NCMB315: Exam Week

12
BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023
Bachelor of Science in Nursing 3YA
Professor: Sharon B. Cajayon, RN, MAN
Midterm Topics: (From Mam Cajayon) Experimental research
• Ethics - Research design where researchers are active agents and
• Privacy, confidentiality, beneficence, etc not merely passive observer. The researcher consciously
• Quantitative manipulates the conditions in the study and makes
• Experimental and types true and quasi observations in a tightly controlled environment.
• Non experimental and types descriptive, correlation, - It seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an
comparative outcome.
• Mixed method and types - It includes True experiments, with the random assignments
• Research design of subjects to treatment conditions and a Quasi
experiments that use non randomized assignments of
• Pheno, grounded, etc
subjects.
• Related Literature
- Types:
• Theoretical Framework
1) True experimental
• Sampling and types
• 3 properties:
• Data collection process
Manipulation – experiment group
• Mean, median, mode Control – group doesn’t receive exp.
• Categorical data Randomization – non biased selection
• Nominal, interval etc 2) Quasi experimental research
• Interview • Lacks at least one of the properties of true
• Questionnaire experimental research
• Observation • Involves manipulation of an independent variable,
• Themes but lacks randomization to treatment group.
• Anova, Pearson, t test variance, range Nonexperimental research
• Type 1 ang 2 error - Does not use manipulation and control of the independent
variable and conducted mostly in the natural settings
QUANTITATIVE DATA under natural conditions.
Research Process - Types
• Phase 1: The Conceptual phase 1) Comparative – test difference (new / old curr)
• Phase 2: The Design and Planning phase 2) Correlational – test the strength of relationship (IQ / HT)
• Phase 3: The Empirical phase 3) Methodological – instrument (Tool /questionnaire)
• Phase 4: The Analytic phase 4) Survey – characteristics of the population. (school,
• Phase 5: The Dissemination phase community, normative, social survey)
Quantitative Research
- Is conducted to find answers to questions about Phase 4: The Analytic Phase
relationships among measurable variables with the - Analyzing through appropriate quantitative or qualitative
purpose of explaining, controlling and predicting methods, the research data
phenomena. Hence, it is knowing the outcome stated in - Interpreting the results of the analyses
numerical data Statistics
- Scientific method which use a general set of orderly, - Deals with logical collection, organization, presentation,
disciplined procedures to acquire information and moves analysis and interpretation of numerical data.
in an orderly and systematic fashion. - Fields of statistics:
- Characteristics 1) Descriptive – allow the researcher to organize the data
• Gathers empirical evidence in ways that give meaning and facilitate insight
• Numeric (frequency distributions and measures of central
• Statistical treatment tendency and dispersion)
2) Inferential – statistics designed to allow inference from
• Deductive reasoning
a sample statistic to a population parameter;
Experimental research Non-experimental research
commonly used to test hypotheses of similarities and
True experimental research Descriptive
differences in subsets of the sample under study
Quasi experimental research Comparative
Doing research and the goals of science: to describe, to
Correlational
explain, to predict
Methodological
Survey

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 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023

Statistics and its place in research Level of statistical analysis

1) Conceptualization 1) Univariate analysis – Examination of the distribution of
2) Choice of research method cases on only one variables
3) Population and sampling
4) Observation
5) Data processing
6) Data analysis
7) Application
Statistics and its importance in research
• A means to achieve the goals of science:
- gives exact kind of description 2) Bivariate analysis – Two variables are studied, an element
- enables us to draw conclusions of comparison is added
- enable us to predict Table 1. Church attendance reported by men and women
- helps us analyze causal relationships Men Women
• Reinforces systematic procedures Weekly 25.0 34.0
• Brings order out of chaos Less often 75.0 66.0
What we need to know when quantifying data Total % 100.0 100.0
• Understand the research problem 3) Multivariate analysis – Several variables are being studied
• Understand the nature of our variables
- categorical or metric data
- levels of measurement: NOIR
• Level of statistical analysis
• Distinguish the appropriate statistical procedures

Nature of variables
1) Categorical data
- Cases are in defined classes: data are counted or yield
frequencies
- Ex. gender (variable), categories male and female
2) Metric Data Mean, median and mode
- Cases are measured. Thus, these data yield metric or • Mean – average, add all values divided by the number of
scale values. Ex. height (4.5 m), IQ (130) values
• Median – the value which divides the values into two
Levels of measurement halves
1) Nominal • Mode – most frequent occurring value
- Data are classified into categories. These categories
have no particular order. Descriptive analysis
- Gender, civil status, political affiliation, etc. - It is a statistical technique that provides simple description
2) Ratio and summary about the sample and about the
- Highest level of measurement. Aside from a constant observations that has been made.
size in difference between numbers, it has a fixed zero Table 1: frequency distribution
point.
- Weight, height, income, allowance per week
3) Interval
- The difference between numbers is a known constant
size; zero is arbitrary
- Temperature in Celsius, IQ scores
4) Ordinal (N=250) were the total number of respondents – 43.2% of the
- Categories imply some sory of ranking respondents were male (108) and 56.8% were female (142).
- Year standing, ranks of professors, likert “scale”, etc,
SES Table 2: cross tabulated table

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 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023

In table 2 there are 140 (42.81%) males and 187 (57.19) Interpreting measures of association:
females for a total of (N=327) participants. N the total row
below were nurses where (23.8%) are males and (14.06%) are
females. The researchers also considered 113 (34.56% PT as
respondents for this research wherein 46 (14.06%) were males
and 67 (20.49%) were female PT. Dentistry took par in this
study, 16 (4.89) are males and 12 (3.67%) are female with the *take note of the direction of the relationship
tota of 28 (8.56%) participants. Suggested by: Gibbon and Morris
Table 3: weighted mean Type of research question Statistics
Descriptive Mean, frequency
Complex descriptive Cross-tabulations, factor
analysis
Single factor difference t-test, z-test, one-way
questions ANOVA
Complex pr multifactor Factorial ANOVA
difference questions
Basic associational Correlation
questions
Scale: 1.0-1.49; Very Rare; 1.5-2.49; Rarely: 2.5-3.49; Complex or multivariate Pearson R; when predicting:
Sometime; 3.5-4.49; Often: 4.5-5.0; Very Often assosciational questions Multiple Regression
Choosing the Appropriate Measure Bivariate Analysis:
Choosing the Appropriate Measure Univariate Analysis: Describing Data
Describing Data Nominal
• Measures of dispersion - applicable to at scales Phi coefficient
• Range - highest value - lowest value - Or mean square contingency coefficient and is a measure
• Variance and Standard Deviation - "variance is the of association for two binary variables. Introduced by Karl
average of the squares of the distance each value is from Pearson, this measure is similar to the Pearson correlation
the mean (Bluman, 1993:95). The square root of the coefficient in its interpretation.
variance is the standard deviation. - A phi coefficient of 0 would indicate that there is no
• Standard Deviation - how disperse the values are from the systematic pattern across the 2x2 matrix. Or
mean Gender
Male Female
Choosing the Appropriate Measure Bivariate Analysis: Marital Married 5 5
Describing Data Status Single 1 2
Measures of association Ordinal
Levels of measurement Spearman rho
Nominal Ordinal Scale - Is a nonparametric measure of rank correlation (statistical
Correlation Phi Spearman Pearson R dependence between the ranking of two variables).
coefficients coefficient rho - Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient or spearman’s rho,
(2x2) Kendall’s tau named after Charles spearman
Contingency Kruskall- Spearman rho (maximum value is 1)
coefficient wallis - Is the nonparametric version of the pearson correlation
Cramer’s coefficient. Your data must be ordinal, interval, or ratio.
statistic - Spearman’s returns a value from -1 to 1, where:
+1 = a perfect positive correlation between ranks
-1 = a perfect negative correlation between ranks
0 = no correlation between ranks.
Kruskal-wallis H test
- Sometimes also called the “one-way ANOVA on ranks”
- Is a rank based nonparametric test that can be used to
determine if there are statistically significant differences
between two or more groups of an independent variable on
a continuous or ordinal dependent variable.
- The test determines whether the medians of two or more
groups are different. Like most statistical tests, you
calculate a test statistic and compare it to a distribution
cut-off point.
-

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 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023

- Example: • Setting the level of significance is setting the probability of

1) You want to find out how test anxiety affects actual test erroneously rejecting a true Ho to be at the most equal to a
scores. The independent variable “test anxiety” has • a is conventionally set at 0.05, 0.01 or 0.1
three levels: no anxiety, low medium anxiety and high Interpreting the results
anxiety. The dependent variable is the exam score, Hypothesis testing
rated from 0 to 100%. • Statistical Hypothesis is subjected to statistics.
2) You want to find out how socioeconomic status affects • CV =/‹ TV ----- accêpt the Ho
attitude towards sales tax increases. Your independent • CV › TV ------- reject the Ho
variable is “socioeconomic status” with three levels: • ERRORS
working class, middle class and wealthy. The - Type I
dependent variable is measured on a 4 point likert scale - Type II
from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Data Scale
- Pearson r is a statistical formula that measures the
strength between variables and relationships.
- To determine how strong the relationship is between two
variables, you need to find the coefficient value, which can
range between -1.00 and 1.00

Pearson R
- If the coefficient value is in the negative range, then that
means the relationship between the variables is negatively
correlated, or as one value increases, the other decreases.
- If the value is in the positive range, then that means the
relationship between the variables is positively correlated,
or both values increase or decrease together.
- Example:
ERRORS
1) Participants' age and reported level of income. if there
Type I:
is positive or negative relationship between someone's
- Error that occurs when the researcher concludes that the
age and their income level. After conducting the test,
samples tested are from different populations (a significant
your Pearson correlation coefficient value is +.20 (near
difference exists between groups) when, in fact, the
0). Therefore, you would have a slightly positive
samples are from the same population (no significant
correlation between the two variables, so the strength
difference exists between groups); null hypothesis is
of the relationship is also positive and considered weak.
rejected when it is true
You could confidently conclude there is a weak
Type II:
relationship and positive correlation between one's age
- Error that occurs when the researcher concludes that no
and their income. In other words, as people grow older,
significant difference exists between the samples
their income tends to increase as well.
examined when, in fact a difference exists; the null
2) Participants' anxiety score and the number of hours
hypothesis is regarded as true when it is false.
they work each week. After conducting the test, your
Example:
Pearson correlation coefficient value is -.80 near -1.
Therefore, you would have a negative correlation • Ho: not guilty
between the two variables, and the strength of the • Ha: guilty
relationship would be strong. You could confidently • Decision of the judge: he is guilty. but in reality, he is not!
conclude there is a strong relationship and negative (Type I error)
correlation between one's anxiety score and how many • Decision of the judge: he is not guilty or he is innocent.
hours a week they report working. Therefore, those who • but in reality , he is guilty/criminal. (Type II error)
scored high on anxiety would tend to report less hours Type I: (False Positive Error)
of work per week, while those who scored lower on - A Type I error (sometimes called a Type 1 error), is the
anxiety would tend to report more hours of work each incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis.
week. - Is asserting something as true when it is actually false. This
- p- value= Alternative approach in decision making false positive error is basically a "false alarm"
- Decision rule: if p <a (0.01 or 0.05) Reject the Ho - In reality a person is NOT SICK. But after the test the result
conclude Ha is (HE or SHE is SICK)
Analysing the data Type II: (False Negative Error)
• Level of significance: a, probability of rejecting a true Ho - A type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is actually
hypothesis false, but was accepted as true by the testing.

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 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023
- A type II error, or false negative, is where a test result
indicates that a condition failed, while it actually was
successful.
- In reality the person is sick. But after the test He or she is
healthy or not sic
Statistical measures are merely tools to guide us through
the research process.
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Analyzing Qualitative Data
1) Data Management
- Operations needed for a systematic, coherent process
of data collection, storage and retrieval
2) Data Analysis
- It is a matter of describing, summarizing, and
interpreting data obtained for each study unit or for
each group of study units
- To make sense of massive amounts of data, reduce the
volume of information, identify significant patterns and
construct a framework for communicating the essence
of what the data reveal
• Collecting information, which researchers call data, is only
the beginning of the research process. Once collected, the
information has to be organized and thought about.
• Qualitative analysis, which this paper discusses, is more
concerned with meaning.
Data
- A word which describes valid information that can help a
researcher answer his / her question (s).
- It can come from many different sources:
1) Notes/observations
2) Interview tapes and transcripts
3) Newspaper clippings
4) Personal journal
5) Surveys/questionnaires
Data Management
Transcription
- Deliberate alteration of data (you can remove uhm, err...)
- Accidental alterations of data (correct grammar and
spelling accidents)
- Unavoidable alterations of data (add meaning, for example
"ang ganda ganda mo" can be either true or sarcastic. You
have to take note of it)
Coding
- Choosing an Appropriate code (repertory grid is easier)
Categorization
- Data is converted into manageable units
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• Pwede po nating i-explore 'yung bata, nung nag-asawa
tsaka po 'yung ngayon.
• Kasi ano ako e... Hindi ko na-enjoy 'yung pagiging dalaga ko
(3) kasi buhat nung malit, buhat nung dalaga ako, high
school, sa ano na kami, may tindahan kami sa palengke.
From school diretso sa tindahan.
• Question #2: Saktong-sakto po. I-explore naman po natin
'yung interaction n°yo po sa invong children. Can you
describe po 'yung nteraction n'yo po sa inyo pong anak?
• Noon... ok naman s'ya e kaya lang 'pag nagkakaproblema
• 'yung teenager, highschool, katulad ng elder ko, eldest ko,
ok 'ya pero nung nagka-boyfriend, natutong lumaban. (4)
Kaya nagka-problema, na-ganyan (making a pregnant
gesture) pero ngayon natuto na s'ya. Ok na s'ya. Kaya
ngayon, to na lang (referring to his son who has just left the
room) S'ya po ang highschool" nagkaganon din.
• Hindi po kayo mahigpit?
• Mahigpit ako 'pag nakikita kong sumosobra na sila.
Namamalo ako e. (19)
• Ahh, talaga po?! Form of discipline n' yo po, palo po?
• 0o, 'pag mali ang ginawa mo, talagang dadapa ka. Nababali
ko ang hanger.
• Lumalatay. (20) Kamukha nitong bunso ko na 'to, nakailang
hanger ako d'yan. Takot s' ya sa hanger, tinatabi ko ang
hanger.
• Para maalala po n' ya?
• Oo. 'di ako naniniwala sa bawal mamalo, (21) so far ayan,
tumino na.
• Sa tingin n'yo po effective?
• Effective.
• Mero po kayong stock-an ng hanger?
• Oo. (laughs)
• Question #6: Ma'am ano po yung degree of satisfaction
n'yo when it comes to your children?
• Dito ako medyo frustrated (referring to his son) sa high
school ko, tsaka sa apo ko. (22)
• Ahh sa apo po. Ilang taon na po ba 'yung apo n'yo?
Step by step used for Qualitative Analysis:
Step 1: Organizing the Data
Step 2: Finding and Organizing Ideas and Concepts
What to Look For Words/ phrases Used Frequently
Finding Meaning in Language
Hearing Stories
Coding and Categorizing Ideas and Concepts
 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023
Step 3: Building Over-Arching Themes in the Data
- Each of the response categories has one or more
associated themes that give a deeper meaning to the
data. Different categories can be collapsed under one
main over-arching theme
Step 4: Ensuring Reliability and Validity in the Data
Analysis and in the Findings
- Validity: The accuracy with which a method measures
what it is intended to measure and yields data that
really represents "reality"
- Reliability: The consistency of the research findings.
Ensuring reliability, requires diligent efforts and
commitment to consistency throughout interviewing,
transcribing and analyzing the findings.
Step 5: Finding Possible and Plausible Explanations of the
Findings
So, What Did You Find?
- Start by making a summary of your findings and your
themes.
Ask Yourself Some Questions
- Are these findings what you were expecting, based on
the literature?
What are the Implications of the Findings?
Transcript (Training session)
I = Interviewer
P = Participant
(Turn on tape recorder)
I. So, we are sitting in the participant's kitchen, in his home;
the time is just after 8 o'clock in the evening.
I. Good evening. How are you?
P. Fine thank you.
I. Last time I spoke to you, you weren't feeling so good.
P. It's better now.
I. Oh good, I'm glad. Do you mind if we get started right away?
P. No, that's fine
Themes
- an abstract entity that brings meaning and identity to a
current experience and its variant manifestations.
- It captures and unifies the nature or basis of the experience
into a meaningful whole.
J.A.K.E 6 of 19
Phenomenological Analysis
- The three frequently used method for descriptive
phenomenology are the methods of Collaizi (1978),
Giorgi (1985), and Van Kaam (1966).
DISTINCTION
• Collaizi's method - it is the only one that calls for returning
back to study participants.
• Giorgi's method -the analysis to validate results relies
solely on researchers.
• Van Kaam's method - it requires that intersubjective
agreement be reached with other exert judges.
Cool and Warm Analysis
Cool Analysis
- The process of culling significant statements
- Extracting responses related to your topic
- Deleting responses which are non-significant.
- For me mam inspiring and remarkable. Inspiring po ma'am
kasi vung movie po ma'am...ah nagcatch ng attention at
nainspire ako ke vung mga nurses yung doctors kung pano
nila inalagan vung patient. Then yung remarkable naman
po ma'am kasi po ma'am ako as a student di po ako
masyadong palabasa ng books, more on kung ano po yung
nakikita ko sa teacher, kung pano nya po dinedescribe
yung lesson naming yun po yun lagi kong natatandaan pero
mam kung ang teacher o ay pag talagang nagdidiscuss ay
nagaaksyon mas madali ko pong naintindahan.
- Dun po sa film showing natin remarkable po ma'am sva in
the sense na yung movie hindi mo po talaga
makakalimutan at the same time nainspire ka pa para pag
may mga lumabas or tinatanong sayo di ka lang
makakasagot, my mga additional information ka pang
Warm Analysis
- Grouping, Sorting
- Giving a name to the theme
 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023
Yang: My positive "Siguro ano... and'yan 'yung pamilya mo,
being in midlife mga magulang mo, Sympre sa anak mo. "
Sub-theme A: (Maybe... your family is here, your
Family: Reason parents, of course for your children). (83)
for existence "Siguro nabubuhay ako para maging
gabay ng mga anak ko." (Maybe I exist to
be a guidepost for my children). (108)
"Siguro sa pamilya ko rin. Unang-una sa
pamilya ko. Kaya ko nabubuhay para sa
kanila." (Maybe for my family also. Firstly,
for my family, I exist for them (121)
Sub-theme B: "Ahhh... ok na rin naman ako... kumbaga
Feat: naalagaan ko rin mga anak ko. Masaya
Looking back at din, gano'n. Kasi napaglilingkuran mo
my achievements 'yung family mo, 'di ba?" (Ahhh... I'm
already okay... I was able to take care of
my children.
Because you're able to serve your family,
right?) - Cel (125)
"Unang-una kong achievement, yung nag-
kaanak ako ng dalawa. Yon! Isa na yun sa
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magandang nangyari sa buhay ko. Yung
nagkaroon ako ng asawa na nagpo-
provide ng mga kailangan namin sa
buhay. Yun, okay na yun sakin. Okay din
naman yung mga material na kailangan.
Meron. Sapat na yung mga achievement
na yun
“siguro pumas aka ng board exam… nag-
work then nag aral nagraduate ka ng
Theme 2: Yin: My "Ahmm.. Minsan sa ano na lans, ahmm..
negative being in sa ano rin.
mid-life Sa pag-aalaga, sa bahay, sa pag-
Sub-theme A: aasikaso. Ang ginagawa' pagka ano, sa
Restrictions: Like palalaba rin, sa pag-aasikaso sa bahay,
being in a cage sa pagluluto. "
"Andon na lahat 'yung oras ko sa bahay
din."
"Kasi araw-araw ka na lang nagtatrabaho,
paran nandon ka sa time na gusto mo
ding mag-relax.
Because you are working everyday, I
came to a point that I also want to take a
break and relax).
Sylvia (80)
"yung free time ko, minsan nagchecheck
ng testpapers."
"Work kasi almost every day, talagang
pasok so ang talagang rest day e Sunday
lang. 'Pag Saturday naman, naglalaba ka.
"Ganito na lang ba? Ganito na lang araw-
araw? Ganito…………. Nakakulong na
lang”
Sub-theme B: "Hindi rin kasi nga mga nag-asawa na,
Resentments: hindi sila nakatapos ng college. Sana nga
The stipulations I nakatapos sila kasi mas maganda sana
wanted kung tapos sila kasi kumbaga
accomplished 'yun ang magiging sandata nila sa
patanda nila kahit papano, pwede na
silang maiwan." 61
"Iniisip ko din, ganito na lang ba?" (I also
wonder, will it be just like this?) "Parang
sabi ko, ang sarap siguro, minsan naiisip
ko rin, ang sarap siguro ng nakapag-aral
ka tapos 'yung may ginagawa kang iba.
Alam mo 'yun 'yung parang nabobobo ka
na.
(124) "Sananga, sana, nabigyan ko ng
magandang kinabukasan yung mga anak
ko kasi ano lang sila puro high school
lang. Mas maganda rin sana kung
nakatapos ka rin kasi gusto mong
tulungan 'yung mother mo, 'yung mga
kapatid mo."
 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023

("I don't like them,………panget yung mga nurse.)

"Ginusto ko 'yung hindi ko nakuha 'yung Metaphor
mabuhay ng masarap, para, makabili ka - is a symbolic comparison using figurative language to
ng gusto mo, 'di ba? evoke a visual analogy.
Makapunta sa ibang lugar, ibang bansa
din. Gusto ko rin, n……….. na sana kako
meron din akong ganito, meron din akong
ganyan.” (152)

"I like nurses because they are clean." (Gusto ko po yung

nurse kasi malinis sila.)
“I Want to be a nurse because they are well-off." (Sana maging
nurse din…….)
"Their outfits are nice." (Ganda do ng suot nila.).

"They are always scowling that's why I'm afraid to talk to How to come up with good analysis?
them." (Lagi silang nakasimangot kaya takot akong kausapin Step 1: read
sila.) Step 2: re-read
*She looks like a witch." (Mukha siyang mangkukulam.) Step 3: re-read
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 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023

OUTLINE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DISCUSSION and 67 (20.49%) were female PT. Dentistry took par in this
1. Findings study, 16 (4.89) are males and 12 (3.67%) are female with the
- Themes emerged tota of 28 (8.56%) participants.
- Model/ Metaphor Table 3: weighted mean
- Individual Theme
- Definition
- Story tell
- Verbalizations
2.Cross Reference
3. Moderatum Generalization

QUANTIFYING RESEARCH DATA

Statistics
Scale: 1.0-1.49; Very Rare; 1.5-2.49; Rarely: 2.5-3.49;
- Deals with logical collection, organization, presentation,
Sometime; 3.5-4.49; Often: 4.5-5.0; Very Often
analysis and interpretation of numerical data.
- Fields of statistics:
Choosing the Appropriate Measure Univariate Analysis:
1) Descriptive – allow the researcher to organize the data
Describing Data
in ways that give meaning and facilitate insight
• Measures of dispersion - applicable to at scales
(frequency distributions and measures of central
tendency and dispersion) • Standard Deviation – the square root of the variance is the
2) Inferential – statistics designed to allow inference from standard deviation.
a sample statistic to a population parameter; • Variance – is a statistical measure of how much a set of
commonly used to test hypotheses of similarities and observations differ from each other.
differences in subsets of the sample under study

Range
- Is simply the highest score minus the lowest score in a
distribution.
- Example: highest score of 90 and a lowest score of 48
(score 90-48=50, range =50)

Descriptive Statistics
- It is a statistical technique that provides simple description
and summary about the sample and about the
observations that has been made.
Table 1: frequency distribution
The average of these prices is $21.33

(N=250) were the total number of respondents – 43.2% of the

respondents were male (108) and 56.8% were female (142).
Table 2: cross tabulated table

In table 2 there are 140 (42.81%) males and 187 (57.19)

females for a total of (N=327) participants. N the total row
below were nurses where (23.8%) are males and (14.06%) are
females. The researchers also considered 113 (34.56% PT as
respondents for this research wherein 46 (14.06%) were males
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 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023
ANALYZING THE DATA
Levels of Statistical Analysis
Common Bivariate Tests
• t-test (independent and dependent): parametric
analysis technique used to determine significant
differences between measures of two samples
• ANOVA: statistical test used to examine differences
among two or more groups by comparing the
variability between the groups with the variability
within the groups.
• Chi-square test of independence: used to analyze
NOMINAL data to determine significant differences
between observed frequencies within the data and
frequencies that were expected
• Pearson's Product Moment Correlation: parametric
test used to determine relationship among variables
Multivariate:
- Techniques used to analyse data from complex,
multivariate research projects such as multiple
regression, time series, etc.
T-Test
Paired T test
- means that both samples consist of the same test subjects.
- A paired t-test is equivalent to a one-sample t-test.
- Paired T test- also called the dependent sample t-test, is a
statistical procedure used to determine whether the mean
difference between two sets of observations is zero.
- In a paired sample t-test, each subject or entity is
measured twice, resulting in pairs of observations.
- The "paired" way would be to measure the heart rate of 10
people before they drink cobra energy drink and then
measure the heart rate of the same 10 people after drinking
the energy drink. These two samples consist of the same
test subjects, so you would perform a paired t-test on the
means of both samples.
- Comparison of pre-test and post test score
When to use a PAIRED T-TEST?
- Paired t-tests are used when the same item or group
is tested twice, which is known as a repeated
measures +-test.
- Some examples of instances for which a paired +-test
is appropriate include:
- The before and after effect of a pharmaceutical
treatment on the same group of people.
- Body temperature using two different thermometers
on the same group of participants.
- Standardized test results of a group of students
before and after a study preparatory course. Or pre-
test and post test score.
Unpaired T test
- means that both samples consist of distinct test subjects.
- An unpaired t-test is equivalent to a two-sample t-test.
- For example, if you wanted to conduct an experiment to
see how cobra energy drink increases heart rate, you could
do it two ways.
- Unpaired T test-(also known as an independent t-test) is a
statistical procedure that compares the averages/ means
J.A.K.E 10 of 19
of two independent or unrelated groups to determine if
there is a significant difference between the two.
- The "unpaired" way would be to measure the heart rate of
10 people before drinking cobra energy drink and then
measure the heart rate of some other group of people who
have drank other energy drinks.
- These two samples consist of different test subjects, so
you would perform an unpaired t-test on the means of both
samples.
When to use an UNPAIRED T-TEST?
- An unpaired †-test is used to compare the mean
between two independent groups.
- You use an unpaired t-test when you are comparing
two separate groups with equal variance.
- Research, such as a pharmaceutical study or other
treatment plan, where 4 of the subjects are assigned
to the treatment group and 4 of the subjects are
randomly assigned to the control group.
- Research during which there are two independent
groups, such as women and men, that examines
whether the average BMI is significantly different
between the two groups.
- Comparing the average commuting distance traveled
by Quezon City and Caloocan City residents using
1,000 randomly selected participants from each city.
ANOVA
- ANOVA test is a way to find out if survey or experiment
results are significant.
One-way or two-way
- refers to the number of independent variables (IVs) in your
Analysis of Variance test. One-way has one independent
variable (with 2 levels).
- Ex: Effects of tea on weight loss and form two groups:
green tea and black tea
- Ex: Knee pain of people according to weight. You could
split participants into 3 weight categories (obese,
overweight and normal weight)
10- Obese clients
10- Over weight
10- Norma weight
Two-way
- has two independent variables (can have multiple levels). It
is an extension of the One Way ANOVA.
- ex: Income and gender for anxiety level at job interviews.
The anxiety level is the outcome, or the variable that can be
measured. Gender and Income are the two categorical.
These categorical variables are also the independent
variables, which are called factors in a Two Way ANOVA.
- For example, a one-way Analysis of Variance could have
one IV (brand of medicine) and a two-way Analysis of
Variance has two Is (brand of medicines, dosage).
 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023

Choosing the Appropriate Measure Bivariate Analysis:

Describing Data
Nominal
Phi coefficient
- Or mean square contingency coefficient and is a measure
of association for two binary variables. Introduced by Karl
Pearson, this measure is similar to the Pearson correlation
coefficient in its interpretation.
- Phi correlation coefficient (phi) is one of a number of
correlation statistics developed to measure the strength of
association between two variables. Kruskal-wallis H test
- The phi is a nonparametric statistic used in cross- - The test determines whether the medians of two or more
tabulated table data where both variables are dichotomous. groups are different.
- It is nonparametric procedure that can be used to compare
more than two population.
- Like most statistical tests, you calculate a test statistic and
compare it to a distribution cut-off point.
- Example:
*take note of the direction of the relationship 1) You want to find out how test anxiety affects actual test
Suggested by: Gibbon and Morris scores. The independent variable “test anxiety” has
Type of research question Statistics three levels: 1) no anxiety, 2) low medium anxiety and 3)
Descriptive Mean, frequency high anxiety. The dependent variable is the exam score,
Complex descriptive Cross-tabulations, factor rated from 0 to 100%.
analysis
Single factor difference t-test, z-test, one-way
questions ANOVA
Complex pr multifactor Factorial ANOVA
difference questions
Basic associational Correlation
questions
2) You want to find out how socioeconomic status affects
Complex or multivariate Pearson R; when predicting:
attitude towards sales tax increases. Your independent
assosciational questions Multiple Regression
variable is “socioeconomic status” with three levels:
working class, middle class and wealthy. The
Gender
dependent variable is measured on a 4 point likert scale
Male Female
from strongly agree to strongly disagree.
Marital Married 5 5
Status Single 1 2
A phi coefficient of 0 would indicate that there is no
systematic pattern across the 2x2 matrix. Or
Ordinal
Spearman rho
- Is a nonparametric measure of rank correlation (statistical
dependence between the ranking of two variables).
- Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient or spearman’s rho, Scale
named after Charles spearman - Pearson r is a statistical formula that measures the
- It is a non- parametric test used to measure the strength of strength between variables and relationships.
association between two variables, where the: - To determine how strong the relationship is between two
Value r = 1 means a perfect positive correlation and the variables, you need to find the coefficient value, which can
Value r = -1 means a perfect negative correlation. range between -1.00 and 1.00
Spearman rho (maximum value is 1)
- Is the nonparametric version of the pearson correlation Pearson R
coefficient. - P- value = alternative approach in decision making
- Your data must be ordinal, interval, or ratio. - Decision rule: if p <a (0.01 or 0.05) Reject the Ho conclude
- Spearman’s returns a value from -1 to 1, where: Ha
+1 = a perfect positive correlation between ranks - Example:
-1 = a perfect negative correlation between ranks 1) Participants' age and reported level of income. if there
0 = no correlation between ranks. is positive or negative relationship between someone's
age and their income level. After conducting the test,

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 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023

your Pearson correlation coefficient value is +.20 (near
0). Therefore, you would have a slightly positive
correlation between the two variables, so the strength
of the relationship is also positive and considered weak.
You could confidently conclude there is a weak
relationship and positive correlation between one's age
and their income. In other words, as people grow older,
their income tends to increase as well.
2) Participants' anxiety score and the number of hours
they work each week. After conducting the test, your
Pearson correlation coefficient value is -.80 near -1.
Therefore, you would have a negative correlation
between the two variables, and the strength of the
relationship would be strong. You could confidently
conclude there is a strong relationship and negative
correlation between one's anxiety score and how many
hours a week they report working. Therefore, those who
scored high on anxiety would tend to report less hours
of work per week, while those who scored lower on
anxiety would tend to report more hours of work each
week.
Analysing the data
• Level of significance: a, probability of rejecting a true Ho
hypothesis
• Setting the level of significance is setting the probability of
erroneously rejecting a true Ho to be at the most equal to a
• a is conventionally set at 0.05, 0.01 or 0.1
Interpreting the results
Hypothesis testing
• Statistical Hypothesis is subjected to statistics.
• CV =/‹ TV ----- accêpt the Ho
• CV › TV ------- reject the Ho
• ERRORS
- Type I
- Type II
examined when, in fact a difference exists; the null
hypothesis is regarded as true when it is false.
Example:
• Ho: not guilty
• Ha: guilty
• Decision of the judge: he is guilty. but in reality, he is not!
(Type I error)
• Decision of the judge: he is not guilty or he is innocent.
• but in reality , he is guilty/criminal. (Type II error)
Type I: (False Positive Error)
- A Type I error (sometimes called a Type 1 error), is the
incorrect rejection of a true null hypothesis.
- Is asserting something as true when it is actually false. This
false positive error is basically a "false alarm"
- In reality a person is NOT SICK. But after the test the result
is (HE or SHE is SICK)
Type II: (False Negative Error)
- A type II error occurs when the null hypothesis is actually
false, but was accepted as true by the testing.
- A type II error, or false negative, is where a test result
indicates that a condition failed, while it actually was
successful.
- In reality the person is sick. But after the test He or she is
healthy or not sick

ERRORS
Type I:
- Error that occurs when the researcher concludes that the
samples tested are from different populations (a significant
difference exists between groups) when, in fact, the
samples are from the same population (no significant
difference exists between groups); null hypothesis is
rejected when it is true
Type II:
- Error that occurs when the researcher concludes that no
significant difference exists between the samples

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 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023
DATA COLLECTION PROCESS
Prior to conduction of the study
1) Consider code of ethics – Consult early in the
development of your proposal the Code of ethics for your
professional association
2) Apply to the Institutional Review Board – Researchers
need to have their research plans reviewed by an (IRB)
Institutional Review Board on their university campuses.
3) Obtain necessary permission – Prior to the study,
researcher needs to obtain approval of an individual in
authority to gain access to sites and to study participants.
This involves writing a letter that specifies extent of time,
potential impact and outcomes of research.
4) Select a site without a vested interests – Selecting a site
to study in which you have an interest in outcomes is not a
good idea. Select site that will not raise these questions of
power and influences in your study.
5) Negotiate authorship for publication – If you plan to
publish your study, order of authorship is important to
J.A.K.E 13 of 19
state at the beginning so that individuals who contribute to
a research study receive their due contribution.
Beginning the study
1) Identify a beneficial research problem – It is important to
identify a problem that will benefit individuals being
studied.
2) Disclose purpose of the study – Explain the central intent
and question of the study. Specify the sponsorship of the
study.
3) Do not pressure participants into signing a consent
forms
4) Respect norms and cultures of your respondents
Collecting the data
1) Respect the site – It involves prolong observation of the
site and minimize disruption of the physical setting.
2) Make sure that all participants receive the benefits –
Both the researcher and participants should benefit form
the research.
3) Avoid deceiving the participants – Participants need to
know that they are actively participating in the research
study.
4) Avoid exploitation of the participants – This might be a
small reward for participating, sharing the final research
report or involving them as collaborators.
5) Avoid collecting harmful information – Anticipate the
possibility of harmful, intimate information being disclosed
during the data collection process.
Analyzing the data
1) Avoid going native – This means "Taking sides" and only
discussing the results that place the participants in a
favourable light.
2) Avoid disclosing only positive results – Need to treport
the full range of findings.
3) Respect the privacy of the participants – The
researchers will use pseudonyms or aliases for individuals
or places to protect the identities of the participants.
Presentation of Study Results
- Presentation of study results must be done chronologically
based on the objectives of the study. The results of the
study is presented in different ways, such as the following:
Narrative
• Should be presented accurately and objectively
• Contain quotes, findings, meanings and implications
• In past tense
Tabular & Graphical
• Requires placing of numerical data in cells and
compartments
• Tables, charts and diagrams
Special Considerations
• Place items to be compared next to each other
• Place labels correctly
• Use fonts that are large enough
• Include information needed within the image area
• Keep graphical displays free of extraneous materials
 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023
Table Checklist
• Is the table necessary?
• Is the table referred to in the text?
• Are all comparable tables in the manuscript consistent in
presentation?
• Is the title brief but explanatory?
• Does every column have a column heading?
Figure Checklist
• Is the figure necessary?
• Is the figure simple, clear and free of extraneous detail?
• Are all elements in the figure clearly labeled?
• Are all figures labeled consecutively with
• Arabic numerals?
• Are all figures mentioned in the text?
• Has written permission for print and electronic reuse been
obtained/ is appropriate credit given?
• Are the figures being submitted in a file format acceptable
by UBC?
J.A.K.E 14 of 19
Remember
• Tables and figures will be printed in BLACK ink
• Accepted formats are jpeg png -gif
• Resolution should be at least 96dpi
• Paste figure directly to the page (softcopy) and supply an
independent copy (softcopy)
• Table dimensions should not go beyond the page margin
Preparations of Table And Graphs
Following are suggested rules (Reyes, 1998) in preparing
tables and graphs:
• Tables and graphs should include only qualified items
of information
• They should precede with introductions that explains
them
• They should be placed close to the discussion of facts
related to them
• They should be SELF-EXPLANATORY
Summary & Conclusions
• Summary presents important points of the discussed
results
• The study conclusions show what knowledge has been
obtained by the study
• Conclusions focus on the answers to the study problem
• They should generalize the results to other subjects or
groups
• Researchers should remember that findings are not
conclusions
• For Qualitative, Conclusion is termed MODERATUM
GENERALIZATION
 NURSING RESEARCH 2: BSN 3RD YEAR 2ND SEMESTER MIDTERM 2023

Result: o Certificate of Originality

• There is a significant decrease in the anxiety level of the 20 o Approval Sheet
patients (subjects) before abdominal surgery who have o Acknowledgement
been entertained by music o Abstract
Conclusion: o Table of Contents
• Music appears to be an effective means of decreasing o List of Table
anxiety levels in the patients o List of Figures
Summary & Conclusions: Example o List of Appendices
• On the whole, published articles in two existing nursing
journals in the Philippines are geared toward quantification, METHODS OF DATA GATHERING
with greater emphasis on Medical-Surgical issues and Types of data
concerns vis-à-vis the reliance on probability sampling. The Existing data
conventional trend of single authorship still prevails in the - Already available in existing records or documents
local nursing publication. The preponderance of female - Raw - hospital records, patient charts, physician's order
researchers concur with the nature of the field being sheets, care plan statements
female dominated. - Tabular/secondary - data gathered from previous studies
• The portrait that this bibliometric study has generated can Original data
be expectedly served as a clarion in affirming the nursing - Data that are yet to be gathered from subject using varied
field's position in the realm of allied health professions. tools and instruments for collection
The great disparity between the number of nurses in the
country and their visibility in scientific research Major types of data collection method
undertaking should not be overlooked. Schools, colleges, 1. Self report.
and universities offering nursing program are expected to 2. Observation
revisit their research capability in the light of their 3. Biophysiological measures
individual and organizational competence and make Self-report
research as a means to inform theory and practice. The low - To give detail about something on yourself
engagement of nurse-practitioners in research calls for a - It is any method which involves asking a participant about
kind of re-culturing, both at macro and micro levels. their feelings, attitudes, beliefs
Recommendations Qualitative self report techniques
• Every findings provides recommendations for further Structured
research - Used when the researchers already have a
• Suggestions are based on study findings preconceived view of the flow or content of
• Replication studies should be conducted information to be gathered
(From the research: Enhancement of Classroom Learning - Interview starts with a prepared/borrowed series of
Experiences of Nursing questions
Students...) Unstructured
Based from the facts elicited from this study and in the - Used when the researchers do not have a
hope of improving the learning experiences of nursing preconceived view of the flow or content of
students, the researcher recommends the following: information to be gathered
• The school administrators should provide ways to - Interview starts with no prepared series of questions
implement course website technology to nursing subjects Semi-structured
offered by the university. - Used when the researcher knows what to ask but
• The school should plan and develop an online course cannot predict what the answers will be
(open university) in nursing to address the needs of - Interviewer prepares in advance a written topic guide/
immobile students and offer other means of learning not used an aide memoire
only in other places in the country but in other parts of the Focus group discussion
globe as well. - A group of people (who don't know each other) is
• A replication of this study to other courses offered by the assembled for discussion
university is warranted to identify the effects of integration • Moderator - guides the discussion according to a set
of course website technology. of questions or topics to be covered
• Optimal group size: 6-12 participants
General Formatting Notes Joint interviews
• All sides 1" except left 1.2" - 2-3 participants who know each other
• Use required paper border Life histories
• Follow the research outline - Narrative self-disclosure of individual life experiences,
• Pass 3 Hardcopies (Green) and 2 Softcopies suitable on an ethnographic studies
• Preliminaries: Oral histories
o Title Page - More theme-specific / than individual life experiences

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Diaries and journals

- Participants will write down experiences, thoughts
and feelings

Guideline for the interview:

• preparing for the interview
- Researcher and participant must have a common
vocabulary
- Let the participant choose the setting
- Memorize central questions
- Make sure that the tape corresponds to the size
needed
• conducting the interview
- Use ice-breaking questions
- Develop rapport
- Be a good listener (follow-up, do not lead, no opinions,
silence..
- Prepare for emotions
- Take down notes, observations
• post-interview procedures
- Tape recorded interviews should be checked for
audibility and completeness after the interview is over
- Transcribe accurately
Quantitaive self report instruments
Interview schedule Data gathering instruments
- Term for instrument when questions are asked in Designing the research instrument
either face- to-face or telephone interview Data gathering instruments
Questionnaire defined
Questionnaire or mcq
- Once the statement of problem and sub-problems are
- When the respondents complete the instrument
defined, you can now proceed with preparing the
themselves, usuallv in a paper- pe format
questionnaire that you will use to gather data for possible
Types of structured questions solutions of your problems.
1. Open-ended questions - In obtaining the needed data, three methods may be
- Allow respondents to respond in their own words, in utilized: the questionnaire method, observation method,
narrative fashion and interview method.
- "what is your perception about contraception?" • A questionnaire is a printed form containing questions
2. Closed-ended questions to be asked and instructions and provisions for answers
- Offer the respondents appropriate choices from • A questionnaire may either be standardized or
which they must choose the one that most closely researcher-made.
match the appropriate answer • A questionnaire is standardized, if an accredited
- "how many years have you been married? research agency of laboratory did its design and
- answerable by a yes or no structure.
• With the constant use of the standardized
questionnaire in researches and studies, its reliability,
validity and accuracy reach a highen level.
Four essential parts of a questionnaire
Instructions
- Clarify to the respondents how and what to do with
the questionnaire; it is found at the topmost part of
the form.
Classification
- Information describes respondents by certain
physical, social, economic, and other traits that relate
to the subject of the research.
- The researcher on ask about die age, gender, civil
status, educational attainment, income, and
profession/occupation of the respondents.

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Validity Observer biases

- Refers to the extent to which a measurement does Central tendency bias
what it is supposed to do, which is to measure what it - Extreme events are distorted toward a middle ground
intend to measure - It refers to a tendency for raters, or managers to
- Refers to the degree of appropriateness, correctness, evaluate most of their employees as "average" when
truthfulness and accuracy of the study. In other words, they apply a rating scale.
the procedure shall measure what it purports to Error of leniency
measure. - Tendency to rate too positively
Reliability - Due to this subjectivity, a manager or an interviewer
- Refers to the consistency, stability and dependability may rate an employee or an interviewee on the basis
of the data of / his/her perception and this perception may tend
Content validity to become over-positive.
- Refers to the degree of to which the question items Error of severity
represent the scope or universe of the trait or - Tendency to rate negatively/harshly leading to an
characteristic measured by the researcher. insufficiently fast and give undeservedly low scores.
Construct validity Assimilatory
- Shows the degree of relationship between the - Distort observation in the direction of identitynwith
measure and the construct being measured. previous inputs.
Criterion validity. Hawthorne effect
- Detects the presence or absence of one or more - Brought about by the participant's knowledge of being
criteria believed to represent characteristics or included in the research
constructs of interest Halo effect
Distributing questionnaires - Tendency of observers to be influenced by one
• personal characteristic in judging other, unrelated
- Given to a person/group of people who will answer the characteristics.
(saq) self-administered questionnaire together
• mail Biophysiological measures
- The appearance must be in good condition • measures of biological function obtained through use of
• web-based/email technology, such as electrocardiogram or blood testing
- Questionnaire can be sent to email • can be done:
- Can create website with the questionnai o Directly to the person or within the person(in vivo)
Cbc, lab test, sugar levels, tissue biopsies
Observations o Outside the person or living organism (in vitro)
• what to observe on a participant? Blood pressure, ecg
- Characteristics and physical conditions Q-methodology
- Activities and behavior - Studies people's perspectives and viewpoints
- Skills and performance - Participants are given set of cards (60- 100) and asked to
- Verbal and non-verbal communication sort them into a grid with 2 extremes such as
- Environment that may affect behavior of participant approve/disapprove, like me/least like me, highest/lowest
• observer must overcome at least two initial obstacles: priority
1. Gaining entry into the social group or culture under study
2. Establishing rapport and developing trust within the social
group
Recording unstructured observations
• log or field diary - it contains daily record of events in the
field
• field notes - contents are much broader, more analytic and
more interpretative. Researcher tries to understand the data
o Methodological notes - is this method working?
o Theoretical notes - making sense of what's going /
o Personal notes - own feelings
Recording Structured Observations
- Categories and checklist

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Projective, techniques b) Investigator should exercise greater care to protect

- Used to obtain data indirectly about people's way of subjects from harm in non-therapeutic research
thinking. c) Investigator should conduct research only when the
- Used to obtain psychological data with minimum importance of the objective outweighs the inherent
cooperation through participants' reactions from risks and hurdens to the subjects
unstructured stimuli Beneficence
• Pictures - "doodling, digital - Encompasses the maxim: above all, do no harm
• Verbal – Word-association method, Sentence - principle of beneficence:
completion method • Freedom from harm
• Expression – Drawings or role playing • Freedom from exploitation
Vignettes • Benefits from research
Risk/ benefit ratio
- Brief descriptions of events or situations to which
- benefits:
respondents are asked to react
• Access to an intervention
- Elicits perceptions, opinions or knowledge about some
phenomenon o can be written or videotaped o questions • Comfort in being able to discuss their situation
can be open-ended or closed ended • Increased knowledge
Cognitive and neuropsychological tests • Escape from normal routine
• Satisfaction
• intelligence tests
• Monetary or material gains
- Tests ability to perceive relationships and solve
- risks:
problems
• aptitude tests • Physical harm
- Measure's potential for achievement • Physical discomfort
• examples: • Emotional distress
- I.q. Tests • Social risks
- Scholastic assessment test (sat) • Loss of privacy
• Loss of time
Ethics • Monetary costs
- Ethical principles that govern the complex nature of human Justice
behavior - Includes participant’s right to fair treatment and their right
- Ethics determines: why one act is better than the other; to to privacy.
Ethical dilemmas in conducting research - Principle:
• Unethical researches that have been highly publicized • The right to fair treatment
for their unethical treatment of human subjects • The right to privacy
• The nazi medical experiments were conducted on • Anonymity/ confidentiality
prisoners of war and racially "valueless" people who were Human dignity
confined to concentration camps by the third reich. - Respect for human dignity includes participants right to
• The tuskegee syphilis study was conducted to determine - Self-determinant
the natural course of syphilis in the adult black man. - Principles:
• By the end of the study, only 74 of the test subjects were • The right to self determination
still alive. Twenty-eight of the men had died directly of • The right to full disclosure
syphilis, 100 were dead of related complications, 40 of Informed consent
their wives had been infected, and 19 of their children ‘had - means that participants have adequate information
been born with congenital syphilis. Regarding the research, can comprehend the information,
• The willowbrook study involved deliberately infecting. And have the power of free choice, enabling them to
Children with the hepatitis virus. Consent to or decline participation voluntarily.
• The jewish chronic disease hospital study involved - elements:
injecting patients with live cancer cells to determine the • Participant status
patients' rejection response to these cells. • Study goal
• Two historical documents that have strong impact on the • Types of data
Conduct of research • Nature of the commitment
1. Nuremberg code (1949) • Sponsorship
- Consent process • Participant
- Protection of subjects from harm • Procedures
- The balance of benefits and risks in a study • Potential risk
2. Declaration of helsinki (1964) • Potential benefits
- Differentiated therapeutic from non-therapeutic • Alternatives
a) Investigator should protect life • Confidentiality pledge

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• Voluntary consent
• Right to withdraw
• Contract information
• Compensation
Vulnerable subjects
- Special groups of people whose rights in research studies
need special protection because of their inability to provide
meaningful informed consent, or because their
circumstances place them at higher-than-average risk of
adverse effects; examples includes young children, the
mentally retarded and unconscious patients.
- Children, institutionalized people, pregnant woman,
mentally or emotionally disabled, severely ills or physically
disabled people, terminally ill.

GOOD LUCK PIPOL!! KAYA NATIN TO RAWR

Institutional review boards

- irbs are responsible for reviewing in universities, clinical
agencies, and managed care centers involving human
subjects for the express purpose of determining if potential
benefits of the investigation outweigh any risk that may be
present to the subject.
- Types of review:
• Exempt from review – no apparent risk or harm to the
subjects.
• Expedited review – minimal risk or harm to the subjects
• Complete review – greater than minimal risk or harm to
the subjects
Scientific misconduct
- scientific misconduct in research includes fraudulent
practices as fabrication, falsification, or forging of data,
dishonest manipulations of the study designs or methods
with protocol violations; misrepresentations of findings
and plagiarism (rankin and estevez, 1997).
- Types of scientific misconduct:
• Fabrication – deliberate invention of non-existent
information
• Irresponsible collaboration – failure to participate
appropriately in an investigation team
• Plagiarism – the intentional representation of the work
or ideas of others as one’s own
• Manipulation of data – choosing only data that are
consistent with the research hypothesis.

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