EARTH SCIENCE REVIEWER: VOLCANOES AND EXTRUSIVE ROCKS

VOLCANO - is an opening of the earth’s crust, which allows hot magma, volcanic ash, and gases to
escape. They are generally found where tectonic plates are diverging or converging; product of
volcanism that occurs when magma makes it way to the earth’s surface. Ash cloud - formed above the
volcano from the force of the
volcanic explosion. The ash can drift
Crater - the mouth of the volcano in the sky and fall back to earth.
which surrounds the vent.

Main Vent - The primary

opening of the volcano through Secondary Vent - Another vent through which
which the magma and other the magma and other rocks and gases can
rocks and gases flow out. flow out.

Conduit - The underground passage

through which the magma flows from
Lava Flow - the hot the chamber towards the vent.
lava that flows down
the sides of the
volcano.

Layers of Rock - hese are distinctive

layer within Earth’s crust.

Magma Chamber - A pool of magma

beneath the volcano, storage of magma

CLASSIFICATION OF VOLCANOES (refers to the life cycle; classified according to periodicity of eruptions,
size, potential impact)

ACTIVE - have a recent history of eruptions; they are likely to erupt again ; has experienced some activity
within the last 10,000 years
DORMANT - have not erupted for a very long time but may erupt at a future time ; did not erupt in the
last 10 000 years
EXTINCT - are not expected to erupt in the future ; have not erupted since the last ice age

COMPOSITION OF VOLCANOES

SHIELD VOLCANO - This volcanic type is produced by the accumulation of fluid basaltic lavas and exhibit
the shape of a broad, slightly domed structure that resembles a warrior’s shield; slopes are between 2-
10° (ex. Mauna Kea in Hawaii)
COMPOSITE VOLCANO (stratovolcano) – The most majestic; is tall, symmetrically shaped, with steep
sides. They are built of alternating layers of lava flows, volcanic ash, and cinders. This classic profile is
partially a consequence of the way viscous lavas and pyroclastic ejecta contribute to the growth of the
cone; larger than cinder cones; slopes are less than 33° (ex. Mt. Mayon in Legaspi, Albay)
CINDER CONES - are small and most erupt for only a short time; formed as the pyroclastic material
produced form explosive eruptions piles up and forms a steep slope around 33°; unique type

SHIELD
CINDER CONES
COMPOSITE
PLATE BOUNDARIES:

DIVERGENT – is the movement of plates away from each other

CONVERGENT – is the movement of plates towards each other
 Oceanic : is thin; denser to continental
 Oceanic-Continental : When an oceanic plate converges with a continental plate, the oceanic
crust will subduct under the continental crust
 Oceanic-Oceanic : volcanism occurs; creates a volcanic island
 Continental-Continental : they eventually collide and end up producing mountains; neither
continental crust will subduct underneath one another because of their similar densities (ex.
Himalayas Mountain)
TRANSFORM – is the movement of plates parallel to each other

 Volcanoes are product of volcanism while Mountains are product of divergent (rare) and
convergent (common) plate boundaries.
 Mid-Oceanic Bridges – divergence occurs ; Sea Mount – volcanoes deep within the ocean that
are formed by oceanic-oceanic convergence
 Erupted Magma is called lava
 Eruption varies in duration and violence while Volcanoes vary in shapes and sizes
 Impacts of Volcanic Eruption includes:
 Creation of New Land
 Harness Geothermal Energy
 Effect of Climate Change (can produce acid rain)
 Volcanic activity is commonly perceived as a process that produces a picturesque, cone shaped
structure that periodically erupts in a violent manner.

VOLCANIC ERUPTION – occurs when the rocks deep within the earth (hot), slowly melt and become a
thick flowing substance called magma. Since it is lighter than solid rock around it, magma rises and
collects in magma chambers. Eventually, some of the magma pushes through vents and fissures to the
Earth’s surface. As tectonic plates move apart, hot magma rises between them from the mantle below
and erupts on the surface as lava. Eruption mostly occurs in the Pacific Ring of fire, an area surrounding
the Pacific Ocean wherein 75% of volcanoes are found.

 EXPLOSIVE – ‘’pyroclastic eruption’’; an extremely violent type of eruption; involves magma that
is more viscous and has higher gas content.
 EFFUSIVE – a less dangerous type of eruption where lava just flows; involves the outpouring of
basaltic magma that is relatively low in viscosity and in gas content.

( VISCOSITY - a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow; high temp=lower viscosity, more silica=greater
viscosity and vice versa)

HOTSPOT VOLCANOES – formed away from the tectonic plate boundaries or above the areas of
superheated rocks in the Earth’s mantle, occurs when rising magma from deep within the planet melts
through the tectonic plate above and begin to build up that causes magma to rise and erupt as lava on
the ocean floor. Hotspot volcanoes melts parts of the mantle.

Magmas’ Different Compositions Cause Properties to Vary

Composition Silica Content Viscosity Gas Content Tendency to form Volcanic Landform Temperature
pyroclastic
Basaltic (Mafic) 50% (least) Least 1-2% Least Shield, Cinder, 1000-1200 °C
Basalt plateaus
Andesitic 60% Intermediate 3-4% Intermediate Composite 800-1000℃
(Intermediate)
Rhyolitic (Felsic) 70% (most) Greatest 4-6% Greatest Pyroclastic flows, 650-800℃
Volcanic domes

MATERIALS EXTRUDED DURING AN ERUPTION

LAVA FLOWS GASES PYROCLASTIC MATERIALS

Aa flow and Pahoehoe flow Analyses of samples taken
during Hawaiian eruptions
indicate that the gas
component is about 70
percent water vapor, 15
percent carbon dioxide, 5
percent nitrogen, and 5
percent sulfur dioxide, with
lesser amounts of chlorine,
Black Lava – larger than Aa hydrogen, and argon.
Pyro – fire, Clast – fragment
(referred as a tephra)
Ash and dust particles are produced
when gas-rich viscous magma erupts
explosively. (2 mm)
Lapilli is somewhat larger pyroclasts
that range in size from small beads
to walnuts. (2-64 mm)

Blocks are angular fragments that

were solid when ejected. Bombs
have an aerodynamic shape
indicating they were liquid when
ejected. (more than 64 mm; bombs
are circular, blocks are not)
Pillow Lava – occurs below the
ocean Bombs and lapilli that consist
mostly of gas bubbles called vesicles
(holes are product of escaped gases)
result in a low density highly
vesicular rock fragment called
pumice (low density, forms during
explosive eruptions, andesitic to
rhyolitic composition)

PLUTONIC ROCK
SILL – horizontal
DIKE – vertical
XENOLITH - a rock embedded in magma while the
magma was cooling
BATHOLITE - forms when magma rises into the
earth's crust, but does not erupt onto the surface.
LOPOLITH – an igneous rock that forms magma do
not find its way to the surface but spread laterally
into a lenticular body/shape
LACCOLITH - a type of igneous intrusion that has
split apart two strata, resulting in a domelike
structure
STOCK - a remnant of the vent of a volcano
TYPES OF ROCKS:

INTRUSIVE – minerals/crystals are visible in the naked eye; forms when magma cools slowly under the
earth’s surface
 Gabbro, Diorite, Granite
EXTRUSIVE – minerals/crystals are very fine; not visible in the naked eye
 Basalt, Andesite, Rhyolite

Granitic Andesitic Basaltic Ultramafic

Granite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite
Rhyolite Andesite Basalt Komatiite (rare)

VOLCANIC HAZARDS

 Pyroclastic flows (A Deadly Force Of Nature) consist of hot gases infused with incandescent ash
and larger lava fragments. Also referred to as nuée ardentes (glowing avalanches), these fiery
flows can race down steep volcanic slopes at speeds exceeding 100 km (60 miles) per hour.
Pyroclastic flows have two components: a low-density cloud of hot expanding gases containing
fine ash particles and a ground-hugging portion composed of pumice and other vesicular
pyroclastic material.
 Lahars (Mudflows on Active and Inactive Cones) triggered when magma nears the surface of a
glacially clad volcano. Others are generated when heavy rains saturate weathered volcanic
deposits. Thus, lahars may occur even when a volcano is not erupting.
 Volcanoes can be hazardous to human health and property in other ways. Ash and other
pyroclastic material can collapse the roofs of buildings or can be drawn into the lungs of humans
and other animals or into aircraft engines. Volcanic gases, most notably sulphur dioxide, pollute
the air—and when mixed with rainwater, can destroy vegetation and reduce the quality of
groundwater. Despite the known risks, millions of people live in close proximity to active
volcanoes.

The four most Instruments used to study

noticeable changes in a volcano:
volcanic landscape
Tiltmeter – measures angle of
caused by the migration
tilt
of magma are: (1)
Correlation Spectrometer
changes in the pattern
(COSPEC) – measures sulfur
of volcanic
dioxide
earthquakes; (2)
Radar Mapping Instruments –
expansion of a near-
determines where lava will
surface magma
flow
chamber, which leads
Seismometer - used to record
to inflation of the
the motion of the ground
volcano; (3) changes in
the amount and/or
composition of the
gases that are released
from a volcano; and (4)
an increase in ground
temperature caused by
the emplacement of
new magma.
GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT

- uses hydrothermal resources that have both water (hydro) and heat (thermal). Geothermal
power plants require high-temperature (300°F to 700°F) hydrothermal resources that come from
either dry steam wells or from hot water wells. People use these resources by drilling wells into the
earth and then piping steam or hot water to the surface. The hot water or steam powers a turbine
that generates electricity. Some geothermal wells are as much as two miles deep.

FLASH STEAM POWER PLANT- takes high-pressure hot

water from deep inside the earth and convert it to steam
that drives generator turbines. When the steam cools, it
condenses to water and is injected back into the ground
to be used again. Most geothermal power plants are
flash steam plants; has temperatures greater than 360°F
(182°C).

DRY STEAM POWER PLANT - uses steam directly

from a geothermal reservoir to turn generator
turbines. The first geothermal power plant was
built in 1904 in Tuscany, Italy, where natural steam
erupted from the earth. Gysers are the main source
of steam. As steam from the reservoir shoots out, it
is used to drive a turbine, after sending the steam
through a rock-catcher. The rock-catcher protects
the turbine from rocks which come along with
steam.

BINARY CYCLE POWER PLANT - transfers the heat

from geothermal hot water to another liquid. The
heat causes the second liquid to turn to steam, and
the steam drives a generator turbine.
This type of power plant, the geothermal water is passed through a heat
exchanger where its heat is transferred to a secondary liquid, isobutene,
isopentane or ammonia-water mixture present in an adjacent, separate pipe.
Because of this double-liquid heat exchanger system, it is called a binary power
plant. The secondary liquid, also known as working fluid, should have lower
boiling point than water. It turns into vapor on getting required heat from the
hot water. The vapor from the working fluid is employed for rotating the
turbines. The binary system is therefore useful in geothermal reservoirs which
are relatively low in temperature gradient. Since the system is a completely
closed one, there is a minimum chance of heat loss. Hot water is immediately
recycled back into the reservoir. The working fluid is also condensed back to the
liquid and used over again and again. These plants operate on water at lower
temperatures of about 225-360°F (107-182°C).