Introduction to kinematics of machines

Machine and mechanism are words giving two different images.

 The term machine is associated with the use and transformation of
force. Although motion in varying degree is encountered in a
machine, the idea of force dominates.
 Mechanisms, on the other hand, definitely focus on the idea of
motion, and while forces do exist, they are relatively small and
unimportant compared with the exploitation of motion.
 Machines are spoken of early in history, but what was considered a
machine two thousand years ago differs considerably from our
present ideas.
 Vitruvilis, a military engineer (about 28 B.C.), defined a machine as
"a combination of timber fastened together, particularly effective
in moving great weights."
 About a century later, Hero of Alexandria (a mathematician and
engineer , 10 AD – 70 AD) summarized "five simple machines" for
"moving a given weight by a given force". They were lever, windlass,
screw for power, wedge, and tackle block (pulley).
 Until nearly the end of the nineteenth century it was held that
these "five mechanical powers" were the building blocks from which
all more complex assemblages were constructed.
 Euler (1707 - 1783) along with his contemporaries D'Alembert and
Kant suggested the separation of geometrical and mechanical
aspects to simplify the study of motion of a rigid body.
 Monge (1746 - 1818), the inventor of descriptive geometry created
a course in elements of machines and started the task of classifying
all the then available machines and mechanisms.
 Hachette completed this work in 1800 and Ampere coined the word
„cinematique‟ (from the Greek word for motion) which was later
anglicized to kinematics.

Other notable texts of the same era include:

 Betancourt (1808) - Essai sur la composition des machines
  Coriolis (1832) - Memoire sur les equations du mouvement relatif
 Robert Willis (1800 - 1875) in his book "Principles of Mechanisms"
made an attempt to systemize the task of mechanism synthesis. He
counted five ways of obtaining relative motion between the input
and output members, viz., (i) rolling contact, (ii) sliding contact, (iii)
linkages, (iv) wrapping connections and (v) tackle.

ORIGIN OF KINEMATICS OF MACHINES

Franz Reuleaux was born near Aachen, Germany on September 30, 1829.
He is regarded as the founder of modern kinematics and as one of the
forerunners of modern design theory of machines.
 The modern theory of machines started with the book "The
Kinematics of Machinery - Outlines of a Theory of Machines" (1875)
by Franz Reuleux.
 This book was so original in concepts and ideas that A.B.W. Kennedy
immediately translated it into English in 1876.
 The most important ideas propounded in this book, which still form
the backbones of modern texts on Theory of Machines, are (i)
kinematic pair, (ii) kinematic chain and (iii) kinematic inversion.

Besides his influence on kinematics, Reuleaux was active in the

technological politics of the newly united German Empire. He had an
important role in developing German patent legislation. He founded
Mannesmann steel works and acted as a member of juries of international
exhibitions. Thus, Reuleaux was active in improving the quality of German
manufacturing.

In nineteenth century, kinematics flourished because of the need for

machine inventors to transmit motion and forces (power) from one
element in the machine to another. Thus, we see the names of James
Watt (1736-1819) and Rankine (1820-1872) among earlier inventors of
mechanisms for the new steam and water based machines that
revolutionized the 19th century.
Watt‟s straight line mechanism

According to a letter written to his son, he was most proud of this

mechanism among all his inventions. Several generations of researchers
have worked on this problem of straight line generation (not merely
copying an existing one) using planar and spatial linkages. A paper has
been published on this topic as late as 1994.

http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/model.php?m=467&movie=show

The following descriptions of mechanisms are based on the material in

Reuleaux's books. The last item is from the 1962 Smithsonian article by
Eugene Ferguson on the history of mechanisms and Reuleaux.

Screw Kinematic Pair

This model shows the constrained of Alexandria in their machines
motion of two bodies in which the for pumps and presses.
relative motion is a screw, i.e. a rotary
motion with proportional axial
displacement. The screw was known to
the ancient Greeks as one of the
'simple machines'. It was used by
Archimedes [287-212 BCE] and Hero
Revolute or Turning Kinematic Pair

This model illustrates the relative

rotary motion of two bodies with
a solid cylinder constrained by a
hollow cylinder. It is the basis of
all axle bearings.

Prismatic or Sliding Kinematic Pair

This model shows the surface
constraint between two bodies
that permits only relative axial
sliding motion. Sliding motion
takes place between pistons and
cylinders in more than a billion
internal combustion engines.

Four-bar Linkage
The four-bar mechanism is the
quintessential example of what
Reuleaux called a kinematic chain.
In this planar mechanism, four
links are constrained by four
cylindrical joints. When one link is
fixed or grounded, the motion of
a second link determines the
motion of the third and fourth
links.
Slider Crank Mechanism
This model is one example of a
slider-crank mechanism. The
slider crank mechanism is used in
internal combustion engines. The
slider crank is often used to
convert rotary motion into
alternating linear motion. Four
different inversions of this
mechanism are possible by
grounding each of the four links.
The slider crank mechanism can be found in the drawings of Leonardo Da
Vinci. In one device he couples two machine mechanisms, the endless
screw or worm drive coupled to a slider-crank.

The “endless screw” mechanism was featured in Leonardo da Vinci's

drawings in his Codex Madrid and Reuleaux‟s version of the “endless
screw.”

The pump mechanism known as Ramelli's Rotary Pump was first described in
1588 by the Italian military engineer, Agostino Ramelli (1531-1610). This
mechanism found application in mid twentieth century household
refrigerator compressors (Reuleaux, 1876, p. 365).
The Pappenheim Chamber Wheel is the forerunner of modern gear pumps.
Versions of this mechanism have been in existence for over 350 years
(Reuleaux, 1876, p. 403).

This is the oldest form of

chamber-wheel-gear, and the
forerunner of modern gear pumps.
When used as pump, the fluid is
delivered in a continuous stream,
the volume of flow per revolution
being about equal to the annular
space between the point and root
cylinders.
Isosceles Slider Crank Train was used in an early steam engine in 1816. This
mechanism can be used to form ellipses. Its invention has been attributed to
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) for machining elliptical surfaces.

Crown-Wheel Escapement - Dutch scientist, Christian Huygens who

designed the first pendulum clock in 1657.
Pendulums are useful because they have an extremely interesting property:
The period of a pendulum's swing is related only to the length of the
pendulum and the force of gravity.
Since gravity is constant at any given spot on the planet, the only thing that
affects the period of a pendulum is the length of the pendulum. The amount
of weight does not matter. Nor does the length of the arc that the
pendulum swings through. Only the length of the pendulum matters.
In an escapement there is a gear with teeth of some special shape. There is
also a pendulum, and attached to the pendulum is some sort of device to
engage the teeth of the gear.

The basic idea that is being demonstrated

in the figure is that, for each swing of the
pendulum back and forth, one tooth of the
gear is allowed to "escape."
Pin-Wheel Escapement was invented by Amant in 1741. It was employed in
French made pendulum clocks. It was also used in tower clocks.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TqeD84MAoI8

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UkD7pxPC6qw

Chebyshev Mechanism

For a period in the early 19th century, there was a concerted effort to
invent a mechanism that would convert rotary motion into a straight-line
motion. This quest occupied mathematicians as well as practical mechanikers.
The famous Russian mathematician, Professor P.L. Chebyshev (1821-1894), of
the University of St. Petersberg invented his own straight-line mechanisms.
Such devices were important in metal planing machines and textile
manufacturing.

Simple Spur Gear Mechanism

Before the 19th century, spur gears
were usually made of wood, except in
the case of clocks. Willis credits
Smeaton in 1769, as the first to use
cast iron in large gear wheel pairs.
However spur gears of brass have
been found in a first century BCE,
Greek calender device called the
Antikythera Mechanism.

Planetary Gear Train

In this model, a simple gear pair ring gear counterclockwise. So-
kinematic chain is coupled to a called planetary gear trains are
planet and ring gear rotating on the widely used in automotive
same two shafts as the base chain. machinery as well as in servo-motor
The two smaller gear wheels are speed reducers found in robotic
connected and rotate together. machines.
Thus, clockwise motion of the
central or “sun” gear, drives the
Geneva Wheel Intermittent Mechanism
This mechanism produces ratchet, or Geneva stop used in
intermittent motion and therefore Swiss watches.
found much use in motion picture
equipment where the film must be
advanced and then halted long
enough for the frame of film to be
exposed, while standing still. (H.
Roehl, 1950). This mechanism was
called by Reuleaux, a Maltese cross

Theoretical tools for analysis and synthesis of such mechanisms became

necessary.

 Methods for analysis and synthesis of four-link planar mechanisms

flourished with the publication of Lehrbuch der Kinematic by
Burmester (1886). Elegant and powerful geometrical graphical)
methods were available for both kinematic analysis and dimensional
synthesis of four-link mechanisms.
 Graphical methods were also developed for dynamic analysis of
machinery Wittenbauer-Graphische Dynarnik (1923).
 In 1940 Bloch (in Russia) used vectors for the first time for
synthesis of planar mechanisms. However, till 1950's, theory of
mechanisms and machines in the English world was still dominated by
the slider-crank mechanism used in steam engines and 1.C. engines.
 Most textbooks included tailor-made graphical method for obtaining
slider acceleration for uniform crank-speed.
 Analysis of governor and flywheel systems for controlling engine
speed and its cyclic variation was included in all textbooks.
 The marvellous use of governors as both sensors and controllers was
of course very ingenuous.
 In fact, the stability problem associated with governors was so
important that it even called for the attention of Maxwell's genius.
 Cams were commonly used in hard automation as timing devices and
exact function generators. Again only graphical methods were
covered for synthesis of cam profiles for generating given follower
motions.
 Hooke's joint or universal joint is probably the only non-planar
mechanism that found mention in a text on theory of machines.
 Modern Era

 In the last four to five decades the operating speeds of various

machines had to be increased in order to raise productivity. The
level of accuracy to be achieved in the required motion
characteristics also increased substantially.
 As a result, elements of machine can no longer be designed on the
basis of rigid body theory. Consequently, the kinematics and
dynamics cannot be treated separately.
 Machine components under sufficient deformation so as to change
the kinematic dimensions. This, in turn, change the accelerations and
the inertia forces on various components. Thus, subject areas likes
kineto elastodynamics were developed.
 Use of digital computers has decreased the importance of earlier
graphical techniques for solving problems in the areas of both
kinematic analysis and synthesis of mechanisms.
 With the advent of computer graphics, animation of mechanism
movement on the computer screen is gradually replacing the model
and prototype building for checking the performance of a designed
mechanism.
 Systematic analysis and synthesis of spatial linkages were
facilitated with the publication of Beyer's book (1963) and
development of Denavit-Hartenberg's (DH) matrix notation and use
of homogeneous coordinate transformation.
 Use of dual number quaternions provided some alternative
mathematical tools for the study of kinematics and dynamics of
spatial linkages consisting of rigid bodies.
 Shortly after these developments, arrived the age of robotics and
programmable (flexible) automation.

Books Recommended

1. Theory of mechanism and machines – 3rd edition, A. Ghosh and A. K.

Mallik
2. Elements of Mechanisms – Daughtie and James (graphical method)
3. Mechanics and Dynamics of Machinery – Mabie and Reinholtz
4. Mechanism Design: Analysis and Synthesis Vol I & II – Erdman and
Sandor