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Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis of Cryptococcus neoformans meningoencephalitis in patients with HIV - UpToDate 7/24/21, 12(38 PM

Official reprint from UpToDate®


www.uptodate.com © 2021 UpToDate, Inc. and/or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved.

Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis of


Cryptococcus neoformans meningoencephalitis in
patients with HIV
Authors: Gary M Cox, MD, John R Perfect, MD
Section Editor: John A Bartlett, MD
Deputy Editor: Milana Bogorodskaya, MD

All topics are updated as new evidence becomes available and our peer review process is complete.

Literature review current through: Jun 2021. | This topic last updated: Jul 15, 2020.

INTRODUCTION

Disseminated Cryptococcus neoformans infection is a serious opportunistic infection that


occurs in patients with untreated AIDS [1]. Although cryptococcal infection begins in the
lungs, meningitis is the most frequently encountered manifestation of cryptococcosis among
those with advanced immunosuppression. However, the infection is more properly
characterized as "meningoencephalitis" rather than meningitis since the brain parenchyma is
almost always involved on histologic examination [2,3].

The clinical manifestations and diagnosis of C. neoformans meningoencephalitis in persons


living with AIDS will be reviewed here. Treatment and monitoring of patients with HIV who
have cryptococcal meningoencephalitis is found elsewhere. The microbiology, clinical
manifestations, and treatment of this infection in other patient populations, such as
transplant patients, are discussed elsewhere. Cryptococcus gattii infection is also presented
separately. (See "Cryptococcus neoformans meningoencephalitis in patients with HIV:
Treatment and prevention" and "Clinical management and monitoring during antifungal

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therapy for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in patients with HIV" and "Microbiology and
epidemiology of Cryptococcus neoformans infection" and "Clinical manifestations and
diagnosis of Cryptococcus neoformans meningoencephalitis in HIV-seronegative patients"
and "Cryptococcus neoformans: Treatment of meningoencephalitis and disseminated
infection in HIV seronegative patients" and "Cryptococcus neoformans infection outside the
central nervous system" and "Cryptococcus gattii infection: Microbiology, epidemiology, and
pathogenesis" and "Cryptococcus gattii infection: Clinical features and diagnosis" and
"Cryptococcus gattii infection: Treatment".)

EPIDEMIOLOGY

The vast majority (90 percent) of cases of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis are seen among
patients with AIDS and a CD4 count <100 cells/microL. Patients who present with
cryptococcosis can be antiretroviral therapy (ART) naïve or can be prescribed ART but have
drug resistance or poor adherence to their prescribed regimen.

In 2008, it was estimated that approximately 957,900 cases of cryptococcal


meningoencephalitis occurred worldwide each year, resulting in more than 600,000 deaths
[4,5]. The regions with the highest number of estimated cases in 2006 were sub-Saharan
Africa (720,000 cases; range, 144,000 to 1.3 million), followed by South and Southeast Asia
(120,000 cases; range, 24,000 to 216,000) [4].

The incidence of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis has dropped with the widespread


availability of antiretroviral drugs [6,7], with an estimated 223,100 cases per year worldwide,
resulting in 181,100 annual deaths in 2014 [7]. Cryptococcal disease causes approximately 15
percent of AIDS-related mortality globally [7]. Even with the increased availability of potent
ART, the rates of cryptococcal diseases seem to have stabilized at a relatively high level in
sub-Saharan Africa [8].

Early diagnosis and treatment may help reduce cryptococcal meningitis-related mortality.
One way to diagnose cryptococcal infection early in the course of disease is through the
detection of serum cryptococcal antigen (CrAg), which can be detected at least three weeks
prior to the onset of neurologic symptoms. The prevalence of antigenemia has been found to

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vary depending upon the geographical area. As an example, in the United States, the
prevalence of cryptococcal antigenemia among patients with a CD4 count <100 cells/microL
was reported to be approximately 3 percent, whereas in Uganda the prevalence among such
patients was 8.2 percent [9,10]. A detailed discussion of the use of CrAg screening and early
therapy to preemptively manage meningoencephalitis is found elsewhere. (See
"Cryptococcus neoformans meningoencephalitis in patients with HIV: Treatment and
prevention", section on 'Screening and treatment of early infection'.)

CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS

Symptoms — Symptoms of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis typically begin indolently over


a period of one to two weeks. The most common symptoms are fever, malaise, and
headache [2]. Stiff neck, photophobia, and vomiting are seen in one-fourth to one-third of
patients. Occasionally, patients can present with coma and fulminant death in days.

Other symptoms suggesting disseminated disease include cough, dyspnea, and skin rash
[11]. Visual and hearing loss can also occur [12,13].

Physical examination — The initial physical examination may be notable for lethargy or
confusion in association with fever. In one report, 24 percent of patients had altered
mentation on presentation, and 6 percent presented with focal neurologic deficits, such as
cranial neuropathies [2]. Other manifestations of disseminated disease may be evident,
including tachypnea and skin lesions resembling molluscum contagiosum ( picture 1) [11].
Increased diastolic hypertension may be reflective of increased intracranial pressure.

Laboratories — General laboratory studies are nonspecific. Patients with advanced


immunosuppression may have leukopenia, anemia, hypoalbuminemia, and an increased
gamma globulin antibody fraction.

DIAGNOSIS

We have a high index of suspicion for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in patients with


advanced HIV infection (CD4 cell count <100 cells/microL) who have isolated fever and

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headache. Initial evaluation includes a careful history, neurologic exam, and serum
cryptococcal antigen (CrAg). Evaluation should also include a lumbar puncture (LP) to assess
for increased intracranial pressure and culture of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) to confirm the
diagnosis in those with symptoms and/or a positive serum CrAg. (See 'Importance of
neuroimaging' below and 'Lumbar puncture' below.)

A more detailed discussion on the diagnosis of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in


resource-limited settings is found below. (See 'Special considerations in resource-limited
settings' below.)

Importance of neuroimaging — Prior to an LP, patients suspected of having increased


intracranial pressure and/or central nervous system (CNS) mass lesions must have
neuroimaging (eg, computed tomography [CT] scan or magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]).
Discussions of when to perform neuroimaging prior to LP and considerations in resource-
limited settings are presented separately. (See "Lumbar puncture: Technique, indications,
contraindications, and complications in adults", section on 'Cerebral herniation' and 'Special
considerations in resource-limited settings' below.)

Imaging can detect the presence of mass lesions, increased intracranial pressure, and/or
hydrocephalus, all of which impact treatment decisions.

● Imaging may suggest possible increased ICP with or without mass/space occupying
lesions in patients with cryptococcal meningoencephalitis. While LP and removal of CSF
may be beneficial for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes, the risks and benefits of
the procedure must be discussed with the patient and/or health care proxy given the
very small, but possible chance of cerebral herniation in the setting of raised intracranial
pressure. Consultation with neurology and/or neurosurgery can be obtained to help
guide this discussion. A more detailed discussion on the risks of lumbar punctures is
found elsewhere. (See "Lumbar puncture: Technique, indications, contraindications, and
complications in adults", section on 'Cerebral herniation'.)

● If mass lesions are identified, we typically consider an alternative diagnosis (eg,


toxoplasmosis, lymphoma, tuberculosis) (see "Approach to the patient with HIV and
central nervous system lesions"). Mass lesions due to C. neoformans are rarely seen in

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patients with HIV who are not receiving ART [14,15]; however, they can occur with
unmasking cryptococcosis in the setting of an immune reconstitution inflammatory
syndrome [10] and in patients with C. gattii infection. (See "Clinical management and
monitoring during antifungal therapy for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in patients
with HIV", section on 'Immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome' and
"Cryptococcus gattii infection: Clinical features and diagnosis".)

● If imaging is consistent with cryptococcal-associated hydrocephalus, placement of a


ventricular shunt may be required. (See "Clinical management and monitoring during
antifungal therapy for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in patients with HIV", section on
'Monitoring of intracranial pressure'.)

Lumbar puncture — A lumbar puncture (LP) is required to obtain CSF for confirmatory
testing to make the diagnosis of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis. The CSF profile classically
demonstrates a low white blood cell count in the CSF (eg, <50 cells/microL) with a
mononuclear predominance [16]. The CSF protein may be slightly elevated, while the glucose
concentrations are commonly low or normal [13]. Approximately 25 to 30 percent of patients
with culture-proven cryptococcal meningoencephalitis have a normal CSF profile [17,18].

An LP is also important for determining the patient's intracranial pressure (ICP), which can be
associated with significant morbidity and mortality [2,13]. The management of increased ICP
is discussed elsewhere. (See "Clinical management and monitoring during antifungal therapy
for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in patients with HIV", section on 'Monitoring of
intracranial pressure'.)

Cryptococcal culture — CSF should be sent for cryptococcal culture; cream-colored mucoid
colonies are seen on agar plates generally within three to seven days.

India ink staining — Since the burden of organisms is usually high in patients with AIDS, an
India ink preparation of the CSF may demonstrate typical round encapsulated yeast
organisms consistent with Cryptococcus in 60 percent of patients [19]. However, India ink can
miss low burden infections; in one report, the sensitivity of India ink was only 42 percent
when the culture burden was <1000 colony forming units (CFU)/mL [19].

The advantage of the India ink preparation is that a diagnosis of cryptococcal infection can

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be made rapidly while confirmatory testing is being performed (eg, CSF culture or antigen).
India ink stains should be reviewed by a microbiologist who is familiar with the physical
characteristics of the organism.

Regardless of India ink results, a CrAg test should also be performed to confirm the
diagnosis. The antigen titer measurement can also provide an estimate of fungal burden and
prognosis. (See 'Prognostic factors' below.)

Cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) — CrAg can be detected in serum and CSF through
immunodiagnostic techniques, such as latex agglutination or sandwich enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The lateral flow assay (LFA) is an alternative approach to
detecting cryptococcal antigen. It is a simple dipstick test that is inexpensive to perform and
can be used on blood, serum, CSF, or plasma samples. The LFA compares favorably with the
latex agglutination and ELISA, and is used in both resource-limited and resource-available
areas [19,20]. In resource-limited settings, the LFA improves access to diagnostic testing and
time to diagnosis. The analytical sensitivity of LFA is approximately fourfold higher than latex
agglutination, thus CrAg titers by LFA and latex agglutination are not comparable.

Spinal fluid — A positive CrAg in the CSF strongly supports the diagnosis of cryptococcal
meningoencephalitis and is sufficient evidence to initiate treatment in patients with
symptoms and/or risk factors that are consistent with infection. Results of the CrAg test can
be obtained immediately after the LP is performed; thus, a positive CrAg test can suggest the
presence of infection well before the cultures become positive.

The CrAg is very sensitive and specific in the CSF and has been commonly detected by latex
agglutination. In a study of four latex agglutination assays and one enzyme linked
immunoassay, all performed well with sensitivities ranging from 93 to 100 percent and
specificities from 93 to 98 percent [21]. With latex agglutination, diagnostic false-positive
tests can result from infection due to the fungus Trichosporon asahii (formerly T. beigelii) or
bacteria of the Stomatococcus and Capnocytophaga genera [22-24]. These positive results are
usually present with low titers. False-positive CSF cryptococcal antigen results have been
reported rarely following exposure of samples to disinfectants or soap, or after samples were
placed into an anaerobic transport vial [25-27]. (See "Infections due to Trichosporon species
and Blastoschizomyces capitatus (Saprochaete capitata)".)

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The lateral flow assay (LFA) has become the primary approach for detecting CrAg worldwide.
The LFA is easier to use and less expensive than latex agglutination. In addition, the LFA
appears to perform equally well as or better than other tests. As an example, in a study of
832 HIV-infected individuals from sub-Saharan Africa, LFA was shown to have >99 percent
sensitivity and specificity among persons with suspected meningoencephalitis [19]. In this
study, LFA had the best test performance when compared with latex agglutination, culture,
or India ink microscopy.

Serum/plasma — Serum/plasma testing can have a role in diagnosing patients with both
symptomatic and asymptomatic disease.

● Symptomatic patients – In patients with AIDS and suspected cryptococcal


meningoencephalitis, the sensitivity of serum CrAg testing is comparable to CSF testing
and is a useful diagnostic modality in patients who cannot undergo lumbar puncture
[28]. Antigenemia in peripheral blood can even precede development of meningitis.

CrAg titers generally correlate with initial organism burden and prognosis. However,
following titers are not helpful in management of acute disease in patients with HIV
since changes in titer do not precisely correlate with clinical response [29]. Also, the
slope of decline is not helpful in predicting those patients who may relapse [30]. (See
"Clinical management and monitoring during antifungal therapy for cryptococcal
meningoencephalitis in patients with HIV", section on 'Laboratory monitoring for fungal
infection'.)

● Asymptomatic patients – In asymptomatic patients with advanced


immunosuppression, screening with serum CrAg can identify those with early infection.
The use of CrAg screening and preemptive therapy to prevent symptomatic disease is
discussed in detail elsewhere. (See "Cryptococcus neoformans meningoencephalitis in
patients with HIV: Treatment and prevention", section on 'Screening and treatment of
early infection'.)

Cryptococcal PCR — Multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) systems for CNS infections
(eg, BioFire FilmArray), which screen for the presence of C. neoformans and C. gattii, are
increasingly being used in clinical practice. In one study from Africa, this test detected

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Cryptococcus in the CSF of patients diagnosed with a first episode of cryptococcal infection
with >90 percent sensitivity and excellent specificity. PCR was particularly help to distinguish
persistent culture-positive relapse from paradoxical immune reconstitution inflammatory
syndrome (IRIS) [31]. (See "Clinical management and monitoring during antifungal therapy
for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in patients with HIV", section on 'Immune
reconstitution inflammatory syndrome'.)

However, clinicians should be cautioned that PCR sensitivity decreases to less than 50
percent with low fungal burdens (<100 CFU/mL CSF) [31]. In addition, this test is expensive
and is not commonly used in low and middle income countries. More studies are needed to
better understand the sensitivity and specificity of this test for cryptococcal infections, as well
as the clinical value in patients without HIV [32].

Extraneural cultures — The diagnosis of cryptococcal disease is occasionally made only


after C. neoformans is recovered from another body site, such as blood, urine, or sputum.
Routine blood cultures may be positive for Cryptococcus in up to one-third of AIDS-associated
cases with meningoencephalitis [2]. If cryptococcemia is suspected, fungal isolator tubes can
be ordered for improved sensitivity, although most standard automated blood culture
systems are able to detect cryptococcemia.

The prostate gland is recognized as an extraneural site from which Cryptococcus can reside,
leading to relapse with systemic dissemination after discontinuation of treatment. Detection
of Cryptococcus on urine culture can be improved with prostatic massage. Prior to the era of
potent antiretroviral therapy (ART), persistent prostatic sequestration of Cryptococcus was
described in patients who were treated for six weeks with amphotericin B with or without
flucytosine, with subsequent relapse after treatment discontinuation [33].

Special considerations in resource-limited settings — In resource-limited settings,


especially in areas where the prevalence of cryptococcal disease is high, the diagnostic
approach may be modified.

Prompt LP with measurement of CSF opening pressure and rapid CSF CrAg assays (or India
ink testing if CrAg is not available) remains the preferred diagnostic approach. However,
obtaining a diagnosis can be challenging in some settings because of limited access to LP

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and/or neuroimaging. When this occurs, the risks and benefits favor performing LP without
prior neuroimaging, rather than in high-income country settings where the prevalence of
cryptococcal meningoencephalitis is lower.

If an individual does not have immediate access to LP, or if an LP is clinically contraindicated,


we support the recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO) that recommend
serum or plasma CrAg testing be performed if the results can be delivered in <24 hours [34].
The results of serum/plasma CrAg testing can be used to determine if antifungal treatment
should be administered pending further work-up.

● If testing for CrAg is positive, treatment with antifungal therapy should be initiated. (See
"Cryptococcus neoformans meningoencephalitis in patients with HIV: Treatment and
prevention".)

● If rapid serum or plasma CrAg is negative or not available, empiric therapy should
generally not be administered. Instead, the patient should undergo further diagnostic
evaluation, in an appropriate setting, as soon as possible.

A preemptive strategy involving serum CrAg screening and antifungal therapy may reduce
the risk of developing cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in asymptomatic patients who are at
high risk for developing disease, and may allow earlier therapy for those with CNS
involvement. A detailed discussion on the prevention of cryptococcal disease is found
elsewhere. (See "Cryptococcus neoformans meningoencephalitis in patients with HIV:
Treatment and prevention", section on 'Screening and treatment of early infection'.)

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

The differential diagnosis in the advanced AIDS patient with fever and headache includes
toxoplasmosis, tuberculosis meningitis, lymphoma, syphilis, and progressive multifocal
leukoencephalopathy. Patients with toxoplasmosis may also have focal findings, such as
specific hand weakness, while patients with cryptococcal meningoencephalitis usually have
cranial neuropathies, particularly cranial nerve VI. Patients with tuberculous meningitis may
also have other clues to the diagnosis, such as cough, hemoptysis, and an abnormal chest x-
ray. Patients with secondary syphilis with aseptic meningitis usually have normal mentation

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and a disseminated maculopapular rash. Those with central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma
may have focal neurologic deficits with abnormal neuroimaging reflecting an intracranial
tumor. (See "Toxoplasmosis in patients with HIV" and "Progressive multifocal
leukoencephalopathy (PML): Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, and diagnosis".)

PROGNOSTIC FACTORS

The prognosis for patients with AIDS-associated central nervous system (CNS) cryptococcosis
has improved dramatically with antifungal treatment coupled with potent antiretroviral
therapy (ART), which leads to effective viral suppression and immunologic recovery [35,36].
However, early treatment with ART during the first two weeks of induction antifungal therapy
for CNS cryptococcosis should be avoided since higher mortality occurred in comparison
with delayed ART [37]. The treatment of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis and the timing of
ART initiation are discussed elsewhere. (See "Cryptococcus neoformans meningoencephalitis
in patients with HIV: Treatment and prevention" and "Clinical management and monitoring
during antifungal therapy for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in patients with HIV".)

Acute mortality from cryptococcal meningoencephalitis with underlying HIV infection ranges
from 6 to 16 percent in high-income countries [16,35,38-40]. The significant clinical and
laboratory predictors of death during the initial few weeks of treatment include [38]:

● Abnormal mental status (due to encephalitis and/or increased intracranial pressures)


● Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) antigen titer >1:1024 by latex agglutination or >1:4000 by
lateral flow assay (LFA) (high burden of yeasts)
● CSF white blood cell count <20/microL (poor host response)

Abnormal mental status on baseline examination or a deterioration of mental status can


reflect increased intracranial pressure (ICP). Raised ICP should be considered an urgent
medical issue requiring prompt intervention. (See "Clinical management and monitoring
during antifungal therapy for cryptococcal meningoencephalitis in patients with HIV", section
on 'Monitoring of intracranial pressure'.)

SOCIETY GUIDELINE LINKS


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Links to society and government-sponsored guidelines from selected countries and regions
around the world are provided separately. (See "Society guideline links: Cryptococcosis" and
"Society guideline links: Opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents".)

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

● Cryptococcosis is an invasive fungal infection, most commonly caused by Cryptococcus


neoformans. Infection begins in the lungs; meningoencephalitis is the most frequently
encountered manifestation of cryptococcosis in HIV-infected patients. (See 'Introduction'
above.)

● The incidence of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis has declined in patients who have


access to antiretroviral therapy (ART). However, cryptococcal disease remains a leading
cause of mortality in the developing world. (See 'Epidemiology' above.)

● Symptoms typically begin indolently over a period of one to two weeks. The most
common symptoms are fever, malaise, and headache. Other neurologic findings (eg,
cranial neuropathies), may also be present. Symptoms suggesting disseminated disease
include cough, dyspnea, and skin rash. (See 'Clinical manifestations' above.)

● The definitive diagnosis of cryptococcal meningoencephalitis is made by culture of the


organism from the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). A positive cryptococcal polysaccharide
antigen in the CSF or serum strongly suggests the presence of infection well before the
cultures become positive in high-risk patients. (See 'Diagnosis' above.)

● Radiographic imaging of the brain must be performed prior to lumbar puncture if there
is a concern for increased intracranial pressure (ICP) and/or other space-occupying
lesions. (See 'Importance of neuroimaging' above.)

● The significant clinical and laboratory predictors of death during initial induction therapy
include an abnormal mental status, a CSF antigen titer of >1:1024 by latex agglutination
or >1:4000 by lateral flow assay (LFA), and a pleocytosis of <20 CSF white blood
cells/microL. (See 'Prognostic factors' above.)

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Topic 3757 Version 26.0

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GRAPHICS

Disseminated cryptococcosis

Multiple umbilicated papules are present on the face of this patient with
cryptococcosis. The lesions resemble molluscum contagiosum.

Reproduced with permission from: www.visualdx.com. Copyright VisualDx. All rights reserved.

Graphic 69214 Version 4.0

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Contributor Disclosures
Gary M Cox, MD Nothing to disclose John R Perfect, MD Grant/Research/Clinical Trial Support: Merck
[Antifungal agents]; Astellas [Antifungal agents]; Pfizer [Antifungal agents]. Consultant/Advisory Boards:
Merck [Antifungal agents]; Astellas [Antifungal agents]. John A Bartlett, MD Nothing to disclose Milana
Bogorodskaya, MD Nothing to disclose

Contributor disclosures are reviewed for conflicts of interest by the editorial group. When found, these are
addressed by vetting through a multi-level review process, and through requirements for references to be
provided to support the content. Appropriately referenced content is required of all authors and must
conform to UpToDate standards of evidence.

Conflict of interest policy

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