 6 depicts
engine on-off control strategy, it can be clearly observed that
engine control is based on the SOC.
When the SOC is high HEV works only with traction
motor i.e. only battery power is used and engine is switched
off. This mode of operation can be called as pure electric mode.
As SOC is at peak level regenerative braking is not permitted
so that over charging is avoided. After a period of time engine
is turned on to serve the demanded power and torque as
continuous usage of traction motor causes charge depletion
and regenerative braking is allowed. This mode is termed as
hybrid mode [37].
Fuzzy Logic Control Strategy Fuzzy logic control
(FLC) is an extension of engine on-off control strategy and
rules are formulated with IF-Then logic based on the driving
cycle [38]. Main objective of FLC is to operate engine in very
efficient manner but this is based on the SOC and commanded
torque. Maximum, optimum and minimum torque generated
from the engine are to be noted so that it satisfies the SOC by
maintaining commanded torque at all conditions [39]. For
example let us consider the case where maximum engine
torque is generated at 4000 rpm, it considered as point 1. The
same engine is developing maximum efficiency at 2000rpm,
it is considered as point 0.5 and if the minimum torque is
generated at 800 rpm consider that point as 0. This plotting
of points is called scaling and which is varying from 1, 0.5 to 0
[40, 41]. This scaling is taken as the degree of membership
function and can be seen in Figure 7. More set of data points
can be achieved with the inference of driving cycles which
will help in wide analysis of specific fuel consumption, emis-
sions and performance characteristics [42]. Non-linear driving
conditions can provide more characteristic parameters which
makes complicated membership function [43].
Optimization Based Control
Dynamic Programming Optimization tools can have
a better advantage on control strategies as these techniques
can easily adopt the non-linear driving conditions. Dynamic
programming is very helpful for HEV’s as there are so many
discrete variables such as engine/motor on-off, maintaining
 FIGURE 9   Membership Functions of Tcom and Te
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5
SOC, gear shifting and regenerative braking power [44].
Dynamic programming uses a multi-stage optimal decision
processes by choosing finite number of decision variables
at each step. Dynamic programming (DP) can be applied
to the energy management strategies and it will extract
driving information from the outside world in random
manner. However, total control can’t be relayed on dynamic
programming, combination of rule based and dynamic
programming have shown good reduction in fuel consump-
tion [45]. Dynamic programming can be numerical or it
might be  analytical. A simple single state variable and
control variable can be considered for problem formation,
it follows:
x ( k + 1) = f ( ( x ) ,u ( k ) )
Where u(k) is the vector of control variables such as
commanded torque, engine on-off, motor on-off, and battery
charging. Where x(k) is the vector of state variables such as
SOC, SOH and DOD and A/F ratio and k denotes calculation
step in discretization way [46]. The main goal of this technique
is trace out the optimal control policy on control variables
u(k) in order to get the maximum fuel efficiency. Total cost
that occur for power flow in the hybrid vehicles is basically
the fuel consumption. The cost function for fuel consumption
is as follows:
N -1
J = Fuel = åL ( x ( k ),u ( k ))
k =0
Where N is the duration or stage of driving cycle, L is the
instantaneous fuel consumption which can vary with SOC
and control variables. L is the function of system state x and
input u [47]. Inclusion of some constraints ensure that limits
of cost function has some boundaries which are essential
for optimization.
SOC min £ SOC k £ SOC max ,
we - min £ we - k £ we - min ,
t e - min £ t e - k £ t e - max ,
wm - min £ wm - k £ wm - min ,
t m - min £ t m - k £ t m - max
Where SoCmin and SoCmax are the boundaries of SoC, SoCk
denotes SoC at each step, in a similar manner boundaries are
set to engine angular velocity, engine torque, motor angular
velocity and motor torque. Standard and conventional recur-
sive techniques are used to solve the above problem and for
Step N − 1 cost function is as follows:
J N* -1 ( x ( N - 1) ) = minu ( N -1)[L ( x ( N - 1) ,u ( N - 1) ùû
Here J∗ is the optimal cost-to-go function at the kth step.
Step k, for 0 ≤ k ≤ N − 1:
J k* ( x ( k ) ) = minu ( k ) éëL ( x ( k ) ) ,u ( k ) + J k* +1 ( x ( k + 1) ) ùû
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6 RECENT TRENDS ON DRIVETRAIN CONTROL STRATEGIES AND BATTERY PARAMETERS OF A HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

Above said constraints are imposed while calculating The above said process is continued till the fulfilment of
recursive equation from step N − 1 to zero. Quantization of criteria, iterations continues until the generations reach its
u(k) and x(k) (control variables and state variables) will limiting point.
be done into finite grids. J k(x(k)) is evaluated only at grid
points of state variables, if the obtained value doesn’t match
with quantized value then linear interpolation function is
used to determine J k* ( x ( k ) ) values [49]. In the backward Significance of Batteries
solving technique all optimal paths can be obtained if the
initial driving conditions are specified. DP can’t be directly
on Hybrid Electric Vehicle
implemented as the prior knowledge of driving conditions is
needed. Obtained theoretical and optimal solutions can Being battery energy is the only feasible source for running
be used to optimize control strategies [50]. electric motor and more attention has to be shown on battery
technology. At late 1800’s when there was a revolution in lead-
acid batteries first battery operated electric vehicles were seen
Genetic Algorithm Genetic Algorithm (GA) is a proba-
on road. Lacking in range, durability and high charging time
bilistic global optimization tool which mimics the metaphor
led down the electric vehicle market. Raise in I.C engine led
of natural biological evolution. Basic concept of GA is to
vehicles have restricted the use of Lead-acid batteries for auto-
choose a chromosome representation to describe each indi-
motive applications which usually have less current rating.
vidual in population of interest and fitness function for
These kind of low current rating batteries can’t power the
­evaluation [51, 52]. Iterative procedures are used to define the
electric motor used in automotive applications. Traction
structure of GA which are:
batteries were developed to suite the current rating of electric
Choosing a chromosome: Chromosome generally repre-
motor used in automobiles. Various battery technologies like
sents a candidate solution which consists of various variables
Lead-acid, Nickel-Metal Hydride, Lithium Ion and Sodium
and those are non-other than control variables. Range of SoC
sulphur were developed [battery tech]. Range and weight
(lower SoC (LSOC) and higher SoC (HSOC)), vehicle speed (Vs),
varies with respect to type of battery used, for 150Km range
minimum and maximum torque (Tmax, Tmin) and torque
weight of battery might vary from 150Kg to 500Kg [8]. Figure 8
required to charge the battery (Tch) are considered as elements
shows the graph between specific power vs. specific energy.
in the chromosome. Each element is coded using floating point
Huge difference can be observed between different types of
number [53, 54].
batteries. Hefty weight and low specific energy of the lead acid
X = ( L SOC ,HSOC ,Vs ,Tmax ,Tmin ,Tch ) battery displeases its use in HEV. Lighter weight and deep
discharge cycles of NIMH and Li-ion batteries over lead acid
Initialization and evaluation: At first initial population batteries drags the attention for its use in HEV [9]. NIMH and
(P0) will be created in feasible space and evaluation of perfor- Li-ion can achieve 4000 deep discharge cycles, NIMH can
mance of each individual (Pi) is done by fitness function. Each be  discharged until 70% every time whereas Li-ion can
individual status can be calculated only when fitness function be discharged only until 50% [10]. Batteries used in hybrid
is defined and it is defined only when chromosome is identi- vehicles can have lesser capacity when compared with the
fied. Each individual is identified and attainable performance batteries used in electric vehicles. Energy density, power
is calculated in terms of acceleration and maximum grade- density, life cycle, self-discharge rate, life cycles, operating
ability. Emissions and fuel consumptions are calculated if both temperatures, reliability and cost are the major substantial
the constraints are met in both HSOC and LSOC. After defining factors while designing a battery [12]. Lead acid, Nickel metal
fitness function of GA it need to fix another features in selec- hydride (NIMH) and Lithium ion (Li-ion) batteries are widely
tion mechanism [55]. used for the hybrid electric vehicles. Cost of battery tech-
Selection: It is the sorting mechanism where high fit indi- nology equals 1/3rd of the vehicle cost [7]. Super-capacitors are
viduals are ranked for next population. Roulette wheel method
is a technique where probability is to choose a certain indi-
vidual is proportional to its fitness.  FIGURE 10   Specific energy and power of the main battery
technologies [9]
F ( Pi )
Prob [ Pi is selected ] =
å F ( Pk )
Crossover: It is a method where two distinct individuals
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are merged to generate new individual. In this processes two

chromosomes are cut at randomly chosen position with prob-
ability of Pc, where Pc is called crossover rate and controls the
solutions which are subjected to crossover.
Mutation: It is the probabilistic random deformation of
genetic information of an individual and handling randomly
with small probability Pm, where Pm is mutation rate. Too
small solution might lead to suboptimal search and large
values will lead to random search. Usually values vary between
0.005-0.1.
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RECENT TRENDS ON DRIVETRAIN CONTROL STRATEGIES AND BATTERY PARAMETERS OF A HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
gaining attention due to high power density and capability of
fast charging capacity. It can be coupled with the regular
batteries getting advantage of fast charging and high energy
density [11]. Concept of ultra-speed-flywheel is gaining atten-
tion as supplement for energy storage. Flywheels can effec-
tively absorb energy in regenerative braking condition when
compared to conventional batteries. These can be coupled
with continuous variable transmission if it has mechanical
coupler or an electrical coupler can be used for electrical
power train.
Battery Management System
Battery management system (BMS) is an intelligent system
which computes the battery parameters [5]. BMS connects
battery and electric motor for optimizing vehicle operation.
It is specifically developed for Li-ion batteries which are prone
to temperature and has higher rate of memory effect. Inward
and outward flow of charge highly depends on drivers input
i.e. power-torque requirements. For a hybrid electric vehicle
electric motor runtime keeps fluctuating in a nonlinear
manner, nonlinear charge flow can have adverse effects on
batteries durability and life cycles. Charge, discharge and
health are the affecting battery parameters which are to
be  assessed continuously which is done by BMS. State of
charge (SoC) is very similar to the fuel gauge in fuel based
vehicles a parameter showing the amount of charge that
battery has [13]. State of health (SoH) is ratio of the maximum
amount of energy that is available at current state to the
maximum energy that it can generate when battery is new
and discharge rate can be expressed with depth of discharge
(DoD). One complete charge and discharge of battery is called
life cycle, discharge rate and discharge percentage varies based
on the requirement. Deep discharge of battery will affect
battery life, depth of discharge (DoD) is the parameter which
can be used to control the discharge percentage so that life
battery increases [14].
Estimation of SoC
Ampere counting, linear mathematical model, artificial neural
network, generic algorithm and extended Kalman filter are
widely used to estimate SoC. Literature has shown accurate
 FIGURE 11   Kalman Filter steps
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7
results when extended Kalman filter with open circuit voltage
was used to find SoC [15]. Kalamn filter is an algorithm which
estimates the SoC based on the more past information but
errors and disturbances are created by the algorithm will not
allow to get exact prediction. Extended Kalman Filter have
been developed to suite nonlinear systems where open circuit
voltage and voltage drop across the cells are measured.
Mathematical differential equations are formulated depending
on the voltage and ohmic resistances connected across the
battery network. Substitution of open circuit voltage and
voltage drops in the generated mathematical model can
predict SoC. EKF model of prediction is as shown in the
Figure 9 [16].
Estimation of SoH
State of health depends on the voltage drops, life cycle and
depth of discharge, SoC is dependent of SoH. Swelling and
stress in batteries varies based on the thermal characterisa-
tion which indirectly affects SoH [17]. Degradation factors
like capacity fade and power fade are the basic factors which
are to be analysed in order to measure SoH, extended Kalman
filters can be  applied for empirical identification [18].
Combination of particle swarm optimization-genetic algo-
rithm (PSO-GA), particle filer (PF) and recursive least square
(RLS) can have accurately measure SoH. At first battery
model parameters are to be identified, calculated battery
voltage and measured value from BMS are to be fit in fitness
function [19].
Future Scope
Sizing of Power Plant
Sizing of power train for hybrid electric vehicle deals with
more complexity as there are so many combinations of power
flows. Overall efficiency of a vehicle relays on sizing of electric
motor, battery and engine which again decides the powertrain
configuration. Researchers have been using various software
platforms like ADVISOR, MatLab Simulink to simulate the
powertrain model. Apart from the simulation software’s,
recent researchers have started showing interest in using opti-
mization techniques for sizing [51]. GA has been the promi-
nent technique used for sizing of battery, electric motor and
engine, even though some of the researchers have been
sticking to rule based strategies for design of power train.
[51, 62, 63]. Design of power train depends on the constraints
set, for a city vehicle which is running on Indian roads might
require low level of power whereas par decent level of torque
is expected for quick manoeuvring in heavy traffic conditions.
Studies have shown that lot more concentration is involved
in mixed conditions i.e. design should be optimum for both
city and highway conditions, this is where hybrid drive train
shines. It can be stated that rule based design will be more
efficient for well constrained boundary limits and optimiza-
tion techniques can be applied while evaluating the drive train
for wide range of non-linear power-torque demand.
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8 RECENT TRENDS ON DRIVETRAIN CONTROL STRATEGIES AND BATTERY PARAMETERS OF A HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE
Power Flow Control
Research gasp lies in developing a control strategy which is
robust in nature and reduces the complexity of computations.
GA and DP are well known for the times consumption which
may not be the effective technique for automotive application
where reaction time should be less [34,36]. Latest researchers
are leaning towards convex optimization, mixed integer linear
programming, bee algorithm and equivalent consumption
management (ECM) strategy techniques which are time effec-
tive, quick to reach the global solution and also have less
computational effects. As stated in this paper various control
techniques have been developed even though power control
can be  challenging for the hybrid electric vehicles when
compared to full electric vehicle [55, 56]. Major technical
hitches arise as there are two powers sources involved in
driving the vehicle, driving conditions also affects. Any
sudden demand of power will exert stress on electric motor
and battery. Live and quick estimation of power-torque and
battery parameters has to be done so that it meets the supply
[77,78]. In order to maintain linear power flow, the power
controller has to be  designed properly based on the
driving cycle.
Battery Technologies
Battery Chemistry In current view, battery management
and drive train power flow strategies looks like a prominent
area of research. Intervention of new battery technologies has
widened the scope for research in battery chemistry. Energy
densities of Li-ion batteries will vary with respect to the anode
material and cathode material. Deep attention has been drawn
towards lithium reserves and their availability [51].
Li-phosphate, Li-cobalt, Li-nickel cobalt oxides, Li-titanium,
Li-manganese oxide are the major cathode materials which
are impacting the recent trends of battery technologies [52].
A new trend of research has been observed, using of
multiple battery materials for HEV or an EV and calling it as
hybrid battery technology. Combination of low and high
energy  batteries for single application has shown greater
results of battery life, and better SoC and SoH when compared
[53]. This break up of batteries into two types can clearly win
in a situation where power delivery can be non-linear. For the
countries like India where driving conditions are quite
different for city and highways this type of technology can
be advantageous.
Battery Energy Management As discussed earlier
SoC, SoH, and DoD are the major parameters which influence
battery life and energy density. Live estimation and supply of
charge has to in-line with the power-torque requirement. In
recent trends instead of direct estimation, battery parameters
are traced by generating ambient temperature, charging and
discharge rate as per the driving cycle and patterns are gener-
ated. Laboratory obtained date will be used for live estimation
of battery parameters [85]. A very recent researches have
utilized the concept of regional capacity and regional voltage
along with the incremental data analysis frame work (ICA)
for generation of experimentation data (offline estimation).
Greatly 2.5% of estimated errors were reduced [81]. Researches
have limited this technique only for low current rate condi-
tions, high current rates and deep discharge conditions are
yet to be explored. Extreme machine learning (EML) tech-
niques have been a very good bridging technique for offline
and online estimation. Literature have shown that error in
EML was very less when compared to neural networking
models [86]. Effective working of engine can also be achieved
based on battery SoC level by deploying the above said control
strategies. Having power plant within the vehicle can have an
advantage of maintaining battery parameters well below
critical point.
Global Scope Factors explored and techniques used to
investigate are sorted in the Appendix. It can be observed that
research was done even at late 90’s and early 2000, but it was
very limited. In recent times several control combinations
have been tried by the researchers for improvement, so that
it matches real time scenario. Having wide number of algo-
rithms for motor control, power train control and battery
health estimation has widened the research scope. Inclusion
of number of technologies have increased complications and
development time. Hybrid electric vehicle research scope lies
wholly on sizing of motor and battery pack with respect to
engine and driving conditions. It can be observed that model
based and rule based strategies have been gaining interest as
those can applied for both investigating battery parameters
and power train control. Combination of hybrid batteries with
extreme machining learning or ICA estimation techniques
along with ECM power flow technique have also shown good
results in driving towards research novelty.
Conclusions
Trend of research lies in least error and quick estimation of
battery parameters, hybrid batteries, specific and precise
energy management from engine and electric motor. Several
factors have been investigated by the researchers and it is
understood that rule-based control techniques have gained
lot of interest in recent times. Further research can be concen-
trated in reducing the computational time for estimating
battery parameters in battery technology. Optimizing power
flow through engine and electric motor can be very chal-
lenging task as it directly affects the vehicular emissions,
higher degree of concentration is involved in power flow
control strategies.
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Contact Information
B. Pavan Bharadwaja, VNR VJIET
Bachupally, Kukatpally Hyderabad-500090
pavanbharadwajab@gmail.com
Definitions/Abbreviations
SoC - State of Charge
SoH - State of Health
DoD - Depth of Discharge
BMS - Battery Management System
I.C engine - Internal Combustion Engine
PHEV - Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
HEV - Hybrid electric vehicle
PPS - Peak Power Source
FLC - Fuzzy Logic Control
DP - Dynamic Programming
A/F ratio - Air-Fuel ratio
GA - Genetic Algorithm
Li-ion - Lithium Ion
NIMH - Nickle Metal Hydride
EKF - Extended Kalman Filter
PSO-GA - Particle Swarm Optimization-Genetic Algorithm
EV - Electric Vehicle
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12 RECENT TRENDS ON DRIVETRAIN CONTROL STRATEGIES AND BATTERY PARAMETERS OF A HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE

Appendix
Factors Investigated Years Techniques applied Number of papers published
Battery parameters (late 90’s) fuzzy logic, impedance measurement, ampere counting [55, 58] [56, 57]
(SoH, SoC and DoD) (2000-2005) Extended Kalman filter, probability density function, on- [59, 63]
board diagnosis
(2005-2013) Particle filter, genetic algorithm, extended Kalman filter, [60, 61, 62]
fuzzy logic, Model based algorithm,
(2014-2018) Model Based Estimation [77, 76, 75, 74, 73] [17, 70, 72, 71]
Artificial intelligence, artificial neural network, dual [19, 18] , [82, 13] ,[16] [80, 79, 78, 81]
extended Kalman filter, Online estimation, particle filters,
Interval capacity, built in piezo-sensors, extreme machine [84, 86, 83]

© 2019 SAE International. All Rights Reserved.

learning,
Power train control (late 90’s) Optimization approach [65, 66]
techniques (2000-2005) Fuzzy logic, Dynamic Programming and genetic algorithm [64, 67, 55, 53, 51]
(2005-2013) Real-Time Optimization, global optimization, dynamic [33, 37, 68, 69, 1, 40, 38]
programming
(2014-2018) Model predictive control- based energy management, [45, 41, 35, 6, 2, 21]
Hierarchical control strategy
real-time, machine learning Techniques(rule based) [32, 30, 25, 34]
Rule based along with Optimization techniques and [32, 38, 46, 48, 50, 29, 27, 5, 54, 52]
dynamic programming, Genetic Algorithm

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